International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Transportation

Science and Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijtst

Tire-pavement friction modeling considering pavement texture

and water film
Lanruo Zhao a, Hongduo Zhao a, Juewei Cai a,b,⇑
a
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of the Ministry of Education, TongjiUniversity, 4800 Cao’an Road, Shanghai 201804, PR China
b
Shanghai Research Institute of Building Sciences Co. Ltd, Shanghai 200032, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The accurate estimation of tire-pavement friction especially under wet conditions is critical
Received 11 October 2022 to ensure pavement safety. For this purpose, this paper develops a modified tire-pavement
Received in revised form 13 February 2023 friction model which takes the effect of pavement texture and water film into considera-
Accepted 9 April 2023
tion. The influence of pavement texture is quantified by a newly proposed parameter called
Available online xxxx
texture influence coefficient, which is related to the real contact patch of tire-pavement.
The water effect is calculated from two parts, namely lubrication effect and hydrodynamic
Keywords:
effect. Based on these two steps, a modified average lumped LuGre (ALL) model is devel-
Pavement engineering
LuGre friction model
oped. The proposed model is calibrated and verified by GripTester data collected under dif-
Friction coefficient ferent vehicle velocities and water film thicknesses. The root mean square error between
Pavement texture the calculated value of the model and the measured value is 0.023. In addition, the effects
Water film thickness of vehicle velocity, slip rate, water film thickness, pavement type on friction coefficient are
analyzed by numerical calculation. The results show that the friction coefficient reaches
the maximum when the slip rate is in the range of 0.15
0.20. The increase of vehicle
speed and water film thickness will lead to the decrease of the friction coefficient.
Besides, in thin water film (<1 millimeter) conditions, the deterioration effect of water film
thickness on friction coefficient is more remarkable. The results prove that the modified
tire-pavement friction model provides a precise and reliable way to estimate the friction
coefficient of pavement, which can assist the pavement management systems in risk warn-
ing and safety guarantee.
Ó 2023 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Tire-pavement friction is the ability to prevent the vehicle tires from rotating slides on the pavement surface, which is
affected by multiple parameters, such as pavement surface conditions (macrotexture, microtexture, etc.), tire conditions (tire
thread, tire pressure, etc.) and vehicle driving conditions (velocity, slip rate, etc.) (Najafi, 2019 & Rasol, 2021). Besides, when
the pavement is covered by water, the fiction force can be reduced greatly, increasing the traffic risk remarkably. Therefore, it
is of great significance to precisely quantify the tire-pavement friction especially under wet conditions.
Numerous tire-pavement friction models have been developed to evaluate the pavement skid resistance. The Penn State
friction model (Rado, 1994), PIARC friction model (ASTM, 2007), and Pacejka friction model (Pacejka, 1991) are the most

Peer review under responsibility of Tongji University and Tongji University Press.
⇑ Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2023.04.001
2046-0430/Ó 2023 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai, Tire-pavement friction modeling considering pavement texture and water film, Inter-
national Journal of Transportation Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2023.04.001
L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

widely used models. In these models, the empirical or physical relations are used to describe the tire-pavement interaction,
but do not take the water effects and texture effects into consideration. Accounting for the effect of water, research results
from Veith (1983), Pelloli (1977) and Kulakowski (1990) show that the friction coefficient declines exponentially with the
increase of water film thickness. Based on previous research, Kane et al. (2019) conducted the laboratory tests and estab-
lished a regression model to characterize the connection of water film thickness, pavement surface microtexture and friction.
Despite the aforementioned models are expressed in simple forms and easy to calculate, their underlying physics are not
well interpreted, limiting the model generalization and application. Recent years, powerful algorithms and finite element
models have been gradually maturated with the rapid development of computational techniques, which makes it possible
to comprehensively simulate the tire-water-pavement interaction and friction phenomena (Zhu, 2017 & Chu, 2015 & Tang,
2018). These finite element models consider many influential factors, including water film thickness, vehicle speed, tire pres-
sure/pattern and surface texture. However, there is a limitation in the practical application of these technologies for real-
time risk assessment because of the excessive calculation time.
To address the shortcomings of existing approaches, this paper aims to further develop a tire-pavement friction model
considering pavement texture and water film thickness, in which the model parameters are clearer interpreted and easier
calibrated. Based on the literature references, the LuGre friction model can consider the friction characteristics such as Stri-
beck effect and spring damping vibration system comprehensively (Deur, Asgari and Hrovat, 2004), and is of clear principle
and concise physical meaning, which makes it the most comprehensive friction model for vehicle control at the present
stage. Therefore, in this paper, the LuGre model is selected as the basic model, and modified by introducing parameters such
as water film thickness and pavement texture, making it possible to realize the fast mapping between pavement under wet
conditions and the corresponding friction coefficient.

2. Methods

2.1. Definition of LuGre friction model

2.1.1. Basic LuGre friction model

LuGre friction model was first proposed by Canudas de Wit et al (Canudas et al., 1995). In this model, the tire-pavement
interface is simplified to several small, massless bristles (Fig. 1). The pavement surface bristles are rigid and fixed, while the
tire bristles are elastic. When the tangential force is applied to the bristles, the tread bristles will be elastically deformed,
generating tire-pavement friction.
According to the LuGre friction model, the friction force at every contact point can be calculated through the bristle
instantaneous deformation and its time derivative by Eqs. (1)–(3):

dz r0 jv r j
¼ vr  z ð1Þ
dt gðv r Þ

a
gðv r Þ ¼ lc þ ðls  lc Þejv r =v s j ð2Þ

fs @z
l  sgnðv r Þ ¼ ¼ r0 z þ r1 þ r2 v r ð3Þ
fn @t

where z is the bristle deformation(m), vr = wr-v is the relative velocity(m/s), r0 is the bristle longitudinal shear stiffness(N/s),
r1 is the longitudinal damping constant(Ns/m), r2 is the viscous coefficient (Ns/m), lc is the Coulomb friction coefficient, ls
is the maximum static friction coefficient (lc  ls), vs is the Stribeck relative velocity(m/s), l is the friction coefficient, fs and

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of LuGre model.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

fn are the shear and normal stresses at the contact point, a is a constant that describes the properties of a stable sliding state
with the value of 1/2 (Canudas de Wit, 2003).

2.1.2. Average lumped LuGre (ALL) friction model

The single point LuGre friction model requires lots of state equations to describe the friction state of the bristles at each
point in the contact patch, which brings great difficulties to the solution of partial differential equations. Therefore, Canudas
de Wit et al. (2003) proposed the Average Lumped LuGre (ALL) friction model, where the average friction state of bristles in
the contact patch is used to describe the interaction between tire and pavement. The new form of the LuGre model and cal-
culation of friction coefficient are given in Eqs. (4) and (5):

@z r0 jv r j  
¼ vr  z KðtÞjwrj z ð4Þ
@t gðv r Þ

Fs  @z
l  sgnðv r Þ ¼ ¼ r0 z þr1 þ r2 v r ð5Þ
Fn @t

where z is the average bristle deformation of the contact patch (m), Fs and Fn are the longitudinal force and normal load of
the tire (N). According to the previous research (Deur, 2004), function K(t) is influenced by the normal force distribution
along the contact patch and K(t) can be approximated by K(t) = K0(t)/L. Assuming the deflection increases gradually and
the increasing rate of deflection is reduced along the contact patch, the function K(t) can be computed as a constant of K
(t) = 7/6/L (Canudas de Wit, 2003).

2.2. Modification of ALL friction model

2.2.1. Introducing the pavement texture into friction model

The ALL friction model assumes that the tire is in complete contact with the pavement surface. However, in the actual
tire-pavement interaction, only the upper pavement texture contacts with the tire, while the lower pavement texture and
the tire are separated from each other (Fig. 2). For the pavement with rough texture, there will be smaller contact area
and greater contact stress. So greater bristle deformation occurs which increases hysteresis friction.
Therefore, to quantify the influence of pavement texture on tire-pavement friction, the texture influence coefficient h is
introduced to the ALL friction model. Considering the inverse relationship between the real contact area and the contact
stress, the texture influence coefficient h is defined as the ratio of the real contact patch of tire-pavement under the standard
pavement texture to the real contact patch of tire-pavement under the current pavement texture. Because AC-13 is the most
widely used asphalt mixture in highway design in China, the newly built AC-13 asphalt pavement is selected as the standard
pavement in this paper. The modified Eqs. (4) and (5) are given as follows:


@z r0 jv r j  
¼ vr  h z KðtÞjwr j z ð6Þ
@t gðv r Þ

Fs  @z
l  sgnðv r Þ ¼ ¼ hr0 z þr1 þ r2 v r ð7Þ
Fn @t

Fig. 2. Contact patch of tire and pavement under the influence of pavement texture.

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Ac0
h¼ ð8Þ
Ac
where h is the texture influence coefficient, Ac is the real contact patch of tire-pavement under the current pavement tex-
ture, and Ac0 is the real contact patch of tire-pavement under the standard pavement texture. According to Klüppel’s friction
theory (Klüppel and Heinrich, 2000), Ac can be calculated by Eqs. (9) and (10):


!1=3
ð2D  4Þ2 nk F 20 ðd=rs ÞF 23=2 ðd=rs ÞE00 ðnk Þ
Ac ¼ A0 ð9Þ
808pð2D  2Þ2 n? E00 ðkmin Þ
Z 1
F n ðtÞ ¼ ðz  tÞn Us ðzÞdz ð10Þ
t

where A0 is the projection area of the tire print, D,nk ,n? are the fractal dimension, parallel fractal factor and vertical fractal
factor of the pavement texture, which can be calculated by the power spectral density (PSD) of the pavement texture. d is the
distance from the bottom of the tire to the texture mean surface (m), E00 is the imaginary part of the complex modulus of tire
rubber (MPa), and Us ðzÞ is the normalized distribution function of the asphalt texture peak, which is approximately equal to
the normalized distribution function of the texture (Heinrich, 2008).

2.2.2. Introducing the water effect into friction model

The water reduces the tire-pavement friction through two mechanisms, namely lubrication effect and hydrodynamic
effect. The lubrication effect dominates when the water film thickness is not too large (usually less than 1 mm). As the water
film thickness increases, an upward hydrodynamic force will be generated at the tire-pavement interface, causing the tire to
be lifted from the pavement (Pottinger, 1986). When the force reaches a certain threshold, the tire eventually loses contact
with the pavement, and then hydroplaning occurs.
According the Rajapakshe’s research (2011), the Stribeck velocity vs is a lubrication-dependent parameter and is reduced
with the water film thickness increasing (Fig. 3). Therefore, this paper developed a regression model (Eq. (11)) to describe the
relationship between vs and water film thickness, making the lubrication effect of water easily quantified.

v s ¼ b1 e1000b hþb 2 3
þ b4 ð11Þ
where vs is Stribeck velocity (m), h is the thickness of water film (m), and b1
b4 is the regression coefficient.
The hydrodynamic effect is characterized by parameters YR and YF considering the contact patch length and the normal
load under the influence of hydrodynamic force. YR represents the ratio of the actual contact patch length to the contact
patch length under dry condition. This parameter is influenced by the discharge time of the water trapped in the tire-
pavement interface, which is determined by the water film thickness and pavement texture. And YF denotes the ratio of
the upward hydrodynamic force to the normal load under dry condition. The parameters can be calculated by Eq. (12)
and (13) (Yi, 2002 & Rohde, 1977):

Fig. 3. Variation of vs with water film thickness on different pavement types.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

!
12v cr 20 1 1
YR ¼ 1   ð12Þ
AppL h2min þ 2ehmin h20 þ 2eh0

0vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
u

qwt rv 2 u L 2
h2 2h
2
Bt L LC
YF ¼ @  þ 1  A ð13Þ
3F n 2r r r 2r 2r

where c is the water viscosity (Pas), r0 is the tread radius(m), p is the tire pressure (Pa), L is the contact patch length (m),
hmin is the minimum spacing between tire and pavement (m), h0 is the initial thickness of water film in the squeeze film area
(m) (for simplicity we take h0 = 0.01 h), e is the amplitude of pavement texture (m), q is the water density (kg/m3), and b is the
contact patch width (m).

2.2.3. Modified ALL friction model

Based on the study above, the influences of pavement texture and water are introduced into ALL model, and the final
modified ALL friction model is given by Eqs. (14) and (15):
  
@z r0 jv r j  
¼ v r  hY R zðtÞ þ KðtÞjwr j zðtÞ ð14Þ
@t gðv r Þ
"  #
 @ zðtÞ
l ¼ ðhY R  Y F Þ hY R r0 zðtÞ þ r1 þ r2 v r ð15Þ
@t

The modified model contains lots of parameters, which can be obtained by following source (Table 1).

2.2.4. Calibration and validation of the model

The model was calibrated by the measured data of GripTester. The tests were carried out to obtain the values of the fric-
tion coefficient under different vehicle velocity v and water film thickness h. Then parameters such as r and b in the modified
model were obtained by nonlinear regression method. A newly built asphalt pavement was selected as the test field, with the
mixture type of AC-13 and amplitude of pavement texture of 0.64 mm. During the tests, the vehicle was first accelerated to
the target speed, and then driven at a constant speed for 150 m. During the uniform driving stage, the friction coefficient was
collected at an interval of 10 m. There were two major groups in the test. For group one (Table 2), the water film thickness
was set as 0.25 mm, and the vehicle velocities were controlled within 10 km/h to 90 km/h at 10 km/h intervals. For group
two (Table 3), the vehicle velocity was set as 50 km/h, and the water film thickness were controlled within 0.05 mm to
0.5 mm at 0.05 mm intervals. In addition, the slip rate was set to a constant of 0.15.
70% of the test data were used for parameter calibration, and the remaining 30% of the data were used for verification. The
Isqnonlin function in MATLAB software was used for nonlinear regression of the calibration parameters. The final calibration
parameters and the known parameters of the model were shown below (Table 4).
Based on the model parameters obtained by calibration, the friction coefficients under different test conditions were cal-
culated and compared with the actual test results (Fig. 4). The results showed that the calculated value of the friction coef-
ficient is in good agreement with the measured value, and the root mean square error is 0.023. The max and average relative
error are 7.36% and 2.52%, respectively. Therefore, the modified ALL friction model established in this paper can accurately
obtain the friction coefficient between tire and pavement under different vehicle velocities and water film thickness.

3. Results and discussion

Based on the modified ALL friction model proposed, taking the common C type hatchback car in China as an example (the
tire model is 205/55 R16). The effects of driving condition, water film thickness and pavement texture on the friction coef-
ficient of asphalt pavement are calculated. The calculated parameters are shown below (Table 5), and the values of other
parameters are the same as above.

Table 1
Methods for obtaining model parameters.

Model parameter Data type Data source

c, q Common physical parameters Data Reference
Fn, p, r, wt Tire parameters Data Reference or Measurement
L, b Geometric parameters of contact patch Measurement or Calculation
h, e Texture parameters Measurement (if no data, h = 1)
h, hmin, h0 Water film thickness parameters Measurement or Self Setting
v, w, vr, s Vehicle driving parameters Measurement or Self Setting
r0, r1, r2, b1, b2, b3, b4 Model calibration parameters Nonlinear Regression by Measured Mata

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Friction coefficient under different vehicle velocities (water film thickness is 0.25 mm).

Test point vehicle velocity (km/h)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1 0.79 0.76 0.8 0.82 0.72 0.81 0.66 0.64 0.64
2 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.8 0.73 0.67 0.56
3 0.75 0.73 0.77 0.7 0.68 0.58 0.63 0.55 0.46
4 0.83 0.81 0.8 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.73 0.72 0.7
5 0.86 0.82 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.67
6 0.76 0.74 0.81 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.59 0.58 0.49
7 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.65 0.76 0.48 0.65 0.63
8 0.83 0.82 0.8 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.71 0.73 0.63
9 0.8 0.82 0.74 0.79 0.77 0.8 0.63 0.58 0.6
10 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.8 0.66 0.72
11 0.85 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.69 0.82 0.74 0.71 0.71
12 0.84 0.78 0.85 0.79 0.73 0.76 0.68 0.67 0.57
13 0.8 0.72 0.71 0.66 0.69 0.73 0.54 0.52 0.57
14 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.77 0.77 0.7 0.71 0.59 0.65
15 0.83 0.87 0.82 0.67 0.8 0.82 0.66 0.64 0.51
Average 0.81 0.79 0.79 0.75 0.73 0.75 0.67 0.64 0.61

Table 3
Friction coefficient under different water film thickness (vehicle velocity is 50 km/h).

Test point water film thickness (mm)

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
1 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.62
2 0.83 0.79 0.8 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.6
3 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.53
4 0.82 0.8 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.7 0.69 0.67
5 0.79 0.74 0.75 0.74 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.53
6 0.82 0.78 0.77 0.73 0.73 0.7 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.61
7 0.79 0.75 0.73 0.67 0.65 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.63 0.57
8 0.83 0.81 0.76 0.79 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.69 0.67 0.64
9 0.8 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.7 0.69 0.65
10 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.8 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.73 0.7
11 0.81 0.77 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.75 0.74 0.71 0.67 0.68
12 0.82 0.76 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65
13 0.79 0.72 0.73 0.66 0.69 0.69 0.67 0.67 0.62 0.57
14 0.8 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.63
15 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.79 0.8 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.67 0.61
Average 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.62

Table 4
The known parameters and calibration parameters of the model.

Known Parameters Calibrated Parameters

Fn(N) 210 r0 310.78
L(m) 0.046 r2 0
B(m) 0.031 lc 0.46
r(m) 0.127 ls 1.51
r0(m) 0.028 b1 4.8916
q(kg/m3) 1.05  103 b2 7.91
c(Pas) 1.005  10-3 b3 3.01
hmin(mm) 0.008 b4 3.40
P(Pa) 140,000

3.1. The effect of slip rate on friction coefficient

Setting the water film thickness as 1 mm, the friction coefficient under different vehicle velocity and slip rate are obtained
(Fig. 5). It is shown that the friction coefficient increases at first and then decreases with the increase of the slip rate. When
the slip rate is in the range of 0.15–0.20, the friction coefficient achieves the maximum. Therefore, during the braking stage, it
is critical to maintain the slip rate at the optimal range to get a better braking performance for vehicles.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. Comparison between the calculated value and the measured value.

Table 5
Calculated parameters of vehicle example.

Fn(N) P(Pa) wt (m) L(m) B(m) r(m) r0(m)

3469 200,000 0.205 0.164 0.125 0.316 0.103

Fig. 5. Friction coefficient under different vehicle velocity and slip rate.

3.2. The effect of vehicle velocity and water film thickness on friction coefficient

Setting the slip rate at the optimum (-0.15), and the friction coefficient under different vehicle velocity and water film
thickness is showed below (Fig. 6). It can be found that the friction coefficient is reduced obviously with increasing vehicle
velocity. The reason is that, as the vehicle velocity increases, the hydrodynamic force increases synchronously, resulting in
less normal force and contact patch length. This eventually leads to the reduction of the friction force.
As for the influence of water film thickness, there exists a drastic loss of pavement skid resistance with the present of thin
water film (less than 1 millimeter). When the vehicle velocity is 100 km/h, the friction coefficient drops caused by 1-
millimeter water film can be as high as 61%. Meanwhile, parameter YR is approximately equal to 1 and YF is approximately
equal to 0, indicating that the hydrodynamic effect is negligible and the lubrication effect is dominant in friction loss at this
state. These conclusions are consistent with the research of Cerezo et al. (2014). As the water film thickness increases, the
hydrodynamic effect becomes more significant for the reduction of tire-pavement friction. Further increasing water film
thickness and vehicle velocity, the normal force and contact patch length decreases gradually until the values become zero.
At this state, the tire is completely separated from the pavement, and hydroplaning occurs. Besides, the abscissa of the
intersection of each data line and the x-axis in the left figure represents the hydroplaning velocity of the vehicle under
the corresponding water film thickness.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Friction coefficient under different vehicle velocity and water film thickness.

3.3. The effect of asphalt pavement texture on friction coefficient

Based on Klüppel’s friction theory, the power spectral density of texture has the ability to quantify the influence of asphalt
pavement texture on friction coefficient. The PSD can be obtained from Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function of
texture elevation by Eq. (16):

Z
1
CðqÞ ¼ hzðxÞzð0Þieiqx dx ð16Þ
ð2pÞ2
where hzðxÞzð0Þi is the autocorrelation function of pavement texture elevation, z(0) is the average elevation of pavement
texture, and z(x) is the pavement texture elevation at position x.
Two-stage equation is used to describe the PSD of asphalt pavement by Eq. (17). The whole range of wave vector is [qL, q1],
where qL = 2p/L0 is the minimum wave vector of asphalt pavement, L0 is determined by the contact patch between the tread
rubber material and the pavement, q1 is the minimum wavelength of asphalt pavement, q0 is the wave vector of inflection
point of the equation, which reflects the maximum particle size of aggregate.
8  2
>
> z0
>
> H
< CðqÞ ¼ 0
q

2p
½qL ; q0 Þ
 2 ð17Þ
>
> H  2ðHþ1Þ
>
z 0
>
: CðqÞ ¼ q0 q
2p q0
½q0 ; q1 Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where q is the wave vector (1/m), z0 ¼ 2hz2 i, and H is the Hearst index.
Three typical kinds of asphalt pavement (AC, SMA and OGFC) are selected for analysis in this section. The 3D texture infor-
mation and corresponding PSD of each pavement are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi


ffi

Based on the results in Fig. 8, the parameters in Eq. (7) can be further calculated by D = 3-H, nk =2p/q0、n? ¼ 2r2 , and r
is the standard deviation of pavement texture elevation. In this way, the texture parameters and texture influence
coefficients of three kinds of asphalt pavement can be calculated (Table 6).

Fig. 7. Texture Cartography of three typical kinds of asphalt pavement.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. PSD of three typical kinds of asphalt pavement structure.

Table 6
Texture parameters and texture influence coefficients of three kinds of asphalt pavement.

AC e(mm) D nk (m) n? (m) h

0.65 2.42 0.013 0.0029 1
SMA e(mm) D nk (m) n? (m) h
0.80 2.43 0.013 0.0025 1.09
OGFC e(mm) D nk (m) n? (m) h
1.08 2.59 0.013 0.0028 1.21

Fig. 9. Friction coefficient of three typical kinds of asphalt pavement structure.

Calculated by the above texture influence coefficients, the friction coefficients of different asphalt pavement type are
obtained (Fig. 9). In the calculation process the slip rate is set as 0.15 and water film thickness is set as 1 mm. The results
show that under a same condition, the AC mixture has the smallest friction coefficient among the three types of pavements
because it has more fine aggregates and smaller texture roughness. OGFC mixture is an open graded asphalt mixture with
more than 18% design porosity rate and about 80% proportion of coarse aggregate. Thus, it has the roughest texture charac-
teristics and the best skid resistance among the three types of pavements. SMA is a framework dense asphalt mixture, and its
skid resistance is between AC and OGFC.

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L. Zhao, H. Zhao and J. Cai International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

4. Conclusions

This paper proposes a semi-theoretical tire-pavement friction model that based on average lumped LuGre (ALL) model. In
order to optimize the original ALL model, pavement texture and water effect are taken into full consideration. Pavement tex-
ture is quantified by a newly proposed parameter, called texture influence coefficient h, which is related to the real contact
patch of tire-pavement. Besides, water effect is divided into the lubrication effect and the hydrodynamic effect. The lubrica-
tion effect is characterized by the change of Stribeck relative velocity under different water film thicknesses, while the
hydrodynamic effect is quantified by introducing two parameters YR and YF, representing the dynamic value of contact patch
length and normal force respectively. The calibration and validation of the modified model is carried out by the GripTester
data collected under different vehicle velocities and water film thicknesses. The calculated friction coefficients are compared
with the actual test results, and the root mean square error between calculated value and measured value is 0.023.
The relationship between friction coefficient and different influencing factors is analyzed by numerical simulation,
including slip rate, vehicle velocity, water film thickness and pavement texture. Results indicate that the friction coefficient
reaches an optimum value when the slip rate is about 0.15–0.20. The increase of vehicle velocity results in higher hydrody-
namic force, making the friction coefficient declined remarkably. Besides, in thin water film (<1 millimeter) conditions, the
lubrication effect is dominant, which can rapidly reduce the friction coefficient by as high as 61%. As the water film thickness
increases, the hydrodynamic effect on friction coefficient grows until there is no contact between tire and pavement, and the
vehicle velocity at this condition is considered as hydroplaning velocity. Furthermore, the PSD of texture is used to quantify
the influence of asphalt pavement texture on friction coefficient. Under the same conditions, the AC mixture has the smallest
friction coefficient among the three types of pavements.
The results prove that the proposed semi-theoretical tire-pavement friction model is able to accurately predict the fric-
tion coefficient under complex conditions, which is of guiding significance to the pavement safety guarantee in wet
weathers.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements and declarations

This research is supported by the Ministry of Transport of China (No. 2020-ZD3-025) and Shanghai Science and Technol-
ogy Commission (No. 22XD1433300). The authors declare that the contents of this article has not been published previously.
All the authors have contributed to the work described, read and approved the contents for publication in this journal. All the
authors have no conflict of interest with the funding entity and any organization mentioned in this article in the past three
years that may have influenced the conduct of this research and the findings. All the authors have been certified by their
respective organizations for human subject research.

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