Go ekli Tepe, Tell Qa a el, Tell Es-“ulta :

Wh is Go ekli Tepe a th ille iu BC site, a d

E olutio of Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e

Di it ios “. De d i os
E e itus P ofesso , “ hool of A hite tu e a d U a Desig , U i e sit
of Ka sas, La e e, Ka sas, U“A.
I ‘eside e at O o d Bea h, Flo ida, U“A.
Co ta t: f-jf@ea thli k. et

August ,

Go ekli Tepe e a atio site’s ae ial ie . “ou e of photo: [ . ]

 Ta le of Co te ts
A st a t
“u a
I t odu tio
Tell Qa a el, Tell Es-“ulta Je i ho a d Go ekli Tepe
Thei A hite tu e, E gi ee i g, Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph Co te ts
PART . Tell Qa a el: the fi st itadel of the fi st so io-e o o i elite to date
PART . Tell Es-“ulta the a ie t Je i ho : a othe itadel of a uli g elite as ell

Go ekli Tepe C- Related E ide e: Co ta i ated a d La gel I ele a t

Go ekli Tepe A hite tu e Related E ide e: Post Te ple Phase Ne ali Co i
Go ekli Tepe’s Bu ial: B o ze Age a d i T o Phases
Co lusio s
Refe e es
A k o ledg e ts
Legal Noti e

The Tell Qa a el e a atio site, g ou d ie f o the “outh. “ou e of photo:

ef. [ . ]
 A st a t
This is a se uel to the pape the autho i ef. [ . ]. It e pa ds the a al sis su a ized the e
i o po ati g i fo atio f o t o othe a heologi al sites, a el Tell Qa a el i No th-
East p ese t-da “ ia, a d Tell Es-“ulta the a ie t it of Je i ho at the West Ba k of ‘i e
Jo da . I additio , i o po ati g also additio al ate ial ade a aila le to the pu li the
a heologi al tea i ha ge of the e a atio at Go ekli Tepe, the a gu e ts e p essed the
autho i [ . ] a e fu the ela o ated upo a d st e gthe ed. The outli e of a Ea l Neolithi
A hite tu e a d its E olutio o e possi l se e ille ia f o the th to the th ille iu
BC is set. It lea es little dou t that o the asis of the p epo de a e of a heologi al e ide e
a aila le to date, the la ge i s ale a d sophisti ated i oth A hite tu e, E gi ee i g as ell as
A t o olithi egalithi o u e t at Go ekli Tepe, spe ifi all La e s III i ol i g the
st u tu es C a d D thei sto e e losu es, a d thei li esto e egalithi o oliths A hite tu e
a d o ple A t a e iddle to late th ille iu BC o st u tio ith a B o ze Age u ial.

“u a
Co o o ati e e ide e to the effe t that Go ekli Tepe is a th ille iu BC la ge-i -s ale
li esto e o olithi egalithi o u e tal site a d the out o e of la ge-i -s ale ua i g
u e ou te ed i Epipaleolithi , Natufia a d “ulta ia A hite tu es a d i i g t aditio s is
offe ed e a i i g i so e detail the o u e ts at Tell Qa a el s th do to ea l th
ille iu BC phases, a d the ea liest phase of o st u tio at Tell Es-“ulta the a ie t it of
Je i ho ith the th to th ille iu BC fou d the ei st u tu es. A lose look is take also
i to the A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g of the st u tu e efe ed to as the to e of Je i ho , a d
so e uestio s a e aised i its o e tio al dati g. The Tell Qa a el a d Tell Es-“ulta setti gs
do o tai aso o st u tio , ut ot of the o olithi egalithi t pe, e tai l o he e
ea the s ale a d sophisti atio of the o olithi egalithi o st u tio see at Go ekli Tepe.
Ph si al st u tu es at Tell Qa a el a d Tell Es-“ulta a e ie ed as the eside tial ua te s of
thei espe ti e site s so ial elites, the Tells a ti g as thei itadels . The the Hu a Geog aph
o te ts of these setti gs is a al zed, a d the fo atio of a a het pal so ial st u tu e at Tell
Qa a el is laid out. I that f a e o k, the itadels , fo tifi atio s a d to e s e ou te ed
i these t o sites Tell Qa a el a d tell Es-“ulta a e i te p eted a d thei A hite tu es
f a ed. The oade site pla s of these t o settle e ts a e also e a i ed, as a e thei li kages
to eigh o i g sites. Thei Hu a Geog aph is a al zed ithi a spatial a d e ol i g
hie a hi all i te a ti g et o k of hu a settle e ts.

O the oad to dati g Go ekli Tepe a a heologi al site deli eated the a heologi al tea
to e lose to Ha, that is , s . ete s, see [ . ] fo o e o this topi a d th ough a
o pa ati e a al sis of the s alle i s ale Tell Qa a el a site esti ated the a heologists
to e te d to a out Ha a d the also uite s alle i s ale tha Go ekli Tepe ut slightl la ge
i -s ale tha Tell Qa a el, the a out Ha Tell Es-“ulta , a ough outli e of a E olutio a
s he a i Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e is u o e ed. Not ithsta di g the e essa il g oss
app o i atio s i dati g st u tu es of that e te si e, su sta tial, a d e pa si e ti e pe iod,
he e at ti es the a ge i dati g a st u tu e ight e a out % to % of the esti ate s lo e
ou d the olde a st u tu e, the g eate the a ge thus the u e tai t , a d the dau ti g task
of a o pa ati e a al sis of A hite tu es spa i g a out se e ille ia f o the th do
to the th ille iu BC , the outli e of a E olutio a Theo of Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e
a d its de elop e tal path see s to lea l e e ge.
I the f a e o k of this E olutio a Theo of Neolithi A hite tu e p o esses ualitati el
si ila to Biologi al E olutio a e fou d. Not uite si ila to iologi al lo ks , the e a e
a hite tu al lo ks ut ith diffe i g speeds. A asual look at the a hite tu al o phologies
of the last t o ille ia akes the poi t; Co sta ti ople of AD as e diffe e t tha
Ist ul of AD, a d so e e/a e thei ates of ha ge. B a al zi g the th ille iu BC
p e-Natufia A hite tu e of Tell Qa a el, do to the th ille iu BC A hite tu e of Go ekli
Tepe, o e a de i e speeds of ha ge i a hite to i fo a d fu tio . “peeds of
e olutio a ha ge e e of ou se u h slo e i the th
to th
ille iu BC tha the st to
the d ille iu AD ti e f a e. “u h e olutio a paths a e atu all tied to ha ges i oth
the e i o e t Cli ate a d Geolog a d the ultu es E o o i s, De og aphi s, “o iolog
that uilt the , ha ges at ti es sig ifi a t, he e se i g as ti e a ke s that pu tuated
these e olutio a paths. Thus, this stud a e o st ued as a fi st atte pt to a ds
esta lishi g the a k o es a d fou datio of a ille ia i ti e s ale E olutio a Theo of
A hite tu e. We a ot et e lose to a fo al ph loge eti a d ta o o i lassifi atio of
A hite tu e t pes a d the su - atego ies, ut so e e h a k ti e a ke s a e a d a e set
he e. I so doi g, e a e o f o ti g the u e tl suggested, a d esetti g so e hat, dati g
asso iated ith spe ifi o u e ts of t o ke o u e tal sites, Go ekli Tepe a d Je i ho.
A egio of the Le a t i ea l th
ille iu BC pasto al o adi Epipaleolithi p e-You ge
D as i pa ted E a, as asso iated ith hu te -gathe e s, ut also ith i itial phases of he di g
a i als a d a ea l a i al hus a d a d do esti atio stage i hu a so ial p eo upatio .
“e i- o adi life st les e e ged, spatiall oe isti g ith, g aduall aki g i oads i to the
hu ti g-gathe i g ased hu a a ti it . A p i o dial so ial elite as fo i g as a esult of a
i easi g so io-spatial i te a tio at the ti e of the Epipaleolithi . It led i to a uasi-sede ta
li i g, seaso all housed i hu a l o st u ted aso edifi es. These e e the fi st i sta es
e e ou te of hu a desig i A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g. That o st u tio is depi ted
the th ille iu BC to e at Tell Qa a el. At the sta t of the th ille iu BC, the
ea l phases of Natufia A hite tu e took hold. This p i o dial A hite tu e o pholog as
shaped the li ati i pa ts of the You ge D as at the Weste leg of the Fe tile C es e t at
the Uppe Le a t. “u h li i g a o odatio s a e su e ed a d e o ded i the sede ta
iddle Natufia th
ille iu BC i a BC A hite tu e of to e at Tell Qa a el.
It is a A hite tu e e e ou te also i u e ous sites alo g the Jo da ‘i e asi , elo sea
le el. A atu e phase of Natufia A hite tu e as ea hed the iddle of the th ille iu
BC. It as asso iated ith a full sede ta , ag i ultu e fa i g a d a i al hus a d ased
p eo upatio of ea l fa i g e te ed hu a so ieties. Withi these p oto so ieties, a so io-
e o o i - ultu al elite as fo i g, a d a p i o dial la d te u e s ste as taki g effe t. We
dete t this so ietal e olutio as taki g pla e i the eside tial spatial fo s a d allo atio
s he es of the e lusi el Natufia Tell Qa a el hu a settle e t site.

A hie a hi al so ial st u tu e s elite lass e e s e e i itiall esidi g i odest-i -s ale

aso st u tu es of ea l Natufia A hite tu e. A het pal a a d i ula i shape edifi es
g aduall e ol ed late i to e ta gula uildi gs. Withi so e do i a t a d st ategi all pi otal
st u tu es, the fo i g of p oto pala es a d te ples, situated ithi elati el la ge -i -s ale
settle e ts see s to ha e o u ed i the Le a t. At Tell Qa a el, a e ol i g hie a h of
o ple aso ased edifi es is e ou te ed. This edifi e ased hie a h is defi ed the
elati e size of the aso st u tu es, thei floo pla o ple it , thei uildi g ate ials i ,
a d thei diffe e t as ell as au ilia a d li ked ith the eigh o i g la d uses as ell as
the fo of a spatiall e pa di g o u it . O e all, ithi the e ti e o u it at Tell
Qa a el, a i easi gl highe ualit i o st u tio is e ide ed, f o the iddle th to the
ea l th ille iu BC A hite tu es the e. The o i atio of diffe e t ate ials utilized, a d
the appli atio of i easi gl o e effi ie t uildi g te h i ues of adaptatio to ha gi g
e i o e tal a d so ial o ditio s is i p i ted o to the st u tu es e o e a oss at oth Tell
Qa a el a d Tell Es-“ulta at that pe iod. I the ase of Tell Es-“ulta , e e ou te a
t a sitio al stage i A hite tu e a d its e olutio i to a “ulta ia “t le, ith i itial phases i
late th ille iu BC p e-potte Neolithi A PPNA a d do to ea l p e-potte Neolithi B
PPNB pe iod f o the ea l th to the th ille iu BC . But a e ost i po ta tl , the
sta t of a so ial st atifi atio is dete ted to ha e e e ged at the ea liest phases of the settle e t
at Tell Es-“ulta , just as it had o u ed a ouple of ille ia ea lie at Tell Qa a el.
“o ial st atifi atio is dete ted the elati e lo atio ithi the oade geog aphi al la out of
a elite so ial lass, a elati el s all sha e of the total o u it , o up i g a st ategi spot
ithi the e ti e o u it s spatial e te t, as e o ded the Tell s a ious ke a d du a le
st u tu es. Withi su h diffe e tial, lo atio - ased, spatial s he a the elati e o pa ati e
ad a tages a ious st u tu es e jo ed a e apped. “u h a o ple i te pla a d et o k of
st u tu es is the t pe of o siste t spatial a d eside tial a a ge e ts e o e a oss du i g
the a ious phases of o st u tio at Tell Qa a el, i a th ille iu BC, all the a do to
the th ille iu BC, a d the “ulta ia o st u tio phases at Tell Es-“ulta f o its Natufia
th
ille iu BC PPNA do to the th ille iu BC late PPNB A hite tu e a d site pla .

He e, hat e see is that follo i g the e edi g i pa ts f o the You ge D as, a set of e
A hite tu es appea ed i the ‘egio . The “ulta ia phase i a hite to i de elop e t is of
fu da e tal i po t, he e the Natufia app o i atel i ula o apse a d a t pe
aso st u tu es, pa tiall ut la gel uilt i g ou d, e e su eeded a a hite tu al st le
a d e gi ee i g st u tu e of ass i s ale p odu tio of e ta gula edifi es uilt the heape
a d o e affo da le ut effi ie t odula d la , ud i k, la i g o sto e fou datio s, ut
la gel o e g ou d. This t a sitio as the esult of the d a d old You ge D as effe ts upo
the ‘egio ha i g g aduall e eded a d ha i g e ded the e d of the th ille iu BC alo g
the e ti e Fe tile C es e t ‘egio . It is the pe iod at Tell Es-“ulta that a odest i s ale
egalithi o st u tio is u de a , see i its fi st Je i ho all, a d possi l i the fi st
o u e tal to e the Je i ho to e e o e a oss the e, although the dati g of this to e
ill e ought u de s uti i this stud . No atte the spe ifi dati g of the Je i ho to e ,
this is the ti e of ajo i te a d i t a- o u al so ial uphea als, d a ati so ial e e ts that
follo ed the e di g of the la ge i -s ale li ati e e t a d i pa ts of the You ge D as. As
g adual e edi g of the li ati i pa ts o ed No th, the ud i k st u tu es e ta gula i
fo “ulta ia A hite tu e st le of Tell Es-“ulta p opagated No th as ell, to the ea l th
ille iu BC phases of Catalho uk a d e e tuall diffused to the last ea l th ille iu BC
ad a ed e ta gula Te ple phase hi h also e tailed so e odest o olithi egalithi
o st u tio at Ne ali Co i. Late , it fou d its a to the e ta gula o olithi egalithi
st u tu e at Go ekli Tepe. But the ulk of Go ekli Tepe s ea l A hite tu e as the Tell Qa a el,
Uppe Mesopota ia , a d ‘i e Jo da Valle Natufia st le A hite tu e of app o i atel
i ula sto e e losu es, although the desig of these e losu es as fa o e o ple o .
The “ulta ia t pe A hite tu e had a odest i pa t o Go ekli Tepe. A out half of a ille iu
do the oad, u de a o i atio a d e olutio of the “ulta ia Ne ali Co i a d Natufia Je f
el-Ah a A hite tu es, see ef. [ . ], oupled ith the a ilit to ua la ge s ale o oliths i
the Chal olithi , the o u e tal la ge-i -s ale, sophisti ated o olithi egalithi A hite tu e
e fi d at Go ekli Tepe s iddle to late th ille iu BC e losu es e e ged out of sig ifi a t
ad a es i Natufia A hite tu e. It i ol ed T-shaped o thostats a d pilla s of e t ao di a
sizes, E gi ee i g a d a hite to i d essi g as ell as o ple A t. Go ekli Tepe as the
pi a le of Le a t A hite tu e, ig iti g a d lau hi g the t ul o olithi egalithi Neolithi
A hite tu e o e e t i Weste Eu asia. “o e oots of that o u e tal A hite tu e e
also fi d at the stai ase of the Je i ho to e passage, a d its li tels.
The e e tual a hite tu al spa k f o the o olithi egaliths a d sto e e losu e shapes a d
E gi ee i g i pa ts of Go ekli Tepe he e ie ed as a iddle to late th ille iu BC i itial
phase of o st u tio o u e t ith a B o ze Age u ial alo g ith the o st u tio
A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g of the Je i ho to e a d its stai a passage o e ed li tels
e e st o g, du a le a d idesp ead. The p opagated o to a d adiated i to a u h la ge
‘egio eaki g a a f o the a o o fi es of Uppe Mesopota ia. The Go ekli Tepe a d
Je i ho to e i pa t ‘egio i luded to the West a d No th of the e ti e Medite a ea Basi
ea hi g Malta a d “a di ia , all of Co ti e tal Eu ope f o the I e ia Pe i sula to B itta ,
ell i to the B itish Isles. Of ou se, the i pa ted the hole of the Fe tile C es e t a d Lo e
Mesopota ia, as ell as No theaste Af i a a d Eg pt to the “outh. It is i possi le to
u de esti ate the Go ekli Tepe A hite to i i flue es o e hi s a d o oliths, at the e d
of the th
ille iu BC, as it is i possi le to u de esti ate the i pa t of the Je i ho to e
A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g o e the dol e s a d passage to s of Eu asia. I this pape , e
also p o ide a o e o p ehe si e a d e ised a ati e o the to e of Je i ho s h o olog .
Go ekli Tepe as a setti g suppo ted a d i tu se i ed i ultiple a s a asso iatio of
egio al setti gs i Uppe Mesopota ia a d “outh-East Asia Mi o . Its a d thei olle ti e ise
o u ed just a ille iu past the egi i g of the Chal olithi pe iod a e a o e i g i a
BC a d outlasted all o te po a phases of the U aid pe iod i Lo e Mesopota ia a
pe iod st et hi g f o i a BC that lasted till a out BC . Go ekli Tepe s o olithi
egalithi o u e tal A hite tu e a d A t flou ished o e the e sued t o plus ille ia f o
a out to - BC a d do i ated the u e ous setti gs of Uppe Mesopota ia.
It is e tai l ota le that Go ekli Tepe oe isted ith the ea l phases of the E idu pe iod of
U uk i a BC till its U uk s Ea a Dist i t pe iod i a BC . We e ou te its
A hite tu e a d A t i flue es do to the d
ille iu BC Pala e phases of U uk, see [ . ]
fo o e dis ussio o these issues. With this pape , the a al sis of a hite to i i pa ts f o
GT is e te ded a d supple e ted to i lude the i flue es of the E gi ee i g a d A hite tu e
f o Je i ho s to e o to the Neolithi o u e tal A hite tu e of the e ti e Eu asia.

Figu e W. “ta da d of U , Wa Pa el, i a BC. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

Go ekli Tepe a d its asso iated et o k of o u ities a d geog aphi all li ked setti gs filled
the Uppe Mesopota ia po e a uu of the Chal olithi , the ti e pe iod he e the i i g
a d use of i e als, a el o sidia a d fli t, as g aduall su eeded the i i g a d use
of etals, i this i sta e oppe . Go ekli Tepe as the do i a t Weste Eu asia setti g of
the Chal olithi pe iod. But as te h ologi al ad a e e ts a d thei diffusio p opelled Go ekli
Tepe s as e t, the also ought a out its e e tual de ise. The ti of the B itish Isles, a d the
oppe of the Medite a ea asi ought a out the E a of B o ze, a d ith it the e d of
Go ekli Tepe a d its u ial phase. The app o i atel t o a d o e-half ille ia lo g life of
Go ekli Tepe Uppe Mesopota ia do i a e a d its losel asso iated setti gs p ospe it
u su essfull et the da of the B o ze Age. Go ekli Tepe s i flue e as s ept a a the
gale fo e i ds of the isi g “outhe Mesopota ia po e s a d the e te h ologies,
e o o ies, so ieties a d ultu es that ose du i g, a d espe iall at the afte ath of the Lo e
Mesopota ia s U aid pe iod. The ise o U uk s alls at a ou d BC, a ua tu leap i
fo tifi atio s f o the s alle i s ale o igi al aso Neolithi all to a B o ze Age la ge i
s ale “ulta ia t pe all at Tell Es-“ulta , a d ost i po ta tl the spe ta ula as e t to
p o i e e, do i a e a d po e of U , th ough its i il u eau a , la ge i s ale a ies, ut
pe haps ost i po ta tl its u eifo iti g, a e i di ati e of a host of fa to s hi h
o i ed a d spelled Go ekli Tepe s de ise. U do i ated the asso iated pletho a of Lo e
Mesopota ia setti gs fo e. Go ekli Tepe had do i ated its Uppe Mesopota ia eth e
ultu e. At the e d, BC, Go ekli Tepe e isted o o e. Bu ial of the o u e t at
Go ekli Tepe took pla e i stages, a d it as likel i itiated at the egi i g of the B o ze Age,
i a - BC. It, e likel , su u ed to la ge s ale so ial, ultu al a d te h ologi al
uphea als hi h e essa il ust ha e follo ed the t a sitio f o the Neolithi to the B o ze
Age. Although it oi ided ith the ise i do i a e a d po e of the Lo e Mesopota ia, its
i flue es e e sta ped o to the A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g of the Ea a Dist i t at U uk.
E ide e see s to suggest that Go ekli Tepe s u ial o u ed i at least t o disti t phases. A
i itial pa tial u ial of the o u e t as likel ale ole t, as it as a o pa ied so e
dest u tio of the egaliths at the site. It as su eeded a se o d a d fi al, e likel
e e ole t, phase u ial he the follo e s of the Go ekli Tepe eligious se t o ult t ied to
ai tai the o u e t fo poste it , th ough a a eful eti ulous a d o plete soil o e age
a ied out e likel i stages. But Go ekli Tepe s i flue es e e po e ful, a d li ge ed o e
spa e-ti e. “o e of the A t f o Go ekli Tepe e see ha i g ig ated to the U uk Pala e
st u tu es of the d ille iu BC. The seeds of Go ekli Tepe s A hite tu e had oth,
o side a le te po al lo ge it as ell as spatial diffusio st e gth a d o e tu i the .
The sp ead o to the e ti e Medite a ea asi a d No th este Eu ope. The o se ue es
e e p ofou d i oth A hite tu e a d A t, he e i Cultu e. A d so e e the o se ue es
f o the i o ati g A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g fou d i side the stai ase of Je i ho s To e .

Tell Es-“ulta the a ie t it of Je i ho , ie f o the East. “ou e of photo: ef.

[ . ].
 I t odu tio
I a p e ious pape , see efe e e [ . ], the autho supplied i a su a fo a d i te s
a essi le to the ge e al pu li that is, la gel ithout te h i al ja go o e ui i g highl
spe ialized histo i al, a heologi al, a hite tu al, e gi ee i g, de og aphi , geog aphi ,
li ati o othe k o ledge a set of easo s h the lai that Go ekli Tepe GT he eo is a
P e-Potte Neolithi of eithe the ea lie efe ed to as PPNA o the late efe ed to as PPNB
E a oughl o e i g i total the pe iod BC to BC is e o eous.
The autho put fo a d easo s h this is so i t o p e ious pape s, see efe e es [ . ] he e
the autho a gued that Go ekli Tepe is a th ille iu BC i itial o st u tio phase o u e t;
a d [ . ] he e the autho supplied e ide e f o a ious fields a d offe ed a u e of
easo s, hi h he fu the e te ded ith a u e of Hu a E o o i Geog aph ased
a gu e ts i [ . ], h the positio the a heologi al esta lish e t a gui g fo a PPNA/B
o u e t at Go ekli Tepe is fla ed. This iti is o the i te p etatio of the C- a d othe
e ide tia ate ial should ot e o st ued as a iti is this autho of the GT a heologists
apa ilities of a i g out a effe ti e a heologi al e a atio , a d it is i o a a iti is
o thei e o di g as ell as do u e ti g a d disse i ati g the e ide e o tai ed.
I su a , the autho a gued that the i te p etatio of C- ased e ide e the
a heologi al tea i ha ge of the e a atio , at the site u e tl efe ed to as GT i p ese t
da Tu ke , that led the to a PPNA/B o lusio is la gel isguided. Fu the o e, the autho
offe ed easo s h the GT site is a o u e t that as o st u ted e likel du i g the
Chal olithi a pe iod oughl asso iated ith the BC to the BC pe iod i Weste
Eu asia . Fu the , it as a gued that its o st u tio follo ed the Te ple phase of the Ne ali Co i
settle e t of the ea l th ille iu BC, hi h i tu as a stage of o st u tio that possi l
oe isted ith the last phases efo e the a a do e t of the settle e t at Catalho uk, i a
iddle of the th ille iu BC . Mo eo e , it as asse ted that the st u tu es at Go ekli Tepe
e e fi all u ied i stages at the egi i g of the B o ze Age i a - BC . ‘easo s
ehi d this a ati e a d its histo iog aph d e f o a u e of dis ipli es i ludi g Cli ati ,
De og aphi , Hu a a d Ph si al Geog aph , A hite tu e, E gi ee i g, a d A t.

The th ee a o e- ited pape s also uestio ed the a o - elated i te p etatio of e ide e,

o hi h the a heologi al tea ostl elied i aki g thei ase fo a PPNA/B GT o u e t,
suppl i g A hite tu e ased e ide e poi ti g to o ta i atio f o the fill of plaste
o e i g GT s o thostat # i st u tu e D La e III. I this pape , a d i a late se tio , the sa e
a gu e t of o upted a o - e ide e is ade fo the plaste of the i te io side all of the
sa e st u tu e. All othe C- ased eadi gs e e o tai ed f o lo atio s outside all
e losu es. Thus, these sa ples C- a al sis date the po tio s of the fill the soil used to u
the o u e tal st u tu es, o e e used the o igi al uilde s of the sto e e losu es to
suppo t the st u tu e alls a d o thostats, so e of it ei g hat is k o as a kfill
o tai i g the sa ples, a d ot the st u tu es the sel es.
The C- e ide e a d its i te p etatio is fu the a al zed he e. The dis ussio d a s f o , a d
it is la gel ased o , a epo t p odu ed the o u i atio s outlet of the a heologi al tea ,
Tepeteleg a s, pu lished o Ju e , , see efe e e [ . ]. Alo g ith this C- ased
e ide e a d its i te p etatio the a heologi al tea i ha ge of GT, e ide e f o the
A hite tu e as ell as Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph of the BC to BC at the Fe tile
C es e t, “outh-Easte Asia Mi o a d Mesopota ia ‘egio is also p ese ted i this pape a d
ju taposed to GT s A hite tu e as ell as its Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph o ditio s.
I p ese ti g the A hite tu e elated o te t of the stud a ea, the ough outli e of a theo of
Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e is fo ed. Ele e ts of the Late Epipaleolithi , o last phase of the
Uppe Paleolithi othe ise also efe ed to as Natufia A hite tu e a d o st u tio
E gi ee i g a e dis ussed alo g ith its Hu a a d Ph si al Geog aph o te t, o e i g the
p e- a d du i g the You ge D as BC to the BC li ati pe iod hi h la gel
o e laps the Natufia A hite tu e pe iod.
Natufia st le A hite tu e as su eeded the “ulta ia t pe A hite tu e. The a hite to i
a d e gi ee i g ele e ts of that st le a e also p ese ted he e, a o pa ied the Hu a
Geog aph o ditio s of the ‘egio u de stud that f a ed this t pe of A hite tu e. “ulta ia
A hite tu e as the do i a t although ot e lusi e o st u tio ode du i g the late P e-
potte Neolithi PPNA a d du i g the PPNB a heologi al pe iod, a pe iod hi h lasted f o
i a BC to a out BC. It oi ides ith the afte ath of the You ge D as i the
‘egio , as the i pa ts f o d a d old o ditio s had e eded.
A hite to i e ide e f o the Tell Qa a el, o tai i g C- e ide e f o e tai ke th

a d th ille ia BC Natufia as ell as PPNA a d t a sitio i g to P e-potte Neolithi B

A hite tu e st u tu es i it a e dis ussed. Also a al zed is e e t a hite tu al e ide e f o
Tell Es-“ulta i Je i ho. Both of these sites e e ot dis ussed i the se ue e of pape s the
autho fou d i efe e es [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ]. Ho e e , the a e ke sites fo the su je ts to
e o e ed he e. Thus, this o k is a ela o atio o that p io a al sis the autho , a d a
e te sio of, as ell as a e d e t to it. Mo eo e , the ashla aso o st u tio fou d i
these t o hu a settle e ts, i o ju tio ith thei Hu a Geog aph o te ts, a e the
fo us of this pape , as the A hite tu e of these sites f o the pe iod BC to BC is
a efull a d i so e detail a al zed.
It is do u e ted that although i egula ashla aso st u tu es do appea i oth Tell
Qa a el a d Tell Es-“ulta , a d the a e e ou te ed i oth Natufia a d “ulta ia
A hite tu es of the PPNA a d PPNB pe iods ith the possi le e eptio of the late PPNB at
Ne ali Co i Te ple Phase o st u tio , a ase hi h as add essed i [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ]
the autho a d ill e also e te si el fu the dis ussed he e o e ide e e ists to date that
these t o Tells o a othe sites falli g ithi this pe iod i this ‘egio , o a othe egio i
Eu asia a d Af i a a d thei espe ti e A hite tu es had egalithi o olithi o st u tio i
the , a d e tai l ot of the o olithi s ale see at GT, o e the iti al – BC
pe iod. Qua i g of egalithi o oliths ot o l as ot possi le at that ti e, ut ost
i po ta tl , e ha e a solutel o e ide e to suggest that the hu a so ieties of the ti e had
the ea s o the ai s to eate o olith- ased egalithi o u e ts, o that the i ed
o oliths of that ag itude i ua ies of the egio .
Ho e e , this is ot the o l pilla of a gui g the ase that Go ekli Tepe is t a PPNA/B
a heologi al site. Mo e e ide e a d a eful a al sis of the site Tell Es-“ulta i the a ie t it
of Je i ho is also ought i to fo us. Espe iall , the st u tu e alled the Je i ho to e . This
to e s e te io a d i te io A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g is o e losel a al zed, a d so e
e isio s a e e o e ded i so fa as its dati g is o e ed. I additio , its eal o u e tal
i pa ts i Neolithi A hite tu e a e t a ed. A al sis of Je i ho s st u tu es i itial Neolithi
aso all a d the Je i ho to e , i o i atio ith Tell Qa a el s st u tu es also, allo
fo a o e a u ate peggi g of Go ekli Tepe s A hite tu e elate featu es.
“o e additio al A hite tu e a d A t elated e ide e f o Ne ali Co i is also i luded he e o .
Utilizi g these additio s, the p opositio is fu the ad a ed as it as i itiall put fo a d i
[ . ] a d [ . ] that the site at GT is a post Ne ali Co i Te ple last Phase o st u tio . Ne ali
Co i is a “ulta ia t pe A hite tu e settle e t thought to ha e ee i e iste e du i g the
ea l to late PPNB pe iod. Ho e e , this autho pla es its Te ple a d last phase i a ea l th
ille iu BC pe iod. It lea l is a fa o e ad a ed e sio of the late phases of the o e
p i iti e Catalho uk settle e t s A hite tu e. Catalho uk is a setti g esti ated to ha e e
i ha ited u de sede ta o ditio s i a post-PPNA, a d o e e a tl du i g the PPNB pe iod,
spe ifi all i the – BC ti e f a e, a a do ed the iddle of the th ille iu BC.
I thei Ju e , epo t to the pu li titled Ho Old is it? Dati g Go ekli Tepe , ited i ef.
[ . ], the a hite tu al tea sta ts thei epo ti g a e el o e state e t. I the se o d
li e of the e fi st pa ag aph, the e tio that These uestio s autho s ote: a out the GT
dati g a e a solutel legiti ate… I this f a e of efe e e, a d i e og izi g that legiti ate
as e e the a heologists ad it uestio s ha e ee aised a out the offi ial GT h o olog
a d histo iog aph , this pape is itte . The p opositio s ad a ed he e a e ot ea t to i pl
that defi iti e a s e s a e offe ed. “u h fi a s e s a e e t e el a e i A heolog , he e
pe iods a d thei li its uppe a d lo e a e lu . Peggi g e e ts to e a t ti e pe iods a d
lo atio s is a e e ise i Fuzz “ets Theo , a d ases a ou d he e ie s a e ofte
o t adi ted a d outi el e de ed o solete e fi di gs. Ho e e , this stud is ai i g at
la if i g t o ke positio s take this autho si e : fi st, that the GT la e III sto e
e losu es C a d D a e e likel ot PPNA/B o st u tio a d i fa t the o tai uite a it
late t pe A hite tu e; a d se o d, that the likel sta ti g date fo i itial o st u tio of La e
III, st u tu es C a d D, ould ot ha e take pla e p io to so e he e i the se o d half of the
th
Mille iu BC, a d uite possi l lose to its e di g. T o othe e t al uestio s ill e
add essed: fi st, ho as the o u e t u ied; a d se o d, si e the GT o u e t is a
o u e t uilt a d utilized i a post-PPNB a heologi al ti e pe iod i the Neolithi , ho o e
a d the e is o e ide e of potte o the g ou d a d i side the e losu es of the si A, B, C, D,
E a d F st u tu es so fa e a ated.
As it as the ase ith all th ee of the p io pape s the autho o GT, this pape also is itte
fo the ge e al pu li . It ould e ui e so e o l i i al e posu e to the e t e el o ple
a d uite i ol ed as ell as at ti es highl o t o e sial A heolog of the sites to e
e tio ed he e. Deali g ith the details of ea h of the sites dis ussed is itself a sig ifi a t task.
Ho e e , the e t al issue is uite lea : A hite tu e is the p odu t of hu a a ti it i flue ed
the E i o e ts a d the Cultu e that eated it. Cultu es a e the sel es i pa ted i tu
the E i o e t. This pape is a stud , a al sis a d e-e aluatio of this o ple i te a tio s
as the pla ed out i the BC – BC i e ille ia lo g pe iod i the Le a t, a d e tai
ke egio s a d ke dates of the Fe tile C es e t A hite tu es that appea ed the e at that ti e.
A hite tu al st u tu es, a tifa ts fou d, st atig aph of these sites f o that pe iod a e
o pli ated atte s. Ea h of these sites A heolog is a o pa ied a olu i ous te h i al
lite atu e. I t i ate, detailed a d o t o e sial issues su ou d all of these sites a d thei
o stitue t ele e ts. Little of thei A heolog a d A hite tu e is e o d a dispute a d
easo a le dou t. Ha i g said that, a d putti g the eade al ead o oti e that the ele a t
lite atu e is i deed e t ao di a il le gth a d o ple , ofte o s u e a d i a essi le, it should
also de oted that i esse e a d i su a the ajo issues ta kled he e ith this stud a e
uite si ple a d p ett st aight fo a d.
it is e a ked that o l sele ti e a d i this autho s judge e t ai a d easil a essi le
efe e es a e ited i this pape , so that the eade a ith elati e ease a ess a d o fi
state e ts hi self o he self. Co siste tl ith the adage, that e t ao di a lai s e ui e
e t ao di a e ide e, this autho o side s the lai the a hite tu al esta lish e t, that
Go ekli Tepe is a PPNA/B site to e a e t ao di a lai , a ked up u de hel i g
e ide e. O the othe ha d, this autho e og izes that to halle ge the esta lish e t ie is
also a e t ao di a task e ui i g e t ao di a ou te -a gu e ts, ased o e ide e a d a
i te p etatio of that e ide e al ost e o d easo a le dou t. It is e pe ted that at the ti e
the ope - i ded eade fi ishes the eadi g of this -page lo g pape , a d the p io th ee
pape s this autho o Go ekli Tepe, the eade ill lea e ith at least the i p essio , if ot
the o i tio , that a good ase has ee ade.
The a eful a d ethodi al eade is asked also to lo ate additio al efe e es e o d the o es
ited he e, as dee ed e essa a d app op iate. As is the ase ith all “ ie es, Natu al a d
“o ial, a d all p ofessio s i ludi g A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g the eade ust keep a
ope , i uisiti e a d igila t i d i e ie i g the su je ts add essed i this pape . Of ou se,
this ad i e applies ot o l ith ega ds to this pape s su je ts, ut to all o ks i “ ie e a d
the p ofessio s.
Tell Qa a el: . . ith a atio of . , uite lose to the Golde Ratio
PPNA/B lithi a tifa t, e a ple of PPNA/B A t i this pa t of the Le a t’s egio .
“ou e of photo p o essed the autho i ef. [ . ]

Tell Es-“ulta : just elo e te , the o e-like st u tu e efe ed to as the to e

of Je i ho , at the Easte e d of the Weste t e h, a d dated Kathlee
Ke o to - BC. “ou e of the photo: pu li do ai photo f o ef. [ . ].
Tell Es-“ulta : ae ial ie f o the No th. The size of the Hill is a out
ete s. The s Kathlee Ke o dug Weste t e h is at top ight; at the
t e h’s Easte e d is he e Je i ho’s to e is lo ated. Ma e a atio s
ha e ee a ied out at the Tell o e the past e tu o so. At e te ight also,
the Neolithi all of Je i ho seg e t is see . At e te top the Ai Es-“ulta
sp i gs a e lo ated. Ri e Jo da is a out fou iles to the left, hile the
Medite a ea oastli e is a out iles to the ight. The Tell is o g ou d that
slopes f o the otto of the Jo da Rift alle left to a ds the sea le el
ight , a out ete s up. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
 Tell Qa a el, Tell Es-“ulta Je i ho a d Go ekli Tepe
A hite tu e, E gi ee i g, Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph Co te ts
As is the ase ith the A heolog of a a heologi al sites, the A heolog of these th ee
sites is the out o e of ultiple phases i oth o st u tio a d dest u tio . The sites a e
asso iated ith e disti t, diffe i g a d ultu all o ple i o-A hite tu es, u de a
o ple Geolog , Geog aph a d st atig aph . A hite tu al st les a d Co st u tio E gi ee i g
ethods, te h i ues a d ate ials used at the i o le el appea ed u de a i g, so e i o
ut also a o, so io-e o o i - ultu al a d e i o e tal o ditio s, so e possi l iti al of
these spe ifi o ditio s still u lea to us toda .
B e a i i g, ho e e , the oade a o-a heologi al a d geog aphi o te ts of the a ious
o u e ts phases a d i o ju tio ith the diffe e t A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g ilieu of
these th ee sites su i i g st u tu es, at thei a ious phases of o st u tio , de a a d e e tual
de ise, o e a o tai di e t al eit pa tial e ide e a d i fo atio as to thei likel ough
h o olog , a d a possi le a ati e ehi d thei appea a es at a pa ti ula poi t i spa e-ti e.
He e, A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g of st u tu es a ofte se e as pote tial ti e a ke s, as
a the size of the settle e ts thei s ale i.e., thei Hu a Geog aph .
Th ee ge e al a st a t, ot o fi ed o est i ted to a spe ifi poi t i spa e-ti e p i iples
a e stated as go e i g o the a e age, the e of ou se ould e dist i utio s a out the
ea alues of these a ia les the e olutio of the A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g as ell as the
Hu a Geog aph of uilt st u tu es a d settle e ts at these ea l stages of hu a sede ta
li i g a d o u it fo atio . a I ea l Neolithi as i a A hite tu e, e o se e a
g aduall i easi g o ple it i a hite to i desig , i.e., i the o figu atio of the
a hite tu al floo pla a d se tio s, i toto that is, the a e i hi h the a hite to i spa es
of a st u tu e a e o ga ized. This is a fa to ide tif i g the utilita ia a d fu tio alit
o po e t of the st u tu e. I E gi ee i g, e dete t the use of i easi gl stu d , du a le
a d i ol i g a ide i of ate ials o st u tio to o e effe ti el a d effi ie tl eet the
asi eeds fo hu a shelte , safet a d o fo t. A d i a A hite tu e a d U a Desig ,
as ell as i a Hu a Geog aph o te t, e e o d a i ease i the s ale size of the st u tu e
a d the setti g to hi h it elo gs, i.e., i oth the site pla of a st u tu e as a o po e t of the
settle e t s ap; a d i the p o i e e of the setti g i its egio al geog aphi o te t.

Espe iall at the uppe e helo of the hie a hi al et o k of settle e ts the setti g elo gs
e o se e i the stud pe iod due to de og aphi ha ges as ell as due to i easi g
e o o i etu s to s ale a i ease i the a solute populatio size as ell as its sha e of total
populatio o e t atio s at the hie a h s top le el p i a . E olutio i this ega d i plies,
o the a e age, a i easi gl a d o e o ple a d ultila e ed Ce t al Pla e Theo
f a e o k, see ef. [ . ]. Ideall , o e ould add the aestheti appeal aspe t of the st u tu e as
ell, its A t o te t. Ho e e , this is a fa o e diffi ult to ha dle o po e t i the A hite tu e
a d E gi ee i g of a st u tu e, that i ol es ultu al a d s oli a al sis, a d p ese t-da
 o je tu es a out the aestheti s of dista t a d la gel u k o toda past ultu es, espo si le
fo the o st u tio of these o u e ts – topi s outside the ai s of this pape . Although this is
a a gle o the A hite tu e of a edifi e that e ight e o a lesse solid g ou d to a al ze, it
does ot e essa il follo that it is o that it as a k the of lesse i po ta e.
As the de og aphi o ditio s asso iated ith a i easi g egio al populatio ase e ol e; as
a highe le el of a e o o i di e sifi atio of the e plo e t i o u s a d di isio of la o
a o pa ies it; as a o e o ple so ial i te a tio e us o es a out; as a g eate
spe ializatio of la d a o g o e uses a d diffe e tial la d aluatio s e e ge, efle ti e of
diffe e tial a ess a o g the the esult of shifts i lo atio al o pa ati e ad a tages; all
these so io-e o o i ultu al d a i s fo ge so io-spatial e olutio . De se settle e ts,
o e a ied p odu tio a d o su ptio of p odu ts, o e sophisti ated te h ologies, a d
thi ke flo s i the settle e ts spatial i te a tio s o u i the flo of ti e. A st u tu e uilt
hu a s the a e pla ed i the o te t of this fu da e tal p o esses i a hite tu al,
e gi ee i g a d settle e t fo atio d a i s a d e olutio , o the asis of the th ee asi
p i iples i easi g o ple it i desig , use of o e e i o e tall effi ie t i of
ate ials, a d g eate s ale . The ust e kept i i d as e step i to the th ee sites e pla
to e plo e e t i the se tio s that follo . These te h i al a d spe ialized su je ts the autho
has su a ized i e tai se tio s of efe e es [ . ] a d [ . ] fo s hola s, esea he s a d
a al sts i A heolog ot fa ilia ith these fields of Hu a Geog aph , he e su je ts of
E o o i s, De og aph a d “patial I te a tio a e e plo ed i a d a i f a e o k.
I o ludi g these i t odu to o e ts, a poi t eed e ade, a poi t e phasized this
autho i all th ee p io pape s [ . - ] . It is a poi t at the o e of the ethodolog e plo ed,
a d o ho these th ee spe ifi e olutio a p i iples a e applied, o atte he e a site
is lo ated a d hethe o ot all of its asso iated sites ha e ee e a ated o ot. All
settle e ts o atte the ti e pe iod e a i ed , a e a d ha e al a s ee pa t of a et o k
of spatiall i te a ti g settle e ts of a a i g i populatio sto k sizes a d al a s o e i g a
)ipf-size dist i utio a d of a i easi g o e ti e o ple it i i te a tio flo s. No
settle e t a e ie ed a d studied i isolatio . Mo eo e , o settle e t is ide ti al to a
a othe , as the lo al i o Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph o ditio s a a d diffe e tiall
e ol e o e ti e, diffe e tiall affe ti g the s ale of a setti g. These settle e ts d a i paths
a e pa allel o di e gi g, i the sa e sosio-spatial eigh o hood, o at dista t poi ts i
phase-spa e, ith slightl o disti tl diffe e t sta ti g positio s, a d slightl o o side a l
di e ge t e d-states. Qualitati e p ope ties of this t pe a e esse tial i a theo of e olutio i
this ase, E olutio i A hite tu e . It is ithi this f a e o k that all th ee of the sites a al zed
he e ust e o eptualized. This is a fu da e tal issue i D a i Hu a Geog aph a d
D a i Ce t al Pla e Theo , a d he e i the d a i s of a so io-spatial s ste . A
settle e ts hie a hi al li kages to othe settle e ts o stitute the least ell u de stood
p i iple i so ietal e olutio , e ause these li kages a e ot i ediatel appa e t o ta gi le.
Whe eas the othe t o, those asso iated ith e olutio i thei A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g,
a e fa o e o ious, u i uitous a d ta gi le, he e easie to t a e, e o d a d a al ze.
Figu e . . Tell Qa a el site. Google Ea th ap f o / / . The site is at a out ete s
feet a o e sea le el; the photo as take f o a altitude of app o i atel ete s
feet a o e g ou d le el. “ou e: the autho f o Google Ea th ap a aila le i the pu li
do ai .
 PART . Tell Qa a el: the fi st Natufia itadel of the fi st so io-e o o i elite to date
Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph o te ts. It is at p ese t so eho esta lished although so e
ese atio s ha e ee e p essed ega di g the C- dati g of the site, see ef. [ . ] that the
oldest sede ta settle e t of a elati el s all s ale e a ated to date i the e ti e Eu asia is
that at Tell Qa a el TQ he eo . The tell is lo ated i No the p ese t-da “ ia, a out .
iles i st aight ai li e dista e No th-East of the it of Aleppo e te at a altitude of a out
ete s a o e “ea le el, at the e top of the Fe tile C es e t a i the Uppe f i ges of
Mesopota ia, at a dista e of a out iles st aight ai li e dista e f o the u e t Easte
oastal li e of the Medite a ea “ea a d the Gulf of Iske de u . A d, fa o e i po ta tl , it
is lo ated . iles “outh of the foothills of the Tau us ou tai a ge, a d o the Weste
a ks of ‘i e Qouei a d its li esto e plateau, see ef. [ . ], a epo t itte the lead
a heologist i ha ge of the e a atio the e, ‘ sza d Mazu o ki.

TQ s app o i ate geologi al oo di ates a e: . N, . E, see ap i Figu e . . This site
is he e, a out iles ai li e dista e “outh-West of GT hi h has oo di ates  N,
 E . I sha p o t ast to GT, a d a sig ifi a t geog aphi fa to , TQ la s o a i e a k
as is Ne ali Co i – he eas GT ot o l is o e tha iles a a f o a i e , it as also
o st u ted o a atu al hill. Hu a settle e ts a e lo ated lose to he e pota le f esh ate
is fou d, spe ifi all i e a ks a d stea s, o a ou d sou es of g ou d ate sp i gs, a uife s
a d h po hei zo es . The g eate the ua tit of a aila le f esh ate a d the g eate the a ess
to it, i a spatial e te t deli eati g the sou e a ket a ea, o e ust e pe t the g eate the
populatio sto k a d the o espo di g populatio de sit ithi the spe ifi poi t s a ket
a ea i Hu a Geog aph s Ce t al Pla e Theo o te t to e at a poi t i ti e. I additio ,
i e s as do oastal li es offe the additio al ad a tage of i e i e a d a iti e, espe ti el
o u i atio a d t a spo t apa ilities affe ti g a ess . Thus, the i a spatial o te t
o tai e doge ous lo atio al o pa ati e ad a tages, hi h la gel although ot e lusi el
dete i e populatio sizes i a solute a d/o elati e te s . I this ega d the , TQ e jo ed
o side a le lo atio al ad a tages o e the fi st ille ia of its e iste e as a i itiall uasi-
o adi a d the late as a sede ta ag i ultu e fa i g a d li esto k tied settle e t. The
Hill at TQ is a o e st u tu e ith a ellipti al ase at the u e t ph si al g ou d le el . The
ellipse s ajo a is is a out ete s, he eas its i o a is is a out ete s. He e the
a ea of the Hill is a out Ha a out , s . ete s . Cu e tl , the Hill s su it is a out
ete s a o e the g ou d. TQ s ou d a d the su ou di g la d a ea ha e ot ee full
e a ated. O l sele ted t e hes a d spots ha e ee dug thus fa . I Figu e . the lo atio s
of the ai t e h fa i g “outh est a d t o s ua es off the Tell he e a heologi al
e a atio s ha e take pla e a e sho . The oldest st u tu es a e fou d i the t e h fa i g
to a ds the “outh est, see ef. [ . ].
“u essi e uildi g a ti it o e the thi tee ille ia that ha e elapsed si e its i itial
o st u tio phase a late th
ille iu BC la e – ith a st u tu e efe ed to the
a heologists as to e sitti g elo a othe st u tu e h iste ed the a heologists
 to e a d dated to a out BC, see ef. [ . ] a d [ . ] ha e fo ed the Tell.
U dou tedl the i itial o st u tio aised o ultu all ste ile g ou d utilized a atu al ou d
as a p ote tio to the No the l i te ti e i d. The e has ee so e e o o i a ti it o the
Tell si e the pe iod a al zed he e, ut e tai l othi g o pa ed to that at Tell Es-“ulta .
The You ge D as a d thei effe ts. The pe iod of i itial o st u tio is iti al, as the ‘egio
as at the tail i spa e-ti e e d a d a gi s of the i pa ts asso iated ith the You ge D as.
The spatial e te t of You ge D as asso iated i pa ts ith o g adie ts, u fo tu atel of d
a d old eathe is sho i Figu e . . The old a d d li ate elated i pa ts i the affe ted
a ea, hi h i luded the e ti e Asia Mi o , a d la ds ell do i to the Middle Mesopota ia
‘egio the Le a t s Uppe se tio of the Fe tile C es e t , e e ke fa to s that shaped the
A hite tu e of the Epipaleolithi , a d he e the Natufia A hite tu e got a foothold. Both
the You ge D as i pa ts a d the Natufia A hite tu e lasted till i a BC, see ef. [ . ].

Figu e . . The You ge D as – BC sha p o de s: the i pa ts spatial e te t sa s

g adie ts. The e ti e Asia Mi o is o e ed. I the “outhe o de at the Easte Medite a ea
Basi is Tell Es-“ulta . Uppe Mesopota ia is i luded i the i pa ts field. “ou e: ef. [ . ].

The You ge D as as a ajo li ati e e t that a ked the geologi al t a sitio f o the
Pleisto e e to the Holo e e. Its o e tha a ille iu lo g du atio o e ed the ti e i te al
BC to BC, see ef. [ . ]. The o igi s a d auses of the e e t a e su je t to dispute,
a d o fli ti g e ide e is e plo ed i a al zi g it, although the do i a t e pla atio see s
to e a ha ge i the No the Atla ti O ea s u e ts, see ef. [ . ]. Alte ati e e pla atio s
also e ist, see ef. [ . ]. Be that as it a , the You ge D as aused a sig ifi a t a d appa e tl
sudde d op i te pe atu es o e the No the He isphe e f o  to  Celsius a d p odu ed
u usuall d o ditio s, as the gla ie s ad a ed, [ . ]. Bo de s fuzzi ess has ee egle ted.
You ge D as a d Ag i ultu e. T o ajo ag i ultu e- elated fa to s a e att i uted to the
You ge D as effe ts. O e is the p odu tio of e eals, that is thought to ha e ee positi el
affe ted the spe ifi li ate elated o ditio s as the p e ailed i the Fe tile C es e t a d
spe ifi all at the Uppe Le a t, at the ti e, see ef. [ . ] he e a e ie of the egio is
u de take , f o BC to BC, a d it is la eled as Ea l a d Late Natufia , a d P e-
potte Neolithi Pe iod see the pape s A st a t . The pape s h o olog of pe iods, hi h
slightl diffe f o those i othe efe e es, ill e add essed su se ue tl . I [ . ] the poi t
is ade that the i te se a d ooli g effe ts of the You ge D as taki g pla e ight i the iddle
of that ti e pe iod lo e ed the a i g apa it of the a ea to sustai its populatio . Of
ou se, this ust ha e ee a easo h the fa e s a d p oto attle a he s of the Uppe
Le a t s Ea l Neolithi left thei ho ela ds a d ig ated to Eu ope, setti g the stage fo the
Neolithi Eu opea Ci ilizatio , that e te ded f o the Nea East to the B itish Isles. This is a
ig atio o e e t that the autho has e a i ed i o e detail i ef. [ . ]. The issue ill e
fu the add essed, he the su je t of la d te u e is a al zed a it fu the do , he the site
at TQ is app oa hed as ei g the fi st itadel of the fi st so ial elites of the Neolithi . The
i ediatel p io to the You ge D as A hite tu e, is the fi st hu a l d a A hite tu e.

You ge D as a d A hite tu e t pes. As e shall dis uss o e ta il , the You ge D as

effe ts old a d d eathe patte e e the ke a d a o g the ost iti al fa to s i
shapi g the A hite tu e a d la out la d use patte a d site pla s of the fi st st u tu es of the
fi st hu a settle e ts that appea ed i the Epipaleolithi , the ea l a d late Natufia a d the
ea l a d late “ulta ia st les a d setti gs. A isolated gli pse of a e a ple f o the
Epipaleolithi A hite tu e ill e sho i the ase of to e at TQ. Fo a dis ussio o the
Natufia A hite tu e see [ . ] a d [ . ], he e this t pe of th
ille iu BC A hite tu e
a u da t at TQ a d othe sites is e te si el a al zed. Mo e o this Ea l a d late Natufia
A hite tu e ill e supplied he e, as ate ial f o TQ is i o po ated. He e also the ea l a d
late “ulta ia t pe of A hite tu e ill e fu the a d i detail e ie ed, he the Tell Es-“ulta
Te“ , the a ie t it of Je i ho, a d f o he e the A hite tu e d a s its a e, is dis ussed.
Ho e e , efo e e e te this dis ussio p ope , a fe otes a e eeded o oth the C- dati g
of TQ st u tu es a d the Geolog , Cli atolog , A heolog te s a d pe iods to e e tio ed.
The details of the TQ a o dated spots a d thei i di ated dates o tai ed the la o ato
o k, i ludi g those esults ot a epted the a heologi al tea , a e sho i Figu e of
ef. [ . ]. The aise so e issues of o e , as the sho th ee phases hat the defi e as
Ho izo s , a d , ith o side a le a ia e f o BC to BC ithi ea h phase
Ho izo ased o ate ial o tai ed f o the sa e a heologi al st atu le el, see ef. [ . ], a
p o le e shall add ess fu the a it late i this se tio .
The a heologists settled o a o igi al o st u tio date of a ou d BC fo the i itial phase
of hat the all a d hi h tu s out to e a ke st u tu e at TQ to e . No atte the
details of the C- dati g a d the o e all elia ilit of C- dati g that ef. [ . ] e p esses, a el
the diffi ulties i ofte e o ili g st atig aphi e ide e ith a o - dati g, the issues a out
A hite tu e e shall e plo e he e lea e little dou t as to thei o pa iso s ith GT. Of ou se,
the ou ge TQ p o es to e, the st o ge the autho s a gu e ts a out GT. O the othe ha d,
the ea lie i to the You ge D as the C- dati g poi ts fo TQ, the lesse i st e gth its alidit .
“o e dis ipli e-spe ifi glossa , dates/pe iods a d a o dati g. The You ge D as as a
iti al pe iod i Hu a Histo . O e ight ha a te ize it as a phase t a sitio that o u ed i
agg egate hu a so io-e o o i s i Eu asia. “o ial g oups at a ious poi ts i the “outh-
Weste Eu asia spa e lose to the Tau us ou tai a ge o e o less i depe de tl a d
si ulta eousl e t f o a hu te -gathe e state a d e o o i p eo upatio to a o adi o
uasi- o adi life ode phase. It o ti ued to i lude the i i g, t a spo t a d a te t adi g
of fli t a d o sidia a d the a ufa tu i g of lithi f o a aila le atu al o ks a d i e al
fo i ed fli t a d o sidia tools. This state e ol ed to a sede ta phase hi h i luded
do esti ated a i al hus a d a d p oto s all s ale, su siste e ag i ultu e. It as the
t a sitio f o the late Uppe Paleolithi to the P e-Potte Neolithi , the so- alled late
Epipaleolithi , see ef. [ . ] a te usuall efe i g to lithi o ile a tifa ts ut ot A hite tu e.
“i e al ead e tio ed o , to e e tio ed sho tl a a iet of te s asso iated ith Geolog
the o de of the Pleisto e e a d the Holo e e – app o i atel the BC ou da , Cli ate
“ ie es You ge D as , A heolog Paleolithi , Epipaleolithi , Natufia , “ulta ia , P e-potte
Neolithi A a d B, Neolithi , B o ze Age, U aid pe iod, et . it ust e oted that these te s
de ote e as of diffe e t t pes a d the a e of ou se app o i atel pegged to a tual dates to
e e p essed he e i the ost easil u de stood a d e og iza le a e , utilizi g the te
BC – Befo e Ch ist . Although ou da ies ight e lose a d ote i ous i e tai
i sta es, like fo e a ple the te s late Epipaleolithi Natufia a d You ge D as , it
should e kept i i d that these a e, to a e te t, diffe e t e as i ol i g g oss app o i atio s
i so fa as thei a tual ti e a d spatial ou da ies a e o e ed. E as do ot ha e sha pl
deli eated uppe a d lo e ou ds; thei ou da ies a e i fa t fuzz o e ti e a d spa e.
A hite tu es of the pe iod u de stud he e oughl the i e to te ille ia pe iod BC
to - BC do ot ha e thei o te s. I A hite tu e, the te Natufia is
usto a il used to ha a te ize the st u tu es of the fi st pa t of that E a the app o i atel
– BC ti e pe iod . To so e, Natufia is the pe iod f o a out iddle of the th
ille iu BC to the e d of the th ille iu BC, see ef. [ . ]. A diffe e e of a out half a
ille iu - BC is a e a ple of la k of o se sus ega di g a host of pe iods dates.
The e a e diffe e es o dates ot o l a o g a heologists ut also a o g geologists,
paleo tologists, a th opologists, a d os ologists i efe e es to the dati g of thei su je ts
as ell. It see s that a a ia e i assig i g h o ologies to pe iods is a deep- ooted issue i
these fields a d i fa t i all s ie tifi fields. This autho has de ided to take a e ages f o the
 o e tha pu li atio s ited u de o k othe s i the ‘efe e es se tio of the pape .
As a esult, the e ight e so e i o diffe e es et ee dates o pe iods ited he e a d i
those e ui ale t o es of pape s [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ]. At a fi al a al sis, the o lusio s d a
f o the p epo de a e of ph si al e ide e ited a d e a i ed i this pape a d a e ased
o the p ese tatio of the ke ate ial o A hite tu e of the o u e ts u de i estigatio ,
a d spe ifi all to the e te t that the A hite tu e of Go ekli Tepe is o e ed, diffe e es i
the assig e t of e a t h o ologi al dates to sites, te s a d pe iods a e la gel i ate ial.
O that ou t, Natufia is ot a pu el a hite to i , st u tu es- ased, te . It is a te
de ised a heologist Do oth Ga od to des i e a d la el lithi e ide e, see [ . ]. It as
oi ed he afte the lo atio Wadi a -Natuf, he e the “hu a a e she e a ated i the id
to late s is situated, see ef. [ . ] fo o e o this a e. The te Natufia is used to
des i e, a o g othe s thi gs, ite s of A t a d also ultu es. It is e e a te asso iated ith
Ge eti s of i di iduals fou d u ied at these sites a d t a ed to that ti e pe iod, see [ . ].

The e is a disti tio ofte ade et ee Ea l Natufia the BC to BC ti e

i te al a d Late Natufia BC to BC setti gs. A o di g to that disti tio , to e
at TQ is a ea l stage of Late Natufia A hite tu e, si e its ti e pe iod is pegged the
a heologists to BC. But this aises so e defi itio al p o le s hi h also tou h
ethodologi al issues. The TQ a heologists eakdo of TQ o st u tio i ol es fi e disti t
st atig aphi all defi ed Ho izo s – sta ti g f o Ho izo the Epipaleolithi Ho izo to
Ho izo hi h is defi ed the as ei g the t a sitio Ho izo -Phase to PPNB stage
o st u tio . This is a pe iod oughl e te di g fo a out th ee ille ia BC to BC,
see dis ussio elo o PPNB app o i ate sta ti g dates . Thus, Ho izo is a post
Epipaleolithi phase of o st u tio . Fo the , Epipaleolithi is Ho izo , a d Ho izo s , ,
a d o e the Natufia a d PPNA pe iods till the sta t of the PPNB phase at the site at Tell
Qa a el. Ho izo is asso iated ith to e , the to e just u de to e de la ed
to e Natufia the a ea l Natufia to e . “ee ef. [ . ], asso iated ith ite Gd
o the asis of hi h the dati g of to e as de i ed.
This fuzzi ess is o l a e a ple of a d due to the a i g assig e ts of pe iods to dates
a ious esea he s i ol ed i a heologi al a al sis, a phe o e o idesp ead i a u e
of s ie tifi fields a d ot o fi ed to A heolog . I t i g to add ess this diffi ult , the so- alled
A“P‘O h o olog as set up, a t pe of h o o et that e shall e ou te a d efe to i a
it. Fuzzi ess is also due to, a d this ight e a o e diffi ult to deal ith su je t, the i he e t
i o siste ies i the st atig aphi e ide e, i o siste ies ot e essa il o fi ed to TQ.
Botto li e o lusio ho e e is that the a o e listed fi e disti tio s a ea e little i
a tual A hite tu e elated su sta e. To the e te t that a o dati g a p o ide g oss a ges,
see fo i sta e the a ges o dates fo all fou Ho izo s of the a o dati g fo TQ i ef.
[ . ], a d the dis ussio a out thei elia ilit ; a d to the e te t that sig ifi a t so ial a d
e i o e tal e e ts did take pla e at that a ge of u e tai t ; the a o dati g e ide e
should e take as i di ati e as should e defi itio of te s a d asso iated te i olog at the
i o s ale i spa e-ti e , a d e a efull at the a os ale i offe i g the ig pi tu e .
“o, as al ead e tio ed, it is poi ted out i [ . ] that the e a e so e i o siste ies et ee
the st atig aphi e ide e a d the a o - de i ed e ide e fo TQ. This a o al o
i o siste o u s he C- dati g of a ele e t at a pa ti ula st atig aphi le el o es up
to ha e a olde dati g tha a ele e t lo ated at a lo e st atig aphi le el. O , like the ase
of the Ho izo s , , a d h o ologi al phases o the asis of st atig aph , so that Ho izo is
a olde phase tha Ho izo , hi h i tu is olde tha Ho izo of the TQ s a heologists,
the a ges e t a ted f o C- dati g to a e te t o t adi t st atig aphi e ide e. Fo
e a ple, a C- ased e ide e d a f o Ho izo has a a ge i di ati g a olde spe i e
f o a st atig aphi le el elo it. Thus, i eadi g these te s a d asso iated ti e pe iods, a
st o g ote of autio is a a ted. The ase of TQ is fa easie tha GT i i te p eti g C-
dati g e ause the e is o i di atio that the a ious st ata the e e e i te tio all u ied.
Co lusio s o h o olog d a the a heologists at TQ as la gel ased o the asis of
p olithi C- dati g f o a u da t o ga i ate ial f o hea ths lo ated i side as ell as
outside the st u tu es of TQ, see [ . ] a d [ . ]. This a u da e ust ha e ee due to the
ultiple uses of these pla es fo ge e ati g heat – eed fo heati g, ooki g, a d possi l
a ufa tu i g of la figu i es that ha e ee lo ated at TQ, see Figu e A. , A. , A. . De i i g a
p e ise h o o et fo these o ile a tifa ts ho e e p ese ts i ge e al the a al st
halle ges fa g eate tha those asso iated ith dati g i o ile a hite tu al st u tu es.
Mo ilit is o e of the ai easo s h A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g offe fa o e solid
g ou ds to date sites tha a tifa ts. Befo e e add ess a tifa ts, so e fu the h o olog elated
otes ust e i se ted he e, as a fi e eakdo is eeded to di ide a ast a ou t of ti e
hi h spa s a out i e ille ia of p ehisto – BC , the ti e f a e tou hed upo
ith this stud , as th ee o u e ts i spe ifi TQ, Te“, a d GT a e add essed.

Late P e-Potte Neolithi A a d B a pe iod o e i g oughl the egi i g of the th

ille iu BC to the th ille iu BC ti e f a e is o e fi el su di ided a o di g to
A“P‘O, see [ . ] a d also [ . ]. The Khia ia pe iod i a BC till a out BC is
asso iated ith the fo of a lithi a o head fou d i El-Khia , see ef. [ . ]. This pe iod
o tai s hat is efe ed to as PPNA BC to BC a d it i ludes the i itial phases of the
A hite tu e alled “ulta ia de i ed f o the Tell Es-“ulta at the a ie t it of Je i ho, a
setti g e shall e te si el a al ze i Pa t of this se tio of the pape , alo g ith the ea l
phases of Mu e et – a settle e t i No the “ ia, a d spatiall lose to TQ, this autho
e ie ed i all th ee pape s ited [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ] . It also i ludes the ea l phases of the
settle e t at Je f el-Ah a , a ke settle e t that the autho also e te si el o e ed as to its
A hite tu e i pape s [ . ] a d [ . ]. Both settle e ts a e lea l a p e-GT i te s of site pla
o ple it , floo pla desig a d aso o st u tio sto e e losu e t pe set of st u tu es.
The PPNA pe iod is follo ed the PPNB ofte ited as - BC pe iod, hi h is at ti es
o side ed to o e the ti e i te al of BC to a out BC, see [ . ]. The autho has
adopted the – BC ti e f a e to desig ate the PPNB pe iod a d a gued i [ . ], [ . ],
a d [ . ] that GT is a post PPNB o st u tio site, a lai that ill e fu the do u e ted elo
 taki g a lose look fi st at the A hite tu e of TQ s a ious phases f o the ea liest suggested
to e Epipaleolithi to its latest, the PPNB t a sitio phase. Ma sites o e ed i [ . ] a d [ . ],
like fo i sta e Halla Ce i a d Je f el-Ah a , iti al sites ith Natufia a d p e-GT
i te ediate A hite tu e; a d sites su h as Catalho uk a d Ne ali Co i that o tai “ulta ia
t pe A hite tu e, ill ot e e te si el dis ussed agai he e. I te ested eade s a e di e ted
to the a o e efe e es fo o e o the stud s spatial e te d a d ti e pe iod.

Defi itio of a to e . Befo e e a al ze the t o Tells, a d spe ifi all the site at TQ, a ote
o the te to e is due. This is a te e shall e ou te ei g used i the A heolog of
oth sites, Tell Qa a el TQ a d Tell Es-“ulta Te“ . It is a athe isleadi g te , gi e hat it
o otes to a ode eade , espe iall so i the ase of TQ s to e s . The st u tu es, hi h
e shall e plo e i so e detail at oth Tells, do ot o tai o e the stud pe iod eithe it
fo tifi atio alls o to e s u de hat it is u e tl ea t a d ho e u e tl defi e o
u de sta d these t o te s. Espe iall so i the ase of TQ a d its fi e alleged to e s that,
a o di g to the a heologists i ha ge, TQ o tai s. It ould had ee fa o e app op iate to
efe to the as app o i atel i ula aso st u tu es, o at ost as p oto to e t pe
st u tu es athe tha to e s . I a ase, the stud ill t to a oid he possi le usi g these
ultu all loaded te s. The te st u tu e ill e used i stead ith a a hite tu al
des iptio , to the e te t o e is a le to ide tif a d full des i e these st u tu es at p ese t.
The A hite tu e a d la out of Tell Qa a el. A look at st u tu es f o TQ s ea liest phases
poi ts to so e e olutio a aspe ts ot o l fo lo al A hite tu e ut also fo a egio al
A hite tu e of the Le a t spa i g a out t o a d o e-half ille ia f o oughl BC to
a out BC . I th ee a o-la e s of st u tu es, i a o ple a a of e a ated i o a d
a o-le el a heologi al st ata, the a heologists at TQ ide tified fi e disti t i o
st atig aphi la e s, that the alled Ho izo s . Ho izo , o tai s the isolated ase of hat
the alled to e a gli pse of hi h is see i Figu e , u de eath the to e of a o
st atig aphi la e o e hi h i ludes Ho izo – to use the a heologists te the ai ite
of Figu e . The ast ajo it of st u tu es fou d at TQ u de a o dati g a e sho to e of
the Natufia Ea l a d Late stages A hite tu e. “ta ti g ith to e , the a uee st u tu e
of the site at TQ, a BC st u tu e, the p epo de a e of st u tu es Ho izo s , a d a e
Natufia i ludi g PPNA phases . The , i Ho izo the last i o st atig aphi le el of the last
a o la e o e e ou te s t a sitio al st u tu es f o PPNA to PPNB Natufia A hite tu e.
As it a e see , these a e ostl a heologi al pe iods, ot a hite tu al pe iods. Al ead
add essed e e the diffi ulties i putti g st atig aph , a o dati g a d a heologi al
h o ologies togethe . No , so e o e o ple it is added, as a atte pt ill e ade to add
a a hite tu al h o olog to that i . At a lo al spa e-ti e le el, h o o et i lassifi atio s
ight ot p e isel at h, although the do at the a o le el. At the lo al le el a d o the topi
of a heologi al st atig aph a d its la s, the eade is di e ted to the lite atu e o the Ha is
la s a d at i a d its u de l i g a al ti al odel, see ef. [ . ]. I the ase of the TQ
a heologi al e a atio st atig aphi e ide e is o ple i its i o a d a o o positio ,
a d so is at a fa g eate e te t at Je i ho. At TQ it ea hes i toto t o to th ee ete s i depth,
at Je i ho is a out te ti es thi ke . The ele a t diag a s fo TQ a e sho i ef. [ . ] p.
a d . Not u h o e ill e added he e o st atig aph a d a o dati g elated ethods
a d eadi gs, as the fo us ill e o A hite tu e, E gi ee i g a d site pla Hu a Geog aph .
I A hite tu e as i lithi e ide e a d i A t i ge e al st les li ge so eti es e o d e tai
a poste io i a d o e o less a it a il desig ated a d fuzz uppe a d lo e ou da ies. Fo
a A hite tu e o A t st le, the e is a i o atio poi t i spa e-ti e, a el ell-defi ed a d
fi l ide tified, he e so e su essful i o atio got a foothold p io to its e e tual spatio-
te po al diffusio . Adopte s follo i ti e a d spa e the i o ato s of othe , possi l dista t,
pla es a d ti e pe iods. ‘a el ho e e adopte s adopt these i o atio s i ta t, ithout
odif i g the to so e e te t. He e, spatiall a d te po all defi ed su - lassifi atio s of
st les e e ge. Mea ti e, e a hite tu al st les a d A t fo s a appea , hile o-e isti g
fo a hile ith p io A t a d A hite tu e fo s.
Thus, a d i ge e al, the e is a o e lap of oth A hite tu es a d A t fo s a d e tai l of
thei su - lassifi atio s at a spe ifi lo atio a d ti e pe iod. ‘a el does o e o e a oss a
site he e pu it i fo is the e lusi e o a d lasti g fo a e e te ded ti e ho izo . I
this ega d, the settle e t at Catalho uk ight e a e eptio . This pu it i fo see s to e
pa ti ula l ha a te izi g the a ious Natufia phases Ho izo s of the TQ site as ell, gi e the
te po al le gth a d spatial e te t of the Natufia st le.

Figu e . Tell Qa a el s ea liest a o la e Ea l Natufia A hite tu e st u tu es; ie f o

the “outh. The st u tu es elo g to the BC o st u tio phase a d the a e pu po tedl
a o g the oldest hu a aso st u tu es e a ated to date. The a e at the i i it of the
st u tu e sho i Figu e , to e . “ou e: [ . ].
I all th ee a o-s ale la e s of TQ, o e e ou te s si ila A hite tu e. ‘oughl i ula , pa tl
i g ou d st u tu es, fo i g a s, apses, uasi-ellipti al, a d uasi- i ula aso e losu es.
These a e all the t pes of st u tu es e ou te ed at TQ, see Figu es , ep ese ti g the
BC a o la e , a d Figu es a d ep ese ti g late a o la e s . The E gi ee i g
asso iated ith the st u tu es ate ial is uite si ple, a d asi all u ha ged th oughout the
Epipaleolithi to the PPNB pe iod a out fi e ille ia, i di ati e of e t e el slo speeds of
ha ge : pe les to s all sto es, i d highl i egula ashla o st u tio possi l i ol i g a
i te e i g age t, a ildl adhesi e ud su sta e. This is a e i po ta t A hite tu e elated
E olutio a fi di g. I all st u tu es, at all a o st ata e posed, o e does ot e ou te la ge
s ale aso o st u tio , let alo e egalithi st u tu es.
The losest o e o es to so e egula i desig , la ge aso o tai i g lo ks, sto e
e losu e is at “ ua e J- , K- , “t atu V, le el , to e this is the a heologists ide tifi atio
of the sto e e losu e , see [ . ] p. , Figu e a d sho i Figu e he e. The diag a
lea l sho s that the la gest sto e used as o o e tha lo g, ith a idth of o o e
tha a d at ost i thi k ess. O l th ee aso lo ks of this s ale ha e su i ed
a d a e sho i Figu e , ith a fe o o e tha fi e at a s ale a out half of that i size. The
ast ajo it of the o st u tio ate ial is ud, a d s all pe les. It is uite o ious that the
du a ilit of these st u tu es i te s of ithsta di g ph si al p essu e f o eithe ea th uakes
o e e assaults as i i al. The e ti e set of la e s f o the Epipaleolithi to the PPNB
phase do ot sho ud i k ate ial to ha e ee used i the o st u tio of these st u tu es.
O e a a gue that, la ge sto e lo ks a ha e ee used at ea lie phases, the possi l
e led a d e-used at late o st u tio , o top i situ o else he e. These i agi a la ge i
s ale sto e lo ks, ti e a ha e filte ed out. This a ha e ee a easo h these igge
lo ks do ot sho up o the e. Ho e e , the e is a solutel o e ide e to suppo t the
fou datio s of egalithi o st u tio at a of the phases o e i g the pe iod i uestio , a d
this asse tio ot ade the a heologists of TQ, a d just ought up he e as a histo iog aphi
s e a io e ai s a h potheti al a d i the eal of i possi ilit ased o the u e t e ide e
u o e ed thus fa at TQ o i othe egio al sites, a d also o a hite to i speeds of ha ge.
I fa t, the oldest i ula st u tu e the a heologists to e e ou te ed efo e ea hi g
ultu all ste ile g ou d floo , that is, hi h does ot i ol e hu a l ade st u tu es elo
it , is o fou datio s of a ea lie st u tu e du ed to e the a heologists . It had alls
ith thi k ess half as u h as that of the st u tu e a o e it. This is a i di atio that the olde
st u tu e a ha e ee a ea l phase of se i o adi ha itatio i ol i g o - i te
ha itatio ; he eas the thi ke i fa t, dou le i thi k ess alls st u tu e a o e it that sho
i Figu e a ha e ee the esult of full s ale ea - ou d sede ta ha itatio . This is the
ti e pe iod of the lo all full- lo effe ts f o the You ge D as, a d the ai phase of the
Natufia A hite tu e speeds of ha ge. TQ a ha e also ee the site he e fo atio of
p oto so io-e o o i - ultu al elites took pla e. The Tell a ha e ee thei eside tial ua te s
site, possi l o tai i g a p oto pala e a d a p oto eligious e te , the fi st i Hu a Histo .
Figu e . Tell Qa a el, la e a o e the oldest o e of the Tell. La e dated to BC; it elo gs
the late Epipaleolithi late Uppe Paleolithi . Its A hite tu e is of the ea l Natufia t pe. The
alls of the - ete ou ti g the alls thi k ess, app o i atel . ete s at a i u lo g
a is st u tu e hi h is efe ed to the a heologi al tea as to e sit o top of a si ila
i shape Epipaleolithi st u tu e u de eath it, la eled to e the a heologists i ha ge
of the e a atio , ith alls half i thi k ess. The i g ou d st u tu e is dated to the iddle o
late the C- dati g o it o tai s so e a iatio th
ille iu BC. “ou e: ef. [ . ].

A st iki g featu e of the site is the u e of hea ths fou d the e, oth i side a d outside the
st u tu es sho i Figu es - . He e, o e ight e safe i suggesti g that thei a u da e
a d elati el high de sit as the esult of eathe a d li ate elated patte s at the ti e.
The i di iduals a d so ial g oups ho uilt a d utilized these st u tu es o iousl had to deal
ith the a o-s ale li ati the lo al You ge D as effe ts a d geog aphi o ditio s a d
thei i o- li ate the e at a high a o e sea le el plateau a d the eathe elated fa to s.
The altitude a o e sea le el a out ete s ; a dese t e i o e t; a d the seaso al
e ui e e ts fo p ote tio the lo al i te s, s o a d ai falls a e so e of the fa to s
dete i i g the a hite to i desig of these st u tu es. O top of these e i o e tal fa to s,
the alls of these st u tu es had to p o ide o e age a d p ote tio f o outside aids so ial
g oups i o petitio ith the eside ts of this settle e t fo esou es a d safet . To assu e
that these st u tu es e e to e s a d fo tifi atio alls i a o te po a defi itio of
these te s ust e dis ou ted. “i ple appli atio of fo e ould i pe il the E gi ee i g ased
st u tu al i teg it of these edifi es. A e e eak late al fo e applied ould ake these
eage st u tu es ollapse, a d u i side the a ould- e seeke s of p ote tio f o
outside aids. Mo eo e , to hi g the i side of these st u tu es f o outside a audi g aide s,
a d thus ge e ati g e e a s all-s ale o flag atio , ould e uite a si ple feat to a o plish.
Figu e . Tell Qa a el st u tu e at PPNA a o e a atio st atig aphi le el o tai i g
Natufia A hite tu e i a BC . The f agile f o a E gi ee i g ie poi t o st u tio
is pa tiall i -g ou d a d o sists ostl of pe les a d ud. Its height ust had ee e
odest. The a heologists o side it to e a to e as ell. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

Vul e a ilit , spe ifi all the tu i g of e ti e st u tu es i to deadl t aps, is the si gle ost
e ide t aspe t of these st u tu es. The o tai e si ple A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g desig
a d o st u tio . “eeki g e i o e tal p ote tio is dete ted as ha i g ee the p i a
o je ti e i uildi g these st u tu es, ot shelte f o so ial th eats. No atte the st u tu es
i te ded so io-e o o i - ultu al fu tio s, these e e ot ea s of ou ti g a se ious
defe se, i gi g i to uestio the use of the te to e . Thei alls thi k ess a out a
ete , a el ea hi g a ete a d a half at ost, at thei ea l stages e e si ple ea s to
attai so e te pe atu e egulatio fo thei e losed spa es. The total height of these
st u tu es at the ti e of thei desig a d o st u tio is u k o . It ould ot ha e ee oe
tha t o ete s, si e geologi al o ditio s ea th uakes ould uite p o a l e de the
u i ha ita le, i a egio p o e to sig ifi a t ea th uakes.

The st u tu e to e . The la gest st u tu e of the fi st a o la e , the a o la e dated at

BC the a heologists, has so e i te esti g desig featu es. The su i i g pa t of the
st u tu e, see Figu e , ade ostl out of pe les, is a app o i ate se i i le ith a
e te sio sho i g at the ightha d side. It is ot at all lea if this st u tu e s o igi al desig as
to e at the fi ish of its o st u tio a app o i ate i le o a apse. Be that as it a , o the
asis of the su i i g o po e t of the st u tu e, a d o the asis of the s aled diag a of the
st u tu e as offe ed the a heologists, o e a de i e the follo i g a hite to i desig
o lusio s, ithout el i g o the assu ptio that the e d p odu t as to e a i le:
 the total a ea take the app o i atel se i i ula as is st u tu e is a out ‘^ / = .
s ua e ete s, he e ‘= ete s; the i te io spa e used fo shelte o a fu tio ,
eside tial o e e o ial o sto age a ea is a out P^ / = s ua e ete s, he e P= ete s;
the total a ea take up the alls is . s ua e ete s; the atio of used spa e to
p ote tio spa e all is a out / . =. , that is the used spa e is o l a out o e thi d of
the suppo t spa e. This is a effi ie easu e e t o i de to e o side ed as a ke
o po e t of a a hite tu al desig of that E a. This effi ie easu e e t o i de ill e
e isited late he the Je i ho to e ill e a al zed, a d i Note at the e d of the pape .

As e tio ed ea lie , the o igi al height of this st u tu e is u k o . U k o is also the t pe

of o e oof it had a d ho this oof as a ho ed o to the aso st u tu e. Theo ies e ist
o that, as is also the i situ a heologi al e ide e hi h poi ts to ti e poles suppo ti g a
oof p o a l ade f o pla t ate ial. The E gi ee i g ased st u tu al sta ilit of su h a oof
is of ou se ope to uestio , as is its ul e a ilit to fi e a d st o g gale fo e i ds a d sto s,
ot to e tio outside aids. A heologi al i situ e ide e, see ef. [ . ] suggests that the
st u tu e su u ed to fi e, as sig s of o side a le o flag atio e e lo ated the
a heologists. It a e full asse ted that the o e of these st u tu es did ot i ol e aso
o st u tio li tels, a ele e t e o e a oss at Te“ o a so t of o elli g, a hite to i
ele e ts hi h appea i Neolithi A hite tu e, post late th ille iu BC ith dol e s a d
passage to s . The st u tu e of Figu e has a floo f o la , edded o pe les, see ef. [ . ].
Fu the o e, it ust e oted that the ele e t of a o thostat is a se t f o all st u tu es
at TQ. O thostats a e o po e ts hi h tie up the aso i g st u tu es of e losu es.
O thostats a e e ou te ed at oth sites, Natufia Je f el-Ah a a d “ulta ia Ne ali Co i, see
ef. [ . ]. The size a d pla e e t of o thostats ithi a i g st u tu e a e ke fa to s i
ide tif i g e olutio i oth a hite tu al desig a d e gi ee i g o st u tio . The g eate the
spa i g a o g o thostats the o e ad a ed the e gi ee i g of the sto e e losu e. “i ila l ,
the size of the o thostat dete i es the e olutio a stage of a i g e losu e. These att i utes
lea l i di ate that the Te ple phase at Ne ali Co i is a su se ue t to the settle e t at Je f el-
Ah a . The la k of o thostats at TQ s e ti e i e to of aso u its of all phases lea l sho s
a a hite to i te po al se ue e: Je f el-Ah a a d Ne ali Co i follo ed TQ. I additio , the
p ese e of a o thostat i a late Natufia st u tu e sig ifies e olutio i Natufia A hite tu e.
TQ: a itadel of the so io-e o o i lo al elite: a p oto it . A fe poi ts ill e ade a out
the pote tial uses a d use s of the spa e i the st u tu e of Figu e , the to e st u tu e as
efe ed to the a heologists i ha ge of the e a atio at TQ. As the ha e suggested, to the
i ediate “outh of the Tell, a o side a le a ou t of la d has ee ide tified as li ked to the
Tell. It is esti ated to e a out fou he ta es ha= , s ua e ete s , see ef. [ . ]. This
la d ould o p ise of oth fa s a d eside es of o ke s fa e s a d othe possi l skilled
o ke s suppo ti g a d go e ed a p oto so ial elite st u tu e that pote tiall ould eside
o o up the setti gs u o e ed the a heologists a d elo gi g to the pe iod BC till
the Natufia PPNB pe iod at a ou d BC.
It a thus e a gued that the t pe of fo tifi atio s o to e s u ea thed the a heologists
e e the eside tial ua te s a d p oto pala es eligious as ell as ad i ist ati e do ai of
the lo al uli g elites at the ti e. The itadel as also the pla e of the uli g lass e opolis. I
ef. [ . ] it is epo ted that g a es o tai i g hu a skeleto s elo gi g to that e a e e
fou d. The usto of a itadel o tai i g the so ial elite s to s a e olutio of the usto of
a house o tai i g the dead i the household is a usto e e ou te do to the M e aea
E a at the itadel of M e ae. He e is a site possi l a o g othe s still to e fou d he e this
usto ight had o igi ated.
I the o te t of a itadel, the spatial a a ge e t allo atio s he e of the populatio sto k
as st atified e o o i a d so ial status i the f a e o k of the e ti e egio su ou di g the
Tell ight p o ide a lue as to the fa to s gi i g ise to su h a spatial dist i utio a d eside tial
patte fo the elite, thei se a ts, a tisa s a d asso iated o ke s of the pala e, thus shapi g
thei eside tial st u tu es fo s i the a e e o ded a d su e ed. The su ou di g a ea
a ha e also a ted as the fi st defe ses of the st u tu es at TQ i te s of p ote ti g it f o
outside th eats, s all i s ale of ou se othi g o pa ed to the outside th eats fa i g
settle e ts a d ities of the B o ze a d I o Ages , as ell as e o o i all suppo ti g it,
atte uati g the eed fo st o ge itadel fo tifi atio s of a late e a. The Tell a ha e also a ted
as the sto age spa e of su plus li esto k a d e essa i e to fo the pala e eside ts as ell
as fo those eeded to su i e pe iods of sho tages a o g the fa i g la o fo e of g ai s f o
fa i g.
O e ight dete t at TQ the ke els of a spatiall dist i uted p oto u a st u tu e ith a p oto
itadel i its idst. It ust e kept i i d that, as the te to e a d fo tifi atio alls a e
te s that o ote diffe e t thi gs at p ese t a d thus atte tio as d a a d autio as
sought as to thei use the a heologists, u de the sa e te s is the otio of a itadel
e plo ed he e. It is ot the highl i a essi le a d hea il defe ded setti g, situated at
sig ifi a t heights a o e g ou d. This is hat is i plied the o te po a use of the te , as
fo e a ple i the ase of the I o Age, th e tu BC, itadels at M e ae a d Hattusa. “ ale
ust e take i to a ou t, as pe eptio of heights a d i a essi ilit e e diffe e t a k the ,
as it as the otio of th eat a d the o posite pu pose a d otio of a itadel .
Co pa ati e ad a tages i itadel li i g o i ed a u e of fa to s: p ote tio f o ad e se
eathe o ditio s a oidi g floods fo i sta e a d lo ki g the No the l i ds as oupled
ith so ial status fo esidi g at a high a o e g ou d le el. This ad a tage ho e e had to e
itigated to the e te t that the elite g oup as ot too u h thus, da ge ousl e o ed f o
the fa la d s o ke s. This ie of a itadel at the Neolithi Ea l , Middle, o Late ight
e plai h a of the a ie t ities e a ated a e lo ated o Tells. Of ou se, the i itial Tell
a had ee o side a l lo e tha the last phase of o st u tio o the , as su essi e
uildi g a ti it a u ulated o e the ille ia aisi g the Tell s height.
“patial do i a e esidi g o top of ou ds a d hills is a i po ta t o po e t i the
u dle of fa to s de o st ati g so ial do i a e o e thei su o di ate so ial lasses the
uli g so ial elites at a ti e pe iod. Citadels e e the sites to house so ial elites a d the top of
a so ial g oup s hie a hi al so ial st u tu e - up till the ti e that the G eek Cit “tates e e
fou ded, he the e ti e populatio of a it o atte its so ial lass o e o o i
p eo upatio as housed i side a it s alls, fo i g o plete Cit -“tates. E jo i g the
ie shed, a d othe o pa ati e ad a tages atta hed to li i g o hills at p ese t a ot ha e
ee pla i g a si ila ole i the lo atio al de isio - aki g of that E a.
Du i g the Neolithi , the fo atio a d site pla of a itadel ust ha e ee gea ed o e
to a ds p ote ti g the eeded i e to of g ai s a d li esto k fo the so ial elite s i ediate
su i al. That o je ti e ight had ee t aded off ith the ai at p ote ti g sla e la o o ki g
at su siste e le els the fields. It is ot su p isi g that a au o hs e ti e skeleto as fou d
i side o e of the houses of TQ. The itadel as a site he e the pala e a d the te ple e e
lo ated a d p ote ted, as ell as the elite s p oto e opolis. All these a ious la d uses e e fo
the fi st ti e i eed of so e atio alizatio a d o fli t esolutio , gi e spa e li itatio s.

“to age oo s is a do i a t o po e t i a itadel s site pla , si e it houses the elite s

esse tial i e to of foodstuff fo a pe ei ed as e essa ti e pe iod. U e tai t o e this
ti e pe iod, a had to a la ge e te t dete i ed the total a ea of the foodstuff o tai i g
spa es, as the a ou t of sto age spa e ust had ee a fu tio of a ti ipated op failu es
o e a ti e ho izo the elite g oup as illi g to spe ulate, as ell as ag i ultu al p odu ti it
of the su ou di g do i ated the elite fields. Thus, so e e o o i sophisti atio i ol i g
foodstuff i e to o t ols pla a ajo ole i the floo pla desig shape a d sha e of a ea
i a itadel. Mo e so at the ea l phases i itadel fo atio tha late , as o e ti e ad a es i
ette ha dli g a d spe ulati g a out op failu es e e oupled ith ette pe fo a e of a
i easi gl o ga ized ag i ultu e.

I easi g etu s to s ale i o u al li i g as the ajo fo e i the eed to agg egate, i

hi h sha ed eed fo a ious t pes of p ote tio a d safet a e i luded i the u dle of fo es
o stituti g these etu s to s ale. It as a ke fa to i dete i i g the, at the ti e, opti u
spatial a d populatio size of a itadel, o l to e ou te ed the pe ei ed egati e e te al
effe ts of agglo e atio s. All these issues f o Hu a Geog aph the autho has dis ussed i
his pape s o a heologi al atte s fou d i ef. [ . ] a d [ . ].
These ele e ta aspe ts of spatial allo atio s o e dete ts i the p oto luste i g of fa ilies
i to s all s ale settle e ts at the ea l Neolithi , the egi i g of p oto ities, possi l fi st
p oto it ei g TQ i the Le a t. “i e the e a atio s at TQ a e ot fi ished, the e ti e size of
the o u it i oth a ea a d esti ated populatio a t e at p ese t full gauged. O e
fi ished, a ette ha dle a e o tai ed i fi di g o ette , esti ati g the size of this possi l
fi st hu a settle e t.
Figu e . Tell Qa a el st u tu e at PPNB i a - BC le el o tai i g late Natufia
t pe A hite tu e ith so e idsize sto e lo ks i ol i g d ashla o st u tio i ed ith
pe les a d ud. This pa tl i g ou d st u tu e is also o side ed the a heologi al tea to
e a to e . “i ila i E gi ee i g as that of Figu e , this st u tu e s height ust ha e ee
odest o o e tha t o ete s – othe ise the st u tu al i teg it of the edifi e o es i to
uestio . These st u tu es, as ell as the populatio size of this itadel settle e t a e
i fo ati e ot o l i ega ds to thei A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g fou datio s o te ts , ut
also e ause the a e i di ati e of the s ale of the settle e t i uestio a d the asso iated
li ked ith egio al settle e ts as ell. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

PPNA/B st u tu es’ A hite tu e at TQ. I Figu es , , a d Figu es .A a d a d .B, so e

TQ st u tu es also ide tified as to e s the a heologi al tea of TQ a e sho . Thei
A hite tu e see Figu e is eithe pa tiall i -g ou d Middle Natufia , o see Figu e Late
Natufia PPNA t pe A hite tu e. Both de o st ate the p ese e of app o i atel ou d
aso o st u tio , ith alls ostl ade out of pe le – although ete o less i size
eso-s ale highl i egula d ashla aso lo k i the o st u tio is also p ese t. This is
de o st ated the e ai s of the st u tu es i Figu e , a d also i Figu es .A. a d .A. .
A Ea l Natufia o st u tio , PPNA, is sho i Figu e . I Figu e .A, a d a t a sitio al
pe iod et ee PPNA a d PPNB st u tu e is sho , so la eled e ause of its C- eadi gs a d
so lassified o the asis of its st atig aph . This is the ou gest of st u tu es u o e ed to date
at TQ. The o ditio these st u tu es e e u o e ed e a atio is of i te est. Both to e s
i Figu es a d .A + a e sho to ha e ee pa tiall de olished. The ause is ot k o ,
although likel it as the esult of ea th uakes.
The use of these st u tu es a t e as e tai ed, although eithe eside tial o as a sto age spa e
of foodstuff ould e a good guess. It is t also uite lea he e a ess to the i te io as
attai ed f o the outside. Poi ts of eg ess f o the i te io a e o e o ious i the ase of the
to e st u tu e sho i Figu e .A. The st u tu e of Figu e .A + also de o st ates a
highe le el of o ple it i the pa titio i g of its i te io spa e, spo ti g t o disti t le els a d
ha i g a la o e ed fi ished floo . It is e likel that this as the eside e of a pe so of high
a ki g ithi the so ial elite st u tu e of that ti e pe iod the e.

Figu e .A. Tell Qa a el. The last Ho izo t a sitio al to PPNB late Natufia st u tu e at
the site. Noti ea le a e a u e of featu es, espe iall the thi k ess of the st atig aphi la e
a o e it, a d the s ale of the al ost i ula sto e e losu e st u tu e. Its dista e f o the
su ou di g st u tu es eigh o i g houses o te ples o ad i ist ati e u its he e the de sit
of eside e is also oti ea le. I eased sophisti atio i the i te io of the st u tu e s spa e,
the floo ate ial a d the all plaste i g a e i di ati e of a e olutio i the edifi e s
A hite tu e a d opti al adaptatio to a ha gi g e i o e t. The p ese e of au ilia spa es
su ou di g the st u tu e is i di ati e of a e ol i g site pla . Mo e du a le a d ette -
p ese ed alls, a e st o g i di atio s of i easi g sophisti atio i the o st u tio of the
edifi e a d a e olutio i uildi g te h ologies. Walls a e ade e plo i g a ious sizes of
pe les a d sto e, a d t i g these ate ials togethe ith ud. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
It is these st u tu es o atte the p e ise i itial phases of the ea liest u its, to e s a d
sho i Figu e ; a d the latest ou gest u its as those sho i Figu e .A, that e e i
e iste e at the ti e that the a heologists of GT suggest eigh o i g ith TQ, GT’s st u tu es
C a d D, La e s III e e o st u ted. No atte the possi le disputes o the C- ased
i te p etatio of the e ide e f o the st u tu es at TQ, it is lea l u fou ded o A hite tu e,
E gi ee i g, a d Hu a Geog aph g ou ds to a gue that these t o t pes of eigh o i g
settle e ts GT a d TQ o-e isted the . The e is a solutel o e ide e that the GT o olithi
egalithi o u e tal o st u tio a e te po all ote i ous ith the st u tu es of TQ.
TQ ot o l does ot possess o olithi egalithi o st u tio , it does ot e e o tai
egalithi A hite tu e. This o lusio ust e ie ed i o ju tio ith the lai s that the
o e dista t f o GT tha TQ settle e t of Te“ affe ted GT. E a i i g Te“ a si ila o lusio
is d a o pa i g GT st u tu es ith st u tu es e a e a out to e ie f o Tell Es-“ulta .

Figu e .A. .. Tell Qa aa el, a othe ie of the st u tu e sho i Figu e .A. . The
pa titio i g of the i te io spa e is sho , as a e the eg ess spots f o the i te io to the outside
a ea. The postholes su ou di g the st u tu e ould had ee spots to pla e oode poles to
suppo t a oof, a d also spa es fo au ilia to the st u tu e uses su h as sto age a d othe
a illa spa es . The st u tu e ep ese ts the last phases of o st u tio lo ated thus fa at
Tell Qa a el, a d it is fou d i se to J- , K- ot to e o fused ith the st u tu es of Figu es
a d of the a heologi al site. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
Neolithi la d te u e at TQ a d the sp eadi g of Ag i ultu e. O e of the ajo e e ts i Hu a
Histo has ee the post You ge D as sp eadi g of Ag i ultu e i to Weste Eu asia a d
No the Af i a a d also to othe a eas of Asia, East of the Fe tile C es e t . At TQ e a ha e
the ke els of this histo i e e t, a d its possi le auses. These auses ight e i p i ted o , as
ell as i plied , the e uses a d use s of the st u tu es e a e looki g at i the set of Figu es
– .B, a d the lo atio of these elite eside tial u its. Quite possi l ad i ist ati e p oto
palatial, e likel eligious p oto te ple, a d e tai l holesale sto age fa ilities, togethe
ith a illa at the ti e spa es, a e the fi st la d uses of these p i e a ho lo atio s. The ast
a ou t of fe tile la ds su ou di g the Tell as the a ket a ea i a Ce t al Pla e Theo
o te t of Hu a , E o o i , “patial Geog aph a d the do ai of the elite g oup o t ol o e
the fe tile plateau of ‘i e Qouei s spa e. Ce tai l , lu u ious fo the the p e aili g eside tial
sta da ds of the Uppe Paleolithi s a e o u al d elli g a o odatio s, the Epipaleolithi
a d Ea l Natufia ultu es that i ha ited TQ ust ha e o side ed these u its as ep ese ti g
a ua tu leap i eside tial a d li i g ualit a d o fo t as ell as p i a a d safet .

Figu e .B. Tell Qa a el a heologi al site. A app o i atel i ula , pa tl i -g ou d, sto e

e losu e st u tu e o e ed ud ith a la floo at s ua e J- , K- agai , ot to e o fused
ith the p io st u tu es desig atio s at the site. The A hite tu e is Late Natufia ith
sophisti ated i te io spa e pa titio i g. The st u tu e ust had ee pa t of the eside tial
ua te s of a uppe e helo elite fa il . “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
It as the good ti es of a p e-You ge D as e i o e t, he the uasi o adi life st le of
hu te -gathe e s high spatial o ilit , as g aduall t a sitio i g i to a sede ta lo o ilit
ut di e sified i e plo e t a d p odu tio as ell as o su ptio life st le. It as e o i g
a p i a il ag i ultu e fa i g, fishe ies, a i al hus a d a d fo est e o o . But it as
fa o e sophisti ated tha that. E o o i a ti it i ol ed also the i i g of o sidia a d fli t;
t ade o ajo la d paths a d p oto oads a d th ough uite possi l i e i e p oto t a spo t;
a ufa tu i g of a host of p odu ts a gi g f o sto e tools a d p oto sto e a d la household
applia es a d ute sils, as ell as a atte of offe si e a d defe si e eapo s, uildi g
ate ials sto es, ud i ks a d la , a d the o st u tio of houses, hea ths a d p oto kil s.
It i luded the p odu tio of a ious i ple e ts e t a ted f o pla ts a d a i al o es, a d
of ou se p oto je el a d de o ati e A t. But a e ost i po ta tl , it ust had p odu ed
e pe ts i a ou ti g a d e o d keepi g, spe ialized o ke s likel i high de a d the uli g
elite. Di isio of la o as getti g u de a . A d ith it a e spe ializatio i la d uses.

Figu e .C. . A tifa t fou d at Tell Qa a el, i di ati e of the “tate of the A t the . “ou e of
photo: ef. [ . ].
Di isio of la o , spe ializatio i p odu tio a d a ilit to t ade, as ell as assisti g the uli g
elite st u tu e fo ad i ist atio a d so ial se i es ostl eligious p a ti es a d o se a es
e e e o i g a e skills of i po ta e to the elites a d sou es of so io-e o o i p estige. A
asso iate lass to the uli g fa ilies as fo i g, ei g pla ed at the tote so ial pole et ee
the la d o e s those ho e e the fi st settle s a d pla ed a stake o la d a d e a e the de
facto ule s a d the sla e la o ho se ed the a d fa ed fo the i e ha ge fo
p ote tio a d so e gua a tee to su siste e li i g.
Fu e al p a ti es a d o ditio s of the hu a skeleto s fou d at the site, see ef. [ . ]
des i i g a out skeleto s e ai s at TQ, alo g ith lithi e ide e, see ef. [ . ] offe a
gli pse i to thei so ial life. These li ited fi ds see to i di ate a p ospe ous elati el iole e-
f ee so ial elite g oup ust had esided the o , a d at sele ted a eas a ou d, the Tell. The
su ou di g la d ass, he e the ast ajo it of the Natufia i di iduals e likel esided,
has ot ee e a ated a d ost likel thei eside tial ua te s did ot su i e the ille ia.
De og aphi all , the total populatio esidi g at TQ s e t al eside tial ua te s the so ial elite
g oup ust had ee a out a te th pf the total populatio size of the e ti e a ea, hi h i luded
the fields elo gi g to the Tell s a ket a ea ith a u h lo e a e age eside tial de sit tha
the Tell s. The a tisa a d skills ea i g i te ediate so ial lass ust had ee at least t i e
possi l th ee ti es the populatio size of the elite g oup, esidi g at a a ea a out e ual to half
the size of the elite s eside tial ua te s at the Tell, o a lose su - e te , a d at a de sit of
a out t o to th ee ti es the de sit of the so ial elite s ua te s. These a e app o i ate
esti ates f o t pi al eside tial patte s of o u ities, to a g eat e te t ha i g e ai ed
d a i all sta le o e spa e-ti e. “ee so e a al sis a d dis ussio of these topi s i ef. [ . ].

Figu e .C. . Tell Qa a el; the a heologists a uette odel of e o st u tio sho i g a
possi le e sio of the settle e t s spatial agg egate fo . The e phasis o e ta gula
o figu atio s depi ti g the eside tial ua te s of the uli g elite lass a d its skilled o ke s
a d asso iates ould e ought i to uestio , gi e the fo s of the i di idual st u tu es
u o e ed. Questio s a also e aised ega di g its o e all s ale. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
A e o st u tio of the settle e t i effe t a p oto illage has ee offe ed the TQ
a heologists. It is sho i the a uette of Figu e .C. . Of ou se, o e a easil e isio a
slightl diffe e t e o st u tio , highlighti g the ou d ess to e ele e t of ea h u it a d
a f ee la d use patte ith less e ta gula odula igidit i the spatial allo atio s he a
ithi the o pou d. “u h a suggested he e s he a ould ha e ee o e app op iate i
epli ati g the settle e t s o e all o pholog the , gi e the shapes of uildi g e see i
Figu es – . This t pe of site pla o pholog a d o de ight e o e app op iate fo a
“ulta ia ased A hite tu e like fo e a ple that at Catalho uk athe tha a Natufia o e.
A othe poi t of possi le o te tio ight e the s ale of the o u it i this p oto illage,
as dis ussed al ead . TQ as eithe a fa e s fa house o a attle a h. It as a p oto
o u it , the e egi i g of a u a a ea . It ust e kept i i d that the ke fa to
he e i dete i i g the size a d de sit i the st u tu es of the a uette is so io-e o o i a d
ultu al i atu e. Whethe o e is to assu e that all fa la o e s e e i fa t esidi g i these
d elli gs o ot is a p ofou d uestio i eed of i depth so io-e o o i a al sis. Ho e e ,
this i e se i the lite atu e su je t, ill o l e dealt ith he e i su a . It is the asse tio
of this autho that o l the so ial elite the p oto ki g o p oto p iest togethe ith his/he
i ediate asso iate lass e e the eside ts the e.
Ho e e , o atte the positio o e is to take o this so ial st atifi atio a d eside tial patte ,
this is a se o da issue. The p i a , a d fa the ost i po ta t, fa to i the La d Use a d
“ite Pla luep i t of the Tell a d its e i o s is the la d te u e i use a d o e ship ights
issue. Although o iousl o fo al la d a kets a d eal estate p i es e e et de eloped,
udi e ta la d alues e e fo ed as a esult of the spe ializatio of the la d spa e. Li i g
o Tells ust had o e ed a d e tailed the p ese e of a la d p e iu . Due to la k of
e ide e, ho e e , o possi le a s e s to this asi uestio ega di g la d a kets i the
Neolithi , the itadel elated p opositio s put fo a d e ai at the h pothesis le el. But the
a e ased o the i plied o ditio s f o the o se ed eside tial patte s o the Tell. It ust
e easo a l suggested that the ights to o la d elo ged to the Tell d elle s. These d elle s
ould ot e ist as a self-suppo ti g o u it a d eside tial u it u de su h elati el lu u
a o odatio s at the s ale e a ated. The eeded fa e s a d o ke s a d sla es to suppo t
thei life st le. The the You ge D as pe iod a e. As e dis ussed ea lie , the a i g
apa it of the site as st ai ed a d e e tuall it as ea hed a d the e eeded. As the e d of
the la ge-i -s ale old spell as ea i g, a d the d i pa ts e e e edi g alo g the Asia Mi o
hi te la d a d the Medite a ea oastal li es, so e of the su plus fa e s i fa i g a d
a i al hus a d , e e p oto attle a he s a d la d s ale fa e s a d othe skilled o ke s
i thei st uggle fo su i al de ided to seek ette pastu es else he e. The si pl pa ked up
a d left. Ha dl e e the a a e the that so doi g the e e so i g the seeds fo Hu a it
g eatest ad e tu e – the lau hi g of the Neolithi ‘e olutio . I [ . ] the autho outli ed the
de i p o ess that this spatial a d te po al step ise out- ig atio flo e tailed. I a es, a d
i t a elli g e e lo ge dista es, the th ille iu BC the Nea Easte fa e s had
ea hed the B itish Isles. It as a e o ple flo , ith sha p a d s ooth edges, dis o ti uous
a d o ti uous at ti es, o u i g i leaps a d ou ds, ith ultiple o igi s a d desti atio s.
The full a al ti al fo ulatio of this epi , fi e ille ia i du atio , flo is still a aiti g a full
des iptio . But that o ple spatio-te po al flo as ot a e e populatio sto k flo . It as
o i ed ith pa allel o e e ts fello t a ele s, pi ked up o the a . It e tailed flo s of
Cultu e, ‘eligio , Te h olog , A hite tu e a d A t. Alo g ith the ag i ultu e elated deities of
the Fe tile C es e t, e ol ed e sio s of Natufia a d “ulta ia A t a d A hite tu e also
t a eled alo g the o ti e tal a d a iti e outes to No th-West Eu ope. I so doi g, the also
e ol ed. But thei oots a e fou d deep i to the st u tu es e a al ze i this pape , a ou d the
foothills su ou di g the Tells of the Le a t. Tell Qa a el a d Je i ho pote tiall e e t o ajo
sou es of that flo that shaped the fo tu es of Hu a it o e the e sui g te ille ia.

Figu e .C. . Tell Qa a el, lithi fi ds. The a e i di ati e of the A t a d Te h olog a aila le
i the PPNA/B pe iod i the Uppe Le a t egio of Eu asia. “ou e: ef. [ . ].
The lithi e ide e at TQ. Pa t of the A heolog of TQ deals ith a i h i e to a d epe toi e
of lithi fi ds i the site s diffe e t a o la e s. A fe of these u e ous o ile a tifa ts a e
sho i Figu es .C. a d .C. . A i te esti g aspe t of the lithi e ide e is the elati e
pletho a of fli t a d ot o sidia tools fou d i situ. Of ou se, tools a d potte she ds a e
oto ious a heologi al a tifa ts, a d the ust e looked at a d i te p eted e a efull .
Bei g o ile ite s, thei o igi s, a ufa tu i g a d t a spo t as ell as thei a tisti ei s a d
histo iog aph of thei su essi e p o e a es a e la gel u k o a d uite diffi ult to t a e.
Thei alue as a heologi al e ide e is fa i fe io to the o espo di g alue of i o ile
st u tu es a d thei A hite tu e. Isotopi e ide e of the a ate ial used ight suppl
alua le a d o ete e ide e i ega ds to the i i g lo atio thus t a spo t li ks a d ultu al
as ell as so io-e o o i t ade- elated histo ies of these a tifa ts o igi al pa t of thei
histo ies. But the a offe little a out thei o e all h o olog , aki g a d se ue i g i
p o e a e. O l o pa ati e a al ses a supple e t a d offe so e i sights i to these
a tifa ts p o e a e. But that pa t of the a ati e is uite pa tial a d a atte of i te p etatio
of e ide e su je t to o side a le de ate. No atte the li itatio s of A hite tu e elated
e ide e, the lithi e ide e is su je t to u h o e se e e uestio i g. I ega ds to the fli t
o po e t of the ajo it of tools fou d i situ at TQ, a fe otes a e a a ted. TQ is at the
“outhe o de s of Asia Mi o , a sou e of sig ifi a t a ou t of o sidia . O the othe ha d,
fli t sou es a e fu the a a a d thus less a essi le tha o espo di g o sidia sou es. It
ould had ee e t e el helpful if the sou e of the fli t tools fou d i situ at TQ e e to e
ide tified he i al a al sis. To this date, a d to this autho s k o ledge, thei a ate ial
sou es ha e t ee ide tified. Wh as fli t the a ate ial the g eat ajo it of the tools
fou d at TQ e e ade, a d ot o sidia is a uestio i eed of a a s e a d till the it
e ai s a ope uestio . A i fo ati e sou e o fli t is ef. [ . ], a d o fli t a d o sidia
a d thei sou es is ef. [ . ]. “i e this is i te ded to e a pape o the A hite tu e of the site
a d ot its o ile lithi e ide e ot u h o e ill e added he e o this topi .
“o e o lusio s f o Tell Qa a el. E e a u so e ie a asual ot t ai ed i
A hite tu e eade ould e og ize that the A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g of the st u tu es
e a ated a d the A t i the o ile a tifa ts fou d at the e a atio site of TQ do ot sha e
u h ith the e ui ale t o es at GT. Most of all, a d esides thei o pholog a d o st u tio
details, the a e ot of the sa e s ale. The do ot o tai the egalithi o oliths o thostats
a d pilla s of GT. The do ot ha e al ost a thi g i o o ith the A t i i o og aph a d
ela o ate detail a ed o the GT sto e e losu es o olithi egaliths. But the e ie of the
site at TQ e t a step fu the . The a al sis of these st u tu es a d the a eful e o di g of thei
e gi ee i g a d a hite to i ele e ts allo ed fo a ough outli e of a E olutio a Theo i
Ea l A hite tu e. The e a i atio of the Ph si al a d Hu a Geog aph i ol i g oth
“patial, E o o i s a d De og aph o po e ts of the site, allo ed also fo a i te p etatio
of the La d Use a d “ite Pla of the a ea at the Tell a d a ou d it. This a al sis he e affo ded
the de i atio of a so io- ultu al s e a io of so ial st atifi atio alo g ith di isio of la o ,
la d use spe ializatio , a d a p oto la d alues s ste . Mo eo e , a e pla atio of the post-
You ge D as e e t of out- ig atio of Ag i ultu e a d fa e s f o the Fe tile C es e t
to a ds Eu ope as offe ed. It as li ked to a so ial st atifi atio i a hie a h of so io-
e o o i lasses, to the likel p e aili g la d o e ship patte s, a d the ea hi g of the lo al
e i o e t s a i g apa ities du i g the You ge D as e e t a d i ediatel follo i g it.
‘elie i g that e ess apa it of fa la o , o e the li ate i p o ed afte the e edi g of the
se e e You ge D as elated i pa ts to the No th a d West, ust ha e ee the push fa to
ehi d the t igge i g of the la ge s ale a d lo g-te out- ig atio o e e t that sp ead
ag i ultu e, its gods, the de i ati es o igi all of the Natufia a d late of the “ulta ia
A hite tu es a d E gi ee i g ethods a d te h i ues i to Weste Eu asia, No the Af i a
a d else he e.
A fe otes o a heologi al sedi e tatio a d st atig aph . Ea lie , the o k Ed a d Ha is
o the la s of st atig aph a d the asso iated odel as e tio ed. Fo the i te ested eade ,
a d o e efe e es, see [ . ] a d [ . ]. This is ot a pape o tai i g o k that is i te ded
to fo us o su h su je ts. No etheless, a fe o e ts a e i o de , o this e o ple topi ,
i ol i g a e o ple ph si al a d geologi al p o ess, that of sedi e tatio a d fo atio of
a heologi al st atig aph . To these topi s o e ould add the iologi al p o ess of sedi e tatio
des i ed Cha les Da i as ell. “ee o this su je t ef. [ . ]. It a ui es additio al i po t,
he Tells a e i ol ed a d Hu a Geog aph , hile o l e ti all dug t e hes a e dug a d
ot o plete -d ho izo tal a d e ti al dis o e is possi le - fo a host of fa to s. It is o the
h o ologi al issues asso iated ith the st atig aph of Tells, a d the p ese e of a e o ple
set of fa to s i luded i the u dle of fo es o t i uti g to sedi e tatio , that the follo i g
ief o e ts a e ade. Tells, to the e te t that the a e ot atu al geologi al hills a
o i atio of o k fo atio s a d soils Geolog , ut the p odu t of so ial a d spatial d a i
p o esses i ol i g su essi e st ata of hu a ha itatio a d la e s of hu a l ade a d
dest o ed st u tu es, de o st ate a o ple it hi h p ese ts sig ifi a t halle ges. This is
si pl e ause, ea lie eated st u tu es, as a esult of eithe hu a o atu all o u i g
e e ts fo e a ple ea th uakes a fall o top of late uilt st u tu es. Co se ue tl , the a
iolate the asi p i iple i st atig aph that has ea lie st u tu es la i g elo late o es.
Depth i st atig aph a also p ese t the follo i g ou te i tuiti e phe o e o : ea lie ade
st u tu es a appea u h lose to the su fa e tha late ade o es. This is espe iall t ue
he Tells a e i ol ed, the top la e of hi h a e ought up to the su fa e as a esult of soil
e osio d a i s. Whe eas, as hu a spatial dist i utio of a e t al o u it i itiall lo ated
at the su it o atu al hill slopes high a o e g ou d, to a oid floodi g a o g othe easo s,
e e tuall e pa ded a d sp ead out to a ds the foothills of the Tell a d e o d i to the
adja e t flatla ds u de so io-spatial d a i s, e e o u ities a e fou d do hill a d o
flatla ds. As the esult of soil e osio ho e e , these flatla ds a e filled ith sedi e t
ought do hill f o the Tell, thus u i g the late st u tu es hile e eali g the ea l o es.
I su a , these o e ts de o st ate h st atig aphi e ide e ust e i te p eted
u de a o flue e of fa to s, ot all i ediatel appa e t, he e e a efull .
 PART . Tell El-“ulta : the fi st “ulta ia itadel of the la gest uli g elite to date
B ief I t odu tio . We o s it h atte tio to a site hi h due to its lithi e ide e is
efe e ed the GT a heologists i the des iptio of GT the TQ site is ot . “i e e do ot
fo us o lithi e ide e i this pape ut o A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g as ell as Hu a
Geog aph , a fe spe ifi o u e ts A hite tu e at Tell Es-“ulta Te“ ill e e ie ed. The
a e: a st u tu e hi h ep ese ts the “ulta ia phase i p e-potte Neolithi A hite tu e; the
to e of Je i ho a d the Neolithi all of Je i ho. A ote at the outset is eeded. The Neolithi
all of Je i ho is ot the Ea l B o ze Age all ith the sto e e et e t, a etai i g aso
all suppo ti g a ud i k fo tifi atio st u tu e o top of it a d ha i g u e ous to e s,
e i li g a spatial e pa sio of the Neolithi phase of Te“. The B o ze Age all has ee the
sou e of o t o e s a d o fusio due to Bi li al efe e es e o eousl att i uted to it. It is
o e of a alls e ou te ed at Te“ s o ple st atig aph .

Figu e . . The a e a atio s at Tell Es-“ulta . # is the K. Ke o Weste t e h; A-G

a e the L. Neg i - fi st stage e a atio s. “ou e of diag a : ef. [ . ].

A hite tu e, E gi ee i g a d Hu a Geog aph at Te“. ‘efe e es ill e ade he e to the

pu li atio s the a heologist i ha ge of the ost e e t e a atio s at Te“, hi h as
a ied out du i g the pe iod – fi st stage a d the - dig du i g a se o d
stage , Lo e zo Nig o, see ef. [ . ] a d its a e pages. Additio al eas a essi le ate ial
othe esea he s, like fo i sta e the o k epo ted i ef. [ . ] ill also e e a i ed a d
iti ued. The lassi al sou e o Je i ho is of ou se Kathlee M. Ke o s epo ts, ef. [ . ] -
[ . ]. As al ead oted the a heologi al o k o Te“ is ot o t o e s f ee a d a ie s
e p essed a e fa f o ei g u i e sall a epted i the a heologi al o u it fo a host of
fa to s. Although the details su ou di g the a A hite tu es of the Te“ site a e o ple , as
pat hes of diffe e t ho izo tal ollage of spatial pat hes a d e ti al la e s of st atig aph
i te i gle i a o ple e of A heolog , Histo , M th, a d A hite tu e, the ough outli e
of the Tell is si ple a d st aight fo a d.

Figu e . . Tell Es-“ulta ; a Google Ea th ap of the site i the a ie t it of Je i ho at a out

ete s elo “ea le el. The fe tile fields that suppo ted the Tell s a ious o e ti e so ial
elites still su ou d the Hill, espe iall to the East a d “outh. The ai t e h dug a heologist
Kathl Ke o i the s is sho at the Weste side. The a t e hes dug o e the last
e tu a e sho i Figu e . , i ludi g the t e hes dug Lo e zo Nig o i his i -t o-stage
e a atio s, the – pe iod a d the ea of the - pe iod. The Ai Es-
“ulta sp i gs a e at the Easte side of the Tell, just “outh of e te . No th is st aight up. “ou e
of the ap: the autho , f o a pu li do ai / / Google Ea th ap soft a e p og a .

The a heologi al outli e of Te“ ould e des i ed as t o ajo phases of A hite tu e, a ked
t o ajo h o ologi al pe iods. O e st et hes th ough the p e-potte Neolithi B pe iod;
a d a othe o e s the Ea l B o ze Age, at the Neolithi to the B o ze Age ou da . These t o
pe iods a e li ked a al ost o plete hiatus of sig ifi a t o u e tal o st u tio a ti it
at the Tell. These t o ou da ies, the th ille iu t a sitio et ee p e-potte Neolithi to
potte Neolithi , a d the i a BC a ke a e ajo poi ts i the A heolog of the Le a t
a d ti e a ke s that defi e all th ee of the sites e plo ed i this pape . F o a e olutio a
d a i sta d poi t the a e ha a te ized as follo s: A athe si ple elati el slo otio
eight ille ia lo g pe iod of o st u tio the to BC f a e as pu tuated fast
o i g t o ea l at the PPNA to PPNB ou da , a d the PPNB to potte Neolithi ou da
t a sitio s, a d a late the Neolithi to the Ea l B o ze Age, – BC ou da phases.
It as follo ed a a age of elati el fast th ee ille ia lo g phase BC – AD
i ol i g tu ule t a d elati el apid ha ges. This stud ai s at a d o e t ates o the fi st
fi e ille ia of that eight ille ia lo g pe iod. The PPNA to PPNB ou da a d the Neolithi
to the B o ze Age ou da ies e e a ked also the uild-up of t o ajo alls at Je i ho.
A ea l Neolithi ith oots i the iddle th ille iu BC i itial s all-i -s ale settle e t
ade out of seaso al eside es fo pasto al o ads , see ef. [ . ] o this h o olog , lo ated
o the Je i ho ou d, g e i the e sui g t o to th ee ille ia to a siza le itadel i the p e-
potte Neolithi pe iod. Te“ as a slo l de elopi g itadel du i g the th to the th ille iu
BC pe iod, a d these d a i s i pa ti ula ill e the fo us of the o k he e. E e tuall , it is
ot e lea at hat speeds a d u de hat ultu al o ditio s, the o u it g e i the
post th
ille iu BC a d spatiall e pa ded e o d a d es aped the o fi es of the Neolithi
settle e t s aso all ph si al ou da to the East of the ou d. B the Ea l B o ze Age,
the spatiall e pa ded o de s had ea hed spatial li its deli eated a B o ze Age, la ge-i -
s ale all, the s ale of hi h the Le a t a d the Weste Eu asia ‘egio had e e see . It full
e i led the de og aphi all a d spatiall e plodi g o u it at the itadel, possi l the
la gest i the e ti e Fe tile C es e t, as it app oa hed the Neolithi to the Ea l B o ze Age
ou da . O that all is hat ost of the o k L. Nig o a d his asso iates o e t ated.
Ho e e , this aspe t of the o u e t at Te“ ill ot p eo up the a al sis he e. No etheless,
it ust e oted that the BC to the BC spatial g o th at the Tell did t take pla e o
i gi te ito . P io o st u tio as the e, although the full spe ifi atio s a d A hite tu e of
that o st u tio phase is still u lea a d still la i g u ied u de the Tell s soil. Of ou se,
Je i ho s B o ze Age all is hat has att a ted o ld ide atte tio , ostl due to its Bi li al
asso iatio s. As it has ee a pl de o st ated A heolog , efe e es to it fou d i the
He e Bi le o the Ch istia Old Testa e t a e h o ologi all i a u ate a d la gel
lege da . The a e ot ased o o ete a d do u e ted histo i al a d a heologi al
e ide e. He e, f o the olu i ous lite atu e o Te“ o l sele ted efe e es ill e ade to
the e te t that the ea di e tl o the dis ussio a out the A hite tu e, E gi ee i g a d
Hu a Geog aph o te ts of the Neolithi o u e ts al ead e tio ed a d spe ifi all the
“ulta ia A hite tu e site s featu es a d ilieu.
Ma st ata of Histo at so e ou t o e tha t o doze disti t la e s of A hite tu e,
A heolog a d Histo a e asso iated ith a d eshed at Te“. Ho e e , o l the ea liest th
to th ille iu BC ud i k a d aso elated o st u tio A hite tu e ill e the fo us
of this pape . Je i ho offe s a u i ue i do i to a set of o ple ho izo tal ollage a d e ti al
supe positio of ultiple A hite tu es. “u essi e la e s a d eigh o i g pat hes of
o st u tio ithi a - ille iu lo g ho izo tal a d e ti al st atig aph , see [ . ], ha e
a u ulated i ti e. The ha e d a i all i te a ted. The ha e eated at p ese t a
a alga ated i -d Tell of a out , s ua e ete s i total a ea, a elo gated ellipsoid of
a out ete s alo g its i o a is a d app o i atel ete s alo g its ajo a is at
g ou d le el, a d a out ete s i height. The . he ta es of a ou d e eals a
u i te upted o ti uu of a hite tu al phases affo di g us a u i ue peak i to the E olutio
of Hu a it s o ple e of Weste Eu asia A hite tu e. Te“ a d its spatial eigh o hood,
hi h e te ds all the a do to a d e o passes the p ese t ode it , suppl a a a of
spatio-te po al se ue es, ultu all a ied a hite to i spe i e s that ha e oales ed o e
the ille ia, eati g a la o ato fo stud i g ille ial i ti e-s ale “o io-“patial D a i s.
Ho e e , f o the e ti e ook of Je i ho, o l the fe fi st pages ill e ead.
Tell Es-“ulta , Tell Qa a el a d Go ekli Tepe. The e a e u e ous si ila ities i i oa d
a o Cli ate, Ph si al a d Hu a – E o o i , De og aphi a d “patial - Geog aph ,
A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g et ee TQ a d Te“. No e of these e i o e tal si ila ities,
Hu a Geog aph o ditio s, as ell as a hite to i a d e gi ee i g e ui ale es poi t to
GT s site as ei g a pla e a d a ti e th
till th ille iu BC he e a d he the
A hite tu es see at these t o Tells o igi ated. I fa t, to the o t a , the all poi t to these
t o Tells a o g a othe sites i the oade No the a d Easte se tio s of the Fe tile
C es e t as ei g the o igi s of a hite to i o st u tio phases o tai i g p eli i a
a het pal desig s, o phologies a d ate ials that e ded up, i fa o e sophisti ated a d
o ple o figu atio s a d at a u h la ge s ale, i ol i g o olithi egalithi o st u tio
a d at a fa late date to the t pe of A hite tu e e o se e at GT. Co se ue tl , e a e fo ed
to o lude that GT is a su se ue t a d a lo g shot a heologi al site, i hi h the
A hite tu e, E gi ee i g a d A t elated i flue es f o oth Tells TQ a d Te“ oupled ith
the te h ologi al ad a e e ts of a su se ue t ti e f a e the - BC Chal olithi
pe iod pla ed out.
TQ a d Te“ o pa a le featu es. Ph si al si ila ities e ist et ee the t o sites, as it ill e
sho sho tl . Be o d these ualitati e a d, to a e te t also, ua titati e si ila ities the e is,
ho e e , a deepe e olutio a hai li k et ee the . The t o Tells a e su h that the fa
s alle i s ale Tell TQ had also a ea lie i itial o st u tio phase, a ele e t o siste t
ith e olutio a p i iples i A hite tu e a d Hu a Geog aph ega di g the t o top
setti gs i thei espe ti e hie a hies. Ha i g satisfied this e olutio a p i iple, the fo us is
o o thei spe ifi si ila ities a d diffe e e, oth sig ifi a t. I a al zi g thei o o alities
a d disti tio s the fi st steps a e take i fo ulati g a E olutio a Theo of A hite tu e.
Fi st, a e ie of the t o Tells ajo diffe e es.
Whe eas, TQ s a hite to i ho izo tal ollage a d e ti al supe positio of states i luded a
the Epipaleolithi th
ille iu BC st u tu e; the th ille iu BC a d th ille iu
BC Natufia PPNA st u tu es; a d the th ille iu BC t a sitio al PPNB A hite tu e the J-
 , K- ou d st u tu es of Figu es .A. , . Whe eas, TQ i luded the odest i s ale ut spatio-
te po all odal BC st u tu e to e of Figu e a d its ho izo tal eigh o i g
st u tu es of Figu e , as ell as its e ti al st atig aphi fou datio s, st u tu e to e .
Whe eas, TQ s A hite tu e st le th oughout these phases ha ged little, e ai i g asi all a
o phologi all ho oge eous Natufia A hite tu e. Whe eas, TQ life le lasted a out th ee
to fou ille ia. A d he eas, TQ is at a out ete s a o e “ea le el.

All that ust e o t asted ith the o espo di g o pa a le diffe i g att i utes of Te“.
Te“ is lo ated at a out ete s elo “ea le el. Te“ spo ts i a spa of a out a ille iu i
the PPNA – PPNB ou da the th ille iu BC th ee disti tl diffe e t a d fu tio all as
ell as o phologi all dis-si ila ut odal o u e ts a d A hite tu es eshed at the site:
a the fi st Je i ho aso all, see Figu e ; the Je i ho to e a o u e t ith a u e t
esti ated o st u tio date a i g et ee the – BC a d as it ill e a gued it ould
i fa t e a ea l th
ille iu BC o u e t , see Figu es .a a d . ; a d the th to th
ille iu BC “ulta ia o u it of st u tu es, see Figu e . It is u lea f o the u e tl
a aila le lite atu e a d the a ious i te p etatio s of the e isti g ph si al e ide e hi h as
uilt fi st a d he e a tl , as ell as hat thei fu tio as. This autho ill a gue, o
A hite tu e ased e ide e, that the all p e eded a d possi l as u h as a ille iu
the aisi g of the t u ated o e-like to e , a d that thei fu tio s e e ultiple. Te“ s life
le has lasted fo o e tha te ille ia, assu i g a i itial sede ta ha itatio pe iod at
least si e the th
ille iu BC possi l ea lie so e o adi ha itatio at the Tell ould
st et h i to the iddle th ille iu BC as al ead oted . The a ie t it of Je i ho is still
ali e to this da - ith hu a a ti it tea i g a ou d the Tell i its i ediate e i o s, as is
ultu al o fli t, a so ial ha a te isti ith appa e tl lo g legs i Histo a d p e-Histo the e.
Although the No the ou d TQ had a ea lie sta t due to its lo atio al o pa ati e
ad a tages – lose to the Tau us ou tai a ge, possi l , the Tell Es-“ulta lasted lo ge a d
su passed TQ i s ale, that is, i populatio a d a eal size, as ell as o e all de sities.
No , the a ou ti g of the t o Tells si ila ities.
Both setti gs ep ese t hu a settle e t a ti it o Tells. Both a e lose to i e s a d f esh
ate sou es. Both appea ed du i g the You ge D as, ut flou ished afte the effe ts f o the
You ge D as i thei espe ti e egio s e eded. At the ti e of its i itial phase of o st u tio
hethe it as the all o the to e atte s little Te“ ust ha e ee the do i a t setti g
i the oade ‘egio s spatiall li ked hie a hies of asso iate setti gs. A d so ust ha e ee
the site at TQ the e is o e ide e to the o t a . F o u e tl a aila le e ide e the e is
o easo to a gue that this do i a e did t pe sist th oughout the fi st ouple of ille ia,
thus it ust ha e e du a le a d ot ephe e al. Th oughout thei life spa oth Tells a ted as
the eside tial sites of thei fa i g o u ities so io-e o o i elites. The oth se ed as
p oto itadels, the lo atio of e te s o tai i g the ad i ist ati e, eligious, e o o i , a d
ultu al a ti ities a d asso iated la d uses of thei espe ti e egio s a d a ket a eas.
Te“ a d its th ee o u e ts to e a al zed. Te“ ho izo tal ollage o tai s a i a BC
all, as dated K. Ke o , hi h she efe s to as PPNA o st u tio , see ef. [ . ]. I eef.
[ . ] p. , fu the spe ifi atio s of this all a e gi e , as o tai i g a i a BC PPNA
o u it of et ee a d i di iduals p esu a l esidi g o the ou d ha i g
i ula ud i k ho es ith plaste ed floo s a ou d i ula ou t a ds. The ho es e e
ade f o sta da dized odula ud i ks. The i te al spatial allo atio s he e of these
o u ities has e e ee des i ed i detail. This autho o te ds that the ust had ee
spatiall dist i uted so the e e fo i g s all o u al u lei a ou d the ou t a d i.e.,
luste s . The e ti e so ial elite fo i g o u it oti g that the ast ajo it of the egio s
populatio fi di g the sel es i side the spatial oade a ket a ea of the Tell, see Figu e .
a d Map M, ei g those fa e s o ki g the fields, ust had li ed i elati el ephe e al
fa houses outside the o u it as su ou ded a aso i egula d ashla all.
It is i the des iptio of this Neolithi Je i ho all that the diffe e es a d o t o e sies
su ou di g Je i ho s A heolog o e e. This all as p o a l uilt o ke s o sla es
li i g outside this all. The di e sio s of that all a e gi e as: a d ½ feet a out t o ete s
ide, a d feet fou ete s high, see ef. [ . ]. Ho e e , i ef. [ . ] p. , the height is
listed as half of that a out t o ete s , as is a - ete lo g fo i g a app o i ate i le of
ete s, although the a tual shape ust had ee ellipti al pe i et i dit h, a ed out of
ed o k a out . ete s ide a d . ete s deep, see also ef. [ . ]. I ef. [ . ] a e
diffe e t ie is p ese ted of this all. This ie d a s f o a K. Ke o g aph a d all
des iptio . A d this des iptio ill e the fou datio of this autho s e ie of its A hite tu e
a d Hu a Geog aph aspe ts, to e dis ussed i g eat detail late . No atte hat the Neolithi
Je i ho all as a tuall like, o iousl , this is al ead a e diffe e t o u it a d
A hite tu e Te“ du i g PPNA tha the o u it e ou te ed at TQ du i g PPNA .
Asso iated ith this assi e sto e all is a othe st u tu e, a assi e to e , the so- alled
to e of Je i ho , a othe la d a k of Te“, a d a othe sou e of o t o e s i A heolog .
This pape ill e plo e this to e i sig ifi a t detail, a d p o ide a odified a ati e to the
u e t o e s . What is fu the of sig ifi a t i po ta e to this o k, hi h ai s at de i i g a
Theo of E olutio i Neolithi A hite tu e, is a iti al fi di g f o the e a atio s at Je i ho s
Te“. A e assi e B o ze Age fo tifi atio all ade out of ud i ks as e asi g a
Neolithi sto e all u de eath it, see ef. [ . ] as e tio ed L. Nig o, the a heologist i
ha ge of the e a atio s at Te“ du i g the t o ost e e t e a atio pe iods - ,a d
- the e. We shall e plo e this fi di g fu the late , e ause, although ot e a tl
e asi g ut si pl la i g o top of the e et e t sto e all, the fa t that a ud i k all
sits o top of a sto e all is a e i po ta t fi di g. It is a fi di g e also o e a oss i
“ulta ia eside tial A hite tu e, a d i eed of fu the a al sis, si e it poi ts to possi l a
diffe e t a e o pli e ta , e tai l e olutio a use of the e et e t.
Gi e the ti e pe iods e o asso iate ith PPNA BC to BC the i itial Te“ all
ust ha e ee a late PPNA o st u tio a d a ki g a Te“ t a sitio to PPNB BC to
BC . Ke o also do u e ted that the all as uilt p io to the to e of Je i ho, as stated
i ef. [ . ]. Ho e e , a o di g to the epo t i [ , ] the autho of a stud o the pe ei ed
shado s allegedl ast upo the to e a ea hill, it is a gued that the to e is a BC
st u tu e. It ill e a gued he e that this is ot possi le o A hite tu e g ou ds. It ill e sho
sho tl that the to e of Je i ho is a u h late st u tu e tha the i itial Neolithi Te“ all, a d
that oth a e uite late st u tu es tha hat has ee o o l a epted. I fa t, the to e
ight ha e ee uilt a diffe e t ultu e tha that hi h uilt the i itial Neolithi all a d
that hi h late o st u ted houses i the “ulta ia st le . Fo su e, the e is o e ide e to
suggest that the Natufia A hite tu e as the p odu t of the sa e ultu e that applied “ulta ia
A hite tu e i o st u tio . To the o t a , it ust e h pothesized that it as ot the sa e.
I Figu e , the ke pa t of the Te“ settle e t is sho . It ep ese ts the fi st e a ple possi l
the o igi of hat has si e ee h iste ed K. Ke o as “ulta ia A hite tu e. “ulta ia
a hite to i st u tu es thus see to ha e o igi ated at the fa la ge i s ale tha TQ hu a
settle e t of Te“. This ust ot ha e ee a pu e oi ide e o a haphaza d e e t, as it ill
e a gued o e i depth i a it. Appea i g late i ti e a d o a fa g eate de og aphi ase,
a hite tu al a d e gi ee i g k o ledge a d te h ologi al k o ho , as ell as a u da t
atu al, hu a a d la d esou es i ha d, e jo i g fa o e fa o a le li ate at the e d of the
You ge D as, ith elites e e isi g effe ti e o t ol o e g eate la d a eas Tell Es-“ulta as a
site p ospe ed. I o atio is ot u e pe ted u de su h so io- ultu al i u sta es.
Mo e o itadels, ou ds, a d so ial elites’ so io-spatial d a i s. The Tell is sho at its
u e t o ditio i Figu e . . Its st u tu es o e the ille ia e e used to house the so io-
e o o i - ultu al elite a d uppe e helo s of the so ial hie a h of the ti e i that egio of
the ‘i e Jo da Valle . The u e t g eat spatial e pa se is ot that diffe e t tha that of the
past, ipe fo so ial a d e o o i e ploitatio . The la ds ape s e pa se is aptu ed the size
of the ou d a d its su ou di g la d ass. Mou d fo atio a d olo izatio of ou ds
so ial elites p ese ts the g ou ds fo so e i te esti g so io-spatial d a i s, as al ead
dis ussed i the ase of TQ. These d a i s ill e iefl a d fu the ela o ated upo e t.
It is de o st ati el lea that this elite g oup i possessio ot o l of the ou d ut the e ti e
a ea su ou di g it a d possi l e te di g its o t ol uite a it fu the possessed a d had full
o t ol o e the la ds ape a d the asses of sla es, la o e s o o ke s hate e the so ial
st atifi atio ight had ee at the ti e . Co pa i g TQ a d Te“ e de i e the follo i g
p i iple: The g eate the Tell, the g eate the deg ee of do i a e i spa e-ti e. A d ith this
pu li displa of do i a e the elite g oup at Te“ as de o st ati g a fa g eate deg ee of
o fide e i holdi g o to, a d the ea s to o t ol st ategi all i po ta t a d sig ifi a tl
la ge hu ks of spa e a d asses of people. But the so io-spatial d a i s i ol ed he e a e a
it o e o ple . The dista e a o e g ou d, a d the spa e et ee it a d the ases the elite
g oup a ted to keep u de its o t ol, had to e at a opti u le el: ot too fa a o e o
a a , et ot too lose to the g ou d a d f o the fa s a d the peasa ts eithe . The elites had
to de ide to pla e the sel es so epla e at the goldilo ks of the spatial egio al e pa se.
Mou ds of the Te“ a d TQ e e ideal fo the s ale of do i a e a d size of the elites a d thei
a ket a eas. At Tell Es-“ulta , a d gi e its s ale, the elite sought to e ha e the i age of that
do i a e the o st u tio of the to e of Je i ho . It ust had ee o e of the ke easo s
h this st u tu e appea ed the a d the e. Of ou se, this ust ot had ee the o l easo .
Mo u e ts of that size a d s ale gi e the ultiple a d sig ifi a t i ua tit esou es
e ui ed to uild the ust ha e had a othe easo s pegged a d idi g o the , to so iall
justif the spe di g of esou es e ui ed fo thei o st u tio a d lo g-te su i al. As it as
a gued i [ . ] the autho i a othe o te t, that i ol i g the egalithi Neolithi
o u e ts of the B itish Isles the e ust had ee a i te -ge e atio al so ial o t a t
i ol ed, he e a ulti- e tu dis ou ti g of e pe ted so ial e efits a d osts a al sis
ased al ulus ould e de su h e te p ises feasi le. Although, o e of the th ee odal
o u e ts at Te“ a e ultige e atio al i thei pla i g a d o st u tio , the e tai l did
ha e ultige e atio al i pa ts, fo su e ot ha i g es aped thei uilde s a d use s atte tio .

Figu e . Tell Es-“ulta fou datio s of a i a BC PPNB st u tu e, hat is ei g efe ed to

as the “ulta ia st le A hite tu e of the – BC pe iod . “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
Je i ho s to e ust ha e ee a e la ge e t of the elite s spatial do i a e, possi l a
added agg a diz e t o the ou d. It a ha e ee a e essa step to take, if thei so ial
o t ol as ought u de uestio the asses i the Valle o othe outside g oups. But the
Tell a Tell o ti ued to e the elites itadel. Thei fu tio th ough thei a ious
a hite to i a d so io-histo i al phases th oughout the Neolithi , do to the B o ze a d I o
Ages a d o to the Isla i o uest of the egio e ai ed o sta t. It is ot to e lost the poi t
that the Hill of the a ie t it of Je i ho is u e tl ei g efe ed to as the Hill of the “ulta .
The p o ess hi h the so io-e o o i elites a ha e ee oti ated to olo ize a Tell a d
the easo s ehi d it ight e uite a it e ide t a d fa lea e the to e of Je i ho assisti g
alo g those li es at Te“. The eade ust e est assu ed that this as also ehi d the takeo e
of the o igi al ou d a d ise of the settle e t at TQ, although at a ea lie date a d at a fa
o e odest s ale. It is ithi this o te t that the to e of Je i ho a d the settle e t of Tells
a est e u de stood. I this dis ussio , it should ot es ape atte tio that the e a e also othe
fa to s oti ati g the uli g elites to o up high g ou ds, a d as al ead oted floodi g is o e
of the . We shall see ho this fa to e te ed the al ulus fo uildi g the i itial all of Je i ho.
Ph si al Geog aph of Te“. As al ead e tio ed, si ila to TQ, a d i o t ast to Go ekli Tepe,
Te“ is lo ated lose to a i e , a out fou iles f o the Weste a ks of the ‘i e Jo da gi e
the i e s u e t ou se. Bei g i the ‘ift Valle a d a out ete s elo “ea le el, the lo al
g ou d, i its a os ale, slopes f o East to West as o e o es f o the depths of the ‘ift
to a ds the Medite a ea Coast. A out eight kilo ete s fi e iles “outh-East of the Tell is
the Dead “ea. The Tell s dista e f o the u e t Medite a ea oastal li e is a out . iles
i a st aightl d a ai li e dista e easu e e t . The site is situated at the e a t
“outhe ost Asia o de s of the You ge D as I pa t spa e, see Figu e . . The uildi g of
the “ulta ia A hite tu e, see Figu e , a st u tu e e shall look at i this pape i so e detail,
is fou d at the Tell, a d as i itiall e a ated K. Ke o . All o u e ts e shall e a i e
e e put i pla e at the e d of the You ge D as, hi h o u ed at a ou d BC, a d so e
st u tu es date uite a it late tha that. The site s geologi al oo di ates a e app o i atel
 N,  E. It is lo ated a out i ai li e dista es iles “outh, “outh-West of
TQ, a d app o i atel iles “outh-West of GT. The all-i po ta t f esh ate sp i gs a e at
the Easte side of the Tell.
Hu a Geog aph a d Te“. I the Theo of “patial I te a tio , ithi the oade fields of
Hu a E o o i a d “patial Geog aph a d ‘egio al “ ie e, see efe e es to these fields i
the se ies of pape s { . ] – [ . ] o GT a d i [ . ] a d [ . ] o othe spatio-te po al o te ts,
the autho has poi ted out that, ithi a Ce t al Pla e Theo o te t, spatial i te a tio s o u
i flo s ultu al, populatio , e o o i , t a spo tatio , t ade et . i a luste of setti gs
dete i ed a Ne to ia Ph si s ased la : the flo s i te sit is di e tl p opo tio al to
asses at the o igi a d desti atio of the flo a o g odes i a luste , a d i e sel
p opo tio al to so e fu tio of dista e i a essi ilit . Thus, i a spatial i te a tio o te t,
i hi h te po al diffusio p o esses a e also i o po ated, he e i a E olutio a o te t,
dista es a o g the th ee setti gs a e of esse e. “i ila l , dista es a e of esse e a o g the
 a othe setti gs o side ed i the pape ef. [ . ] the autho , i he e the Ce t al Pla e
Theo o te t of a th ille iu BC GT e te ed luste as p ese ted. “i ila o te ts a
e de i ed fo the u h late u a agglo e atio s of U uk a d U i Lo e Mesopota ia, t o
setti gs that ill e te a it the a al sis i a late se tio of the pape .
O e ie of the th ee o u e ts i fo us at Te“. Mu h is i dispute, a d little e jo s a high
deg ee of o fide e i the A heolog of Te“. What e shall add ess he e a e a fe odal
o u e ts i this o ple a a a d i te pla of a heologi al i o a d a o st atig aph
a d la e s at the Tell. It should e oted agai , that the t e hes K. Ke o dug i the s offe
a e ti al ie as do the e e t e a atio s Nig o a d suppl sele ted gli pses of the Tell s
st atig aph . Ho e e , the do ot offe a ho izo tal pe spe ti e, a full ollage at the
o u e tal site s diffe e t la e s. This is a ealit , a d possi l a e essit , hi h o es at a
o side a le a heologi al ost: the i possi ilit of o tai i g a holisti ie of hat is the e,
si e a g eat deal of that ollage is ot isi le. Thus, it ight e i possi le to dete t hat has
t a spi ed a k at the – BC pe iod, a d e e p io to that, at Te“, as this pa t of the
histo is hidde elo the Hill soil.

The th ee spe ifi o u e ts at Te“ that ill p eo up ou a al sis he e tell a sto e ause of
thei A hite tu es. The set the uppe li its as to the ti i g of GT, a ti g as a hite to i
a ie s te i us post ue o the dates that GT ould ha e appea ed i the a hite to i
o ld of the Neolithi . O e is the o u e t of Figu e , the fou datio s a d a fe a o e g ou d
la e s of a set of adjoi i g st u tu es of a PPNB edifi e e plo ed K. Ke o i the s, a d
goi g a o ike oi ed he . The st u tu e, see ef. [ . ] is o o side ed to e of the
so- alled “ulta ia t pe, a t pe of A hite tu e follo i g the ea lie Natufia A hite tu al st le
of PPNA. It is a A hite tu e st le that has take its a e f o this e st u tu e. It ust e
oted that this spe ifi st u tu e is, e o eousl , efe ed to i ef. [ . ], the epo t the
a heologi al tea at Te“ a d i Figu e of that epo t, as a B o ze Age o st u tio . This dati g
a e efe i g to the su ou di g all, ut e tai l ot to the ud i k cu aso lo k
fou datio s st u tu e, a “ulta ia st u tu e pa excelle ce. The se o d st u tu e to e a al zed
he e is the, fa o e fa ous a d gla o ous, so- alled to e of Je i ho that u h has ee
itte a d said a out ostl histo i all a d a heologi all i a u ate . T o photos of this
st u tu e a e sho i Figu e .a, ith a i fo ati e lose up photo of its st u tu e i Figu es
. a d . , a d a photo of its i te io shaft o tai i g a stai ase sho i Figu e .d. A e e
lose up photo of the to e s aso o st u tio is sho i Figu e . Fi all , the thi d
st u tu e that ill e a al zed o p ise a seg e t f o the e a ts of the fi st aso all,
o e of the so- alled alls of Je i ho , sho i the photo of Figu e . It is possi l the oldest of
all aso st u tu es e a ated thus fa at Te“, the a ie t Je i ho.
“ulta ia A hite tu e. T o a e the disti t ha a te isti s of this a hite to i st le, hi h
p e ailed i Je i ho a d i itiall appea ed du i g the – BC a d su eeded the lo al
Natufia A hite tu e. A late spe i e of this A hite tu e, i a BC, is sho i Figu e .
The st le is ha a te ized the use of ultiple ate ials i ol i g a i of odula
 sta da dized ud i ks o top of odest i size lo ks of li esto e aso fou datio s.
Ho e e , a e the ost i po ta t featu e of this A hite tu e is the e ta gula shape i the
floo pla s of these st u tu es, shape that i plies so e t pe of sta da dizatio i o st u tio
a d ass p odu tio of spatial luste atta hed u its t pe A hite tu e goi g fa e o d the
i di idual odula ud i k as it is o e o ded o the e ti e st u tu e. Mud i ks as ate ials
fo o st u tio a e a o i atio of loa that i ludes la , sa d, ate a d a i di g age ,
usuall st a , all ei g the a u da t easil a aila le atu al esou es of the ‘egio . Of i te est
a e also a u e of site pla featu es, e taili g possi le luep i t i pli atio s fo this pa ti ula
floo pla desig . Cu e t a heologi al e ide e see s to suggest that his settle e t ould e
the i o ato of su h desig , a luep i t- epli ato ith a spe i e sho i the st u tu e of
Figu e . A othe featu e is the lo atio it o upies ithi its e i o s. Fi all , the a eal a d
populatio sto k size of the o u it housed the e, a d the esulti g elati el high de sit
of eside tial uses a e all topi s that ill e e pa ded upo e t.

The A hite tu e st le e a e a out to a al ze as ot the fi st o o l A hite tu e fou d i

situ. At the ea site of Ai El-“ulta , lose to the sp i gs, Natufia A hite tu e oe isted ith
it, as to the West of this site is he e the st u tu e i Figu e is lo ated. The alls est o flat
id-size a out half a ete lo g li esto e oulde s, a d a e laid i a se ies of sta da dized
ud i k i ks ade out of su -d ied la i ed ith st a uite likel p odu ed ithi
oode o tai e s i al ost e ual idth a d height la e s. These la e s, possi l ea hi g t o
to t o a d a half ete s i height, i so e i sta es, fo ed di idi g alls sepa ati g oth
i te io eside tial spa es, as ell as i di idual eside tial u its. Possi l , la ge s ale edifi es
pala es a d te ples e e o st u ted i the sa e o st u tio a e as ell. Ke o epo ts
the fi di g of a sh i e ithi these o pou ds. The height of ea h i di idual st u tu e ust
had ee p opo tio al to the thi k ess of the alls at a out a fifth to a si th atio ith e ough
st e gth ot to aise issues of st u tu al sta ilit . The late e sio s of this PPNB e a A hite tu e,
i a BC, a d the uildi gs i Figu e , o tai floo s ha i g te azzo st le su fa e ade
f o pi kish li e. This fi di g is e t e el i po ta t i pla i g GT i its p ope h o ologi al
pe spe ti e, as su h te azzo t pe floo su fa es is e ou te ed the e as is the ase ith Ne ali
Co i s Te ple . ‘e ta gula oo s su ou d a e t al ou t a d, a d this is a othe desig
i o atio i PPNB Neolithi A hite tu e. It is e alled that the ea lie Natufia A hite tu e
st u tu es at Te“, the i ula ud i k houses o the top of the Tell had ud ased plaste ed
fi ishi g floo s. This featu e of i te io d essi g is i di ati e of a stage he so e ad a ed le el
i oth A hite tu e a d E gi ee i g o st u tio s had ee ea hed. Mo eo e , Geo et o
e o es a i p essi e featu e i the A hite tu al fo , he e sha p edges a d e ta gles
esh i thei ello Ea th hue olo s ith the atu al u es of the su ou di g sa d o tai i g
hills of the lo al la ds ape. A hite to i aestheti s sta t to set i to the desig of ho es a d i
a luste i g s ste of st u tu es. The steps of s all stai ases sho i the photo of Figu e ,
de o st ate a a ilit to fu tio all a d aestheti all joi diffe e t le els of li i g spa es. ‘oofs
e e ade out of oode ea s suppo ti g a i of pla t a hes a d lea es i ed ith d
ud, offe i g good i sulatio a d so e p ote tio f o the ele e ts a d i le e t eathe .
‘e ta gula shapes i “ulta ia A hite tu e su eeded the apse a d a , as ell as the i ula
shapes of Natufia A hite tu e. This ought a out a o e atio al a d utilita ia use of i te io
spa es. But it also p o ided fo sta da dizatio i o st u tio – si e the all of a st u tu e
ould a t as the sepa ati g all of a eigh o i g st u tu e as ell. I itial steps to a ds a
sta da dizatio i eside tial o st u tio e e take , a d a e d asti all diffe e t
a hite to i st le, pegged to that i o atio , had o e i to e iste e. This pa ti ula
i o atio as possi l the si gle ost i po ta t, o e ust ha a te ize it as e olutio a ,
i o atio i o st u tio ought a out the e st le of “ulta ia A hite tu e.

Figu e .a. Tell Es-“ulta , the so- alled to e of Je i ho at left, sho i g e e t e a atio s
at the ase. These e a atio s sho that the g ou d e eath the to e is ot ultu all ste ile.
“ee te t ega di g its A hite tu e fo a d possi le uses, fu tio s . “ou e of photo is o it.
It as a e su essful st le. We see the “ulta ia st le e o i g o the o of o st u ti g
e ti e o u ities o the asis of su h eside tial, a d uite possi l ad i ist ati e a d
eligious, desig . Catalho uk s PPNB A hite tu e is a appli atio of this t pe of e ta gula
sta da dized desig i eside tial o u it de elop e t a d uildi g a ti it . We e ou te
su h e ta gula desig also at Ne ali Co i. We e the last t o ases the adopte s of a spatio-
te po all diffused o st u tio i o atio that fi st o u ed i Tell es-“ulta ? Possi l this as
the ase, si e Je i ho as the ajo setti g i the Le a t at the ti e. This Hu a Geog aph
ased o lusio see s to e o siste t ith K. Ke o s ie , ho oi ed the te “ulta ia
A hite tu e. Was it possi le, ho e e , that this desig as i depe de tl de i ed at these th ee
lo atio s? O as the eside tial settle e t at the Tell of Catalho uk the o igi ato ? I [ . ],
[ . ], a d [ . ] the autho a gued that the A hite tu e of Catalho uk p e eded the settle e t
at Ne ali Co i, a d e tai l its te ple phase. Thus, the issue he e is, hi h o e as fi st,
Catalho uk o Tell Es-“ulta ?

Map M. Cit of Je i ho, f o Google Ea th aps. Take o / / f o a altitude of a out

, feet , ete s a o e g ou d le el. The g ou d is at feet ete s elo sea
le el. The Te“ is at o lo k f o the e te of the ode to , a d a out o e ile . k
a a . The di e sio s of the ap a e app o i atel iles k . The spatial e te t a
i di ate that Te“ p o a l had a su sidia su - e te a s alle hu a settle e t so epla e
et ee it a d the “E o e of the ap, a lo atio ith a ess to ‘i e Jo da a d the Dead
“ea. Vul e a ilit f o the East the Jo da ‘i e alle is e ide t. “ou e: the autho .
Of ou se, esides A heolog , A hite tu e has so e i put i the deli e atio s a d i esol i g
this uestio . Both, e plo ed plaste i g ud to fi ish the i te io alls a d floo s. This as
the i itial phases of i te io spa es d essi g of the “ulta ia i te io A hite tu e. At the late
PPNB phase of the o pou d i Figu e , the floo s d essi g as te azzo st le f o li e
po de . But, Catalho uk s ud i k eside tial se to as ulti-le el, he e eside tial u its
e e e ti all li ked a d a essed f o the te a es. Its i itial i te io spa e d essi g as just
plaste f o ud, a d late the floo s a ied te azzo t pe o e i g. The high- ise uildi g t pe
o st u tio at Catalho uk, ot ithsta di g the p i iti e state of its i te io spa es, ust e
o side ed a e olutio of the si gle sto eside tial of Tell Es-“ulta i itial phase, used
possi l to house a o u it less afflue t tha that at Te“.

Figu e . . The Tell Es-“ulta to e of Je i ho st u tu e. At the top of the t u ated o e-like

st u tu e, the stai a shaft e t i to a d e it f o a u de g ou d le el is sho . The
stai a a d its i te io st u tu e is i Figu e .d. “ou e of the photo: ef. [ . ].
This autho he e fi ds that K. Ke o as justified i alli g this st le, “ulta ia t pe
A hite tu e. “t o g si ila ities i thei A hite tu es, gi e the u e t state of k o ledge f o
a heologi al e a atio s, see to i pl that the e as a o igi ato , a d that o igi ato as
the ultu e ho o upied Te“ at a ou d the iddle of the th ille iu BC app o i atel i
the – BC pe iod , see ef. [ . ]. “i e a heologi al fi ds ha e esta lished that
Catalho uk is a settle e t of the – BC ti e pe iod, see do u e tatio i [ . ] a d
[ . ], the a hite to i e ide e see s to suppo t the a heologi al e ide e i this ase.
Mo eo e , it poi ts to a pote tial diffe e e i the a e age ealth easu ed as a i de of
do esti p odu t ge e ated the i ha ita ts of these t o ea l Neolithi hu a setti gs.
B the id of the th ille iu BC, a d o the asis of the u e tl a aila le a heologi al
e ide e, it is esti ated that Je i ho itadel as the ho e of a out households, see the th ee
do u e ts ited i ef. [ . ]. The populatio ase of this ou t at a out fi e pe so s pe
household i plies a total populatio of the Tell the total populatio size of the elite g oup of the
ultu e that esided i the e ti e a ea of Je i ho, i effe t Te“ a ket a ea at the ti e to ha e
ee a out i di iduals. At a ate of elite to total populatio of a out %, this ou t
o espo ds to a o u it of a out to i di iduals, a elati el la ge fa i g
o u it at the e d of the You ge D as. A a le la d to the No th, East a d “outh of the Tell
is a out thi tee s ua e kilo ete s, see ap M elo . That ou t i tu o espo ds to a
a e age g oss eside tial de sit of a out pe so s pe s ua e kilo ete , a elati el high
ou t fo that E a.
The e is o o pelli g e ide e so suggest that the De og aphi s o E o o i s of the a ea a d
its a i g apa it to e plo a d sustai the la o fo e a d its eside tial size sig ifi a tl
ha ged i the t o su eedi g ille ia. Ag i ultu e p odu tio a d te h ologies did p og ess
i the ou se of these t o ille ia. Possi l , a appea i g at the ti e e ess la o suppl as
a so ed the out- ig atio of fa e s to the est of the Eu asia spa e, u de o e of the
g eatest outflo o e e t of populatio a d te h ologi al k o ho i Hu a Histo : the
o e e t West, “outh a d East that sa Ag i ultu e, its gods a d A hite tu es sp ead
th oughout that ‘egio of the Wo ld Eu asia a d No the Af i a . As it a e see i Figu e ,
the “ulta ia o u it the elite s eside tial ua te s e e su ou ded i pa t a aso
all. It is ot lea that this pa ti ula all is a o ti uatio of the o igi al aso all of Figu e
. This is the fi st i sta e e o e a oss of a o u it luste ei g su ou ded a all,
ei g gated. It see s to e a e ol ed e sio of the o igi al all, thus ot a pa t of it a d
su se ue t i h o olog . The pu pose of the o igi al Te“ all is de ated, ith flood p e e tio
a d defe se ei g t o do i a t theo eti al e pla atio s. The su i i g se tio of this odest
all is t eithe lo g e ough, st o g e ough, o high e ough to allo fo a lea a s e ega di g
its i te ded use.
It is u k o ho a ti es this all has ee epai ed a d ho , as it is u k o he
as it fi st put i pla e. But it ha a te ized a disti t A hite tu e that allo s us to pla e it
as it has su i ed i its last odifi atio i so e o te t. Its th ee su i i g la e s a e ade out
of s all to id-size li esto e oulde s, i so e hat egula d ashla st le. ‘egula it i its
ashla o st u tio te h i ue see s to i di ate that its dati g ust e su se ue t ot o l to
the date of the “ulta ia st u tu es it pa tiall su ou ds, ut it also ust e a sig ifi a tl late
o st u tio possi l of the late th ille iu BC o late he o pa ed to the su i i g
se tio of a all hi h is the fi st aso all, the Neolithi all, the ou gest a o g all of
Je i ho s alls, sho i Figu e . The eade ust keep i i d that this is ot the fa ous
B o ze Age all. It ill e the su je t of a al sis a d so e dis ussio i the last su se tio of
this Pa t, afte a e ie of the st u tu e that is k o as the to e of Je i ho is supplied e t.
It ust e kept i i d that this is the sta t of the U aid pe iod of Lo e Mesopota ia, a pe iod
he la ge s ale o fli ts appea ed i the histo i al a d a heologi al e o d i that egio .
These topi s ill e e plo ed a it late .

Figu e . . To e of Je i ho, aso detail: diffe e t size oulde s i d ashla , i egula

le eli g o st u tio . The detail sho s at lo e ight ho the all a d the to e i te se t, as
the t o odies su fa es i te a t. That highe to e a d its pa tial o e i g of the all i plies
that at this se tio of the all p e-e isted a d the to e follo ed. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
The to e of Je i ho : a ulti-pu pose egalithi st u tu e. Mu h has ee itte a out this
o u e t, a , a d fo a easo s. This is also the ase fo the last o u e t to e
add essed he e, the Neolithi Je i ho s all. No pa t of that olu i ous a d o t o e sial, as ell
as o fli ti g lite atu e o the to e ill e epeated o e ie ed he e. I stead, the fo us ill
e o a po e ful i o atio hidde i side this all, its stai ase, a i o atio that see s to
ha e es aped a al sts atte tio . What the ill e the a gle a d ai of app oa hi g this
st u tu e is the goal of t i g it to the a hite tu al t aditio of the ea l Neolithi , a el the
Natufia A hite tu e. This st u tu e a d its stai ase ill e ie ed a d o side ed as a
e olutio of a a hite to i st le al ead e te si el a al zed he e, a post Natufia
o st u tio , a hi g out of the atu e Natufia st le ut at a diffe i g di e tio tha the
“ulta ia st le. He e o e is o f o ted ith a ifu atio of st les, a spe iatio p o ess. I this
o te t, o e ight po de its o e tio s if a to the su se ue t disti tl diffe e t
a hite to i st le that e e ged i this egio , the pu el “ulta ia st le A hite tu e. I so
doi g, o e a atte pt to pla e this st u tu e i a ti e f a e o k, a d e a i e hethe the
BC o st u tio date suggested the autho s ‘. Ba kai, ‘. Li a of o k epo ted i ef.
[ . ], o the ge e all suggested dati g of – BC a dati g hi h K. Ke o has
p oposed , see ef. [ . ], a e alid. O hethe as it ill e a gued it is e likel a e e late
date is o e app op iate fo the to e of Je i ho. Pa e theti all , a d si e shado s e e
ought up, th ough ef. [ . ], this autho ust e tio that i deed shado s do pla a
i po ta t pa t i o u e tal a hite to i desig , a d espe iall so i o u e ts of the
Neolithi . A u e of pape s ha e ee itte this autho a d a u e of othe s o the
ole that shado s pla ed i the desig of o u e ts du i g the last si ille ia of the BC E a,
a d the i te ested eade ight sea h fo these pape s i the efe e es se tio of the pape s
listed i sites e tio ed u de Note at the e d of the pape . “i e the ole of shado s does
ot di e tl e te the a al sis of this pape , these efe e es a e ot ited he e.
I dis ussi g a o u e t, a ie t o ode , spe ifi uestio s ust e add essed, su h as:
h as a pa ti ula o u e t lo ated at the e a t lo atio it is fou d. This is a uestio
espe iall pe ti e t fo the post Epipaleolithi the E a oadl efe ed to as the Neolithi the
pe iod et ee BC to a out the BC , a d also du i g oth the B o ze Age BC
to BC a d the I o Age the pe iod et ee BC to the G eek Classi al pe iod, i a th
e tu BC . It is iti al, e ause a o g othe fa to s it is a pe iod i hi h the u e of
o u e ts i e iste e as elati el s all a d thei de sit i spa e fa elo hat it is at
p ese t. He e, the lo atio of a o u e t to e e e ted the as ot as u h tied to the
lo atio of a p io o u e t o o u e ts as it is the ase he the de sit of o u e ts
i eased i su se ue t ti e pe iods . T o othe spe ifi uestio s ust e asked: h does a
spe ifi o u e t like fo e a ple, the Je i ho to e ha e the di e sio s that it does a
uestio elated to the o u e t s s ale ; h does it ha e the desig spe ifi atio s that it does
a uestio tied to the o u e t s o pholog . Asso iated ith these asi uestio s, a host
of othe s do of ou se follo . Like fo i sta e, hat ultu e uilt it; hat e e the i itiall
i te ded uses a d ho e e ulti atel thei use s; if do e i phases, hat e e the a d he
did the o u . These a e so e of the uestio s to e a s e ed. “o e of these ke uestio s
ill e add essed he e, to the e te t that the ha e ot ee satisfa to il add essed efo e i
the e isti g lite atu e, fo the to e of Je i ho.
I po de i g the size of the Je i ho s to e , the ke uestio e o es hat as Je i ho s
populatio size at the ti e – si e the t o sizes a e elated. It is u k o of ou se, hat as
the e a t size of the Te“ i the BC – BC pe iod. Ea lie , so e ough esti ates e e
p odu ed o the populatio size a d de sit of the settle e t. O iousl , the i te ded use s
of the to e ust had ee o e u e ous tha i a othe settle e t a he e ithi the
a ket a ea of the Te“ site a d ithi the oad ‘egio hie a hies o e ities, si pl e ause
at o othe site of that e a i that egio do e o e a oss su h a o u e tal o st u tio .
The p ese e of the Neolithi Je i ho all see s to also le d suppo t to that o lusio . B
i spe ti g the u e t lo atio of the to e o the ou d, e fi d it to e uite lose to the
e e te the a e te i fa t of the Tell. He e, o e of its fu tio s pu pose ust had
ee to a k a i po ta t a d disti t, f o a geo et i ie poi t, lo atio o the ou d.
Defi i g su h a poi t as ot of ou se the o l o possi l ajo ai the uilde s of the to e
had i i d at the ti e. U dou tedl , a othe fu tio s a d uses e e to e ade of this
la ge i s ale e te p ise a d uildi g p oje t. “o e of these uses e a e a le to ide tif at
p ese t. Ma of thei eal ai s e a ot e a le e e to e ou t, si e e te i g the eati e
i ds of these peoples a d ultu es o full e o di g the the p e aili g so io- ultu al
o ditio s ight e a i possi le task. What o e a sa ith so e deg ee of e tai t is that
these fu tio s a d uses o stituted a u dle, o tai i g e ough so ial e efits to o e o e
the o side a le so io-e o o i osts to uildi g it at the ti e of its o st u tio . I that u dle
A t- elated it ould e the ase of a s ulptu e o positio lo g go e , e o o i a pla e to
asse le a d t ade, a p oto ago a t pe fo u , itual- eligious the s e e a d platfo of
e e o ies , defe se a d displa of do i a e elated, politi al a platfo fo the ule /p iest
add essi g a asse l of people at the g ou d le el, the a t of appea i g f o the shaft a d
li i g the stai a , see Figu e .d, efo e add essi g the asses ould e a spe ta le , ould
e a fe of the a possi le uses a d fu tio s of this to e .
U k o is hethe this to e sta ds he e so e p io o u e t as the e, possi l uilt
a p io ultu e tha that ho uilt the to e . The diggi g sho i Figu e .a see s to i di ate
that it is t uilt o ultu all ste ile g ou d o ed o k. Be that as it a , its u e t fo is
e t ao di a . The Mathe ati s of the to e s fo a e of o side a le i te est. Thei
o ple it ight e a i di atio of the st u tu e s age. It is ot a full sta d-alo e o u e t.
It does ’t o tai a la ge-i -s ale o oliths ithi it. But it is a la ge-i -s ale egalithi
st u tu e o etheless. It tou hes the Je i ho s o igi al aso all. The st u tu e has the
o pholog of a t u ated o e-like geo et i shape. I dete ti g hi h st u tu e as uild
fi st, the to e o the all, o e ust look at the a e i hi h the t o odies i te a t,
tou hi g ea h othe . The i te se tio of a pla e ith a o e p ese ts i te esti g geo et i a d
o st u tio featu es a d detail, a d the aste of these details is a i di atio of
ad a e e ts i A hite tu e a d also a ke s fo dati g the st u tu es. It see s that the all
as put i pla e fi st, as its shape a d su fa e is t o p o ised the additio of the to e ;
he eas the to e s shape a d oute su fa e is o p o ised a d it see s to o e pa t of
the all. Fu the o e, the t o odies i te a ti g su fa es a e of diffe e t ate ial: the ado e
fi ishi g of the i te io pa t of the all tou hes the e te io su fa e of the aso to e ith
the e posed lo ks. He e, the dati g of the udest ate ial the o stitue t ele e t of the
all ust e a ti g as a te po al uppe ou d a d a te i us post ue fo the to e .

Figu e .d. To e of Je i ho, the i te io of the stai ase. This odest shaft s A hite tu e is of
g eat sig ifi a e, as it a ies fa ea hi g i pli atio s fo the Neolithi o u e tal
A hite tu e of the e ti e Eu asia. Li tels e e used fo the fi st ti e i fo i g the oof of the
shaft, a a o passage, o tai i g the stai ase of app o i ate o e ti ete s. These a e
possi l the fi st li tels used i a hu a o u e t. Ho e e , the p ese e of li tels ust e
o st ued as e ide e that this is a late tha the - BC st u tu e as lai ed K.
Ke o . The stai ase o tai s steps, ea hi g a out th ee ua te s do the to e s height.
The ough aso ashla st u tu e of the side alls is oted. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
A othe st o g i di atio fo a late o st u tio fo the to e is the li tels the flat sto es that
o e the stai a . It is ot a usual a hite to i ele e t e ou te ed i th ille iu BC
A hite tu e. Li tel is a featu e e o e a oss fa late i o st u tio a d E gi ee i g, a d
spe ifi all i the th ille iu BC Maltese A hite tu e, he e sig ifi a t a d a hite to i all
ad a ed shapi g of o thostats a d pilla s is o se ed, alo g ith a sophisti ated li tels
d essi g. Ea lie th ille iu BC use of li tels ith a u h oughe d essi g is e ou te ed
i the a ious dol e s a d i the th ille iu BC passage to s of Eu asia. Co side ed i
isolatio , this a hite to i o po e t a i di ate a u h late tha BC the lai of f.
[ . ] a d late tha the – BC date hi h is the date of the to e s o st u tio
lai ed K. Ke o fo the o st u tio of the to e . The a eful look i to the to e s
stai ase i o i atio of the egalithi s ale of the st u tu e e ui e a e isio a d e-setti g
of Je i ho to e s h o ologi al a ati e.
Fu the o e, hat ight e the dete i i g fa to fo dati g a e the to e is its o pholog .
That o pholog ill e a al zed a it o e e te si el o . It is a t u ated o e-like .
ete s high st u tu e h= . , ith a app o i atel - ete i dia ete i ula ase a d thus
a adius ‘= . a d a a out - ete dia ete al ost i ula top su fa e he e a adius
= . . The to e s alls a e a out . ete s thi k, see ef. [ . ]. “ee Note fo o e o the
to e s i te io a d its effi ie i de . The o u e t, assu i g it a e app o i ated ell
e ough a t u ated o e u de these easu e e ts, has a total olu e V gi e the
geo et i fo ula V = {h ‘^ + ^ + ‘ / } = . ^ . Of ou se, the a tual total olu e of
the to e is less tha th ee hu d ed u i ete s, as it is so e hat hollo o the i side. But
the e a e o detailed a hite tu al se tio s o -d diag a s f o the to e ha i g ee
s a ed, to the autho s k o ledge, at p ese t . Thus, it is ot possi le at this ti e to de i e a
e a t olu e al ulatio of the to e s o pholog . What e ha e though is a uppe ou d of
a out th ee hu d ed u i ete s. It is esti ated, see ef. [ . ], that it took a out e
la o da s to uild the to e . U de this esti ate, the u i ete s of olu e ould e
o st u ted at a ate of a out . a -da s pe u i ete . If ua i g, t a spo t, odest
d essi g a d pla i g the aso lo ks a tuall ough oulde s i situ a e i luded, the this
ight e a good guesti ate. This guesti ate of ou se does ot i lude the p e- o st u tio
pla i g a d a age e t a d politi al de isio - aki g p o ess, e ui ed e e at that pe iod
fo su h a egalithi o u e tal o st u tio . It ould also e ui e so e a ou ti g
apa ilities of a u p e ede ted fo the ti e i uestio s ale a d athe ati al sophisti atio .
B a easu e the Je i ho to e is a ajo egalithi o st u tio , although ot a o olithi
ased egalithi o st u tio . What a e said ith e tai t is that the t u ated o e fo
of this egalithi st u tu e is ot a - BC shape a d u de taki g. The u e t
a heologi al e o d has offe ed o e ide e that a hite ts of the - BC Neolithi e e
apa le of o ei i g su h o ple geo et i st u tu es. Not o l is t the e i A hite tu e
su h shape fou d else he e i this o a othe egio of Eu asia, ut o eo e , it a e added
that su h t u ated o e st u tu es, o e does ot e ou te also i a A t o o ile a tifa t of
that pe iod o ea lie eithe . Co se ue tl , this date ust e uestio ed o the asis of the
A hite tu e a d A t as ell as Mathe ati s - Alge a a d Geo et of the ti e. T u ated
o es i Geo et as ell as i A t a d A hite tu e ust ha e e o e i st u e ts of desig
afte the hole o e st u tu e appea ed as a disti t e og iza le shape i the Neolithi .

Figu e . “e tio of the o igi al aso all at Tell Es-“ulta , a pa t of the a a of a ious
Je i ho alls fou d the e. Possi l , it is the oldest assi e aso o st u tio at Te“, a li ea
o a i shape st u tu e. The la ge i size lo k at the lo e left of the photo is a e eptio to
a othe ise id to s all-sized oulde s- ased aso o st u tio . The odest i oth
thi k ess a d height all follo s the atu al g ou d o tou s. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

This is a a gu e t ased o the deg ee of o ple it i ol ed i the t o s he ata a d the

p i iple that i the E olutio of Fo , si ple st u tu es ust ha e p e eded o e o ple
st u tu es, as is the p i iple that i st u tu es of ide ti al shape, the s alle size st u tu e
ust had p e eded the la ge i s ale. F o a E gi ee i g ie poi t, opti g fo a o e-like
shape fo the to e athe tha a u h si ple li d i al ut o e assi e st u tu e ould
ha e ee di tated a effo t to o e effe ti el deal ith the late al fo es ge e ated a
 . - ete high st u tu e o the suppo ti g alls of the stai a . A effi ie t ea i g of e ti al
eight load o the li tels, a d easi g the late al fo es e e ted o the stai ase s side alls is
attai ed the o i fo of the st u tu e. The e p ese e of the stai a a d its shape a
e see f o the sa e E gi ee i g sta dpoi t as a load elie i g e ha is . It shelte s a a ea
f o e essi e eight, a d the esulti g la k of loads ould e see as alle iati g the fo es
e e ted o the st u tu e s alls a d ost i po ta tl upo its fou datio s.

Figu e . Tell Es-“ulta . The o st u tio detail of the st u tu e alled the to e of Je i ho .

Maso d ashla i egula lo ks a d s all sto es plus ud i k ith ud fila e ts as the
a that the e te io su fa e of the o u e t as fi ished a d d essed. This is i sha p o t ast
to the a e i hi h the aso i ludi g the t o side alls, oof a d steps stai ase see
Figu e .d as e losed. “ou e of the photo: ef. [ . ].

The e is little dou t that the to e of Je i ho is a e olutio of Natufia A hite tu e. The ou d

aso o st u tio fou d i Natufia o pholog of eside es a d pu li uildi g du i g the
Natufia pe iod is the a het pal desig of the to e , a d the e olutio of li d i al -d shapes
i to o i al fo s. But the leap f o t o ete s i height, pa tiall i g ou d Natufia li d i al
ho e to a to e of this ag itude a d shape is a sig ifi a t e olutio a step. G a ted, the
d a i s of i o atio i A hite tu e o a othe field a e t al a s s ooth, o ti uous a d
o i g i a st aight li e. The o u i leaps a d ou ds, the o tai dis o ti uities a d sha p
ju ps, a d i ge e al the a e ha a te ized o li ea seg e ts. Ho e e , i e a i i g ti e
spa s of ille ia, a d egio s of g eat spatial e te t, these dis o ti uities a d o li ea ities
s oothe out a d o e a app o i ate t e ds ith elati e ease ithout iolati g se ue i g.
B oad, si ple a d lea patte s e e ge as the detail is o e take hidde i the ig pi tu e, the
t ee is lost i the fo est, a d the e e o es fu the up a d a a f o the spe ifi s e e, e e t
a d pla e i ti e. “o, o e o es to e og ize that this to e is also u i ue i the a hite tu al
e u of the pe iod fo a egio i Eu asia, fo its la ge s ale. As a desig s he e, it e ai ed
a isolated e e t, ot epli ated o ep odu ed a he e a d at a s ale. It is ot e ou te i
Neolithi A hite tu e, i eithe shape o size, till the aso t u ated o e st u tu es of the
Helladi spa e, of C lopea egalithi s ale, see ef. [ . ] ith thei o st u tio esti ated to
ha e take pla e du i g the late d to ea l d
ille iu BC. This a ati e d a s f o the
to e s e te io o pholog . Its i te io stai ase a d li tels outli e a e diffe e t sto , a d
poi t to a e diffe e t di e tio . That i te io stai ase, Figu e .d, to a e la ge deg ee a d
s ale had fa ea hi g o se ue es tha the to e s o pholog . The fi st li tels laid o top of
this odest stai a a d the passage the eated poi t to the idel o se ed a d fo a lo g-
te pe iod p a ti ed o u e tal A hite tu e o e the e ti e Eu asia f o the th ille iu
BC to the B o ze Age pe iod: it lau hed the E a of dol e s a d the passage to s of Eu asia.
Dati g of the Je i ho to e ust also take u de a ou t the elati el ough state of the
aso ashla st u tu e at its e te io su fa e, see Figu e . The highl i egula la e s of
sto es, a d the sig ifi a t a iatio i the lo ks size f o pe les, to s all sto es, to ediu
size oulde s see s to i di ate a elati el p i iti e stage of egalithi ashla aso
o st u tio . “u h is the state of the a t i sto e e losu es e o se e at the PPNA stage of
eside es at TQ s Natufia A hite tu e, a d espe iall the t a sitio al PPNA to PPNB TQ
Natufia st le. Ho e e , it does ot e essa il follo that the Je i ho to e is a te po al
eigh o hood of the Natufia PPNB t a sitio al TQ st u tu es e ol i g A hite tu es. The PPNA
to e at TQ a d the Je i ho to e a e of a e diffe e t s ale, a d uite diffe e t
o pholog . The e is o easo to de that the TQ A hite tu e e ol ed i to the Je i ho to e .
But that as a ua tu leap t pe e olutio a step, thus e likel a sig ifi a t ti e dista e
sepa ated the . Thei diffe e es i s ale a d o pholog ust e i e sel p opo tio al to the
a hite to i e olutio a speed at o k, ithi that e olutio a a h. The size of the TQ
st u tu es i eased uite odestl o e a pe iod of a out th ee ille ia. F o si ete s i
dia ete TQ, - to e to a i e- ete i dia ete Je i ho to e ust had take a good
t o plus ille ia, o side i g oth the s ale a d o pholog a o pa i g de elop e ts.
Pa e theti all , alli g the TQ st u tu es to e s o stitutes, gi e the a o e dis ussio , lea l
a is o e . A p oto to e desig atio it ould had ee a fa o e app op iate te .
This histo iog aph a d a hite to i a ati e ight poi t to a e late th ille iu BC
possi l a ea l to e possi l a iddle th ille iu BC to e o st u tio at Te“, a
ultu e that utilized e tai asi a hite to i o po e ts of a ea lie Natufia ultu e at the
egio , ut sig ifi a tl i p o ed it i te s of egalithi . - ete high o st u tio ,
e plo i g e ethods i E gi ee i g li tels a d Mathe ati s t u ated o e a d thus
eati g a e a h of A hite tu e. I a a e fo heights Go ekli Tepe s e losu es did t
eak the e o d set the Je i ho to e at the likel th
ille iu BC a k. GT s th
ille iu BC - ete tall st u tu es ho e e oke a othe e o d, as the e a e o olithi
– that ei g thei o t i utio to A hite tu e s e olutio a o g othe featu es added the .
The fa t that this Je i ho t pe of a to e is ot e ou te ed i late a hite to i spe i e s
ight e a i di atio that the ultu e espo si le fo its uildi g did t su i e lo g – a
i te esti g featu e poi ti g to o u e ts of a g a d s ale as ei g leadi g i di ato fo a
ultu e s de li e, a d a laggi g i di ato of a ultu e s e o o i g o th stage. The topi , the
e te t to hi h the ag itude of a so iet s o u e tal A hite tu e is o e ted to a so iet s
stage of g o th is a the e this autho has add essed i p io pu li atio s.
The possi le fa t that the uilde s of Je i ho s to e did t last lo g o p opagated thei a e,
ould also i pl that the asso iated settle e ts sizes e e ea hed the Je i ho populatio size.
Ho e e , it e ai s a asi uestio : ho ould a ultu e that had ad a ed to a o side a le
deg ee, a d to the poi t that it ould effe ti el ou t a e te p ise of su h sophisti atio a d
s ale, a d hi h aste ed su h sig ifi a t a d o side a le i o atio a d o st u tio
E gi ee i g detail the iddle of the th ille iu BC, as ot a le to last lo g. This
see i gl o t adi to e ide e ust e eighed i gaugi g the o u e t s o e p e ise
o st u tio date.

Te“ a d the Neolithi all of Je i ho. Last, the a ie t a d fi st Neolithi all hi h as

e a ated K. Ke o i the s is iefl a al zed. The eade should ot o fuse it ith
the u h late du i g the Ea l B o ze Age uilt e et e t all at Tell Es-“ulta . Va ious
dates, st u tu es, a d a ati e o these alls a d a u e of othe s p ese t o the Tell
st u tu es a ou d. The odest i oth height a d thi k ess aso Neolithi all follo s the
ge tl slopi g a d u dulati g g ou d su fa e. Ho e e , the o stitue t ele e ts of this all
a d all othe s a e ot e a tl stal lea . The eade is di e ted to a u e of efe e es,
he e the aze of fo tifi atio s at Te“ is add essed diffe e t i di iduals, all stati g fa ts
a out the o igi al all at the Tell a d a u e of othe alls, as if the a e a solutel e tai
a out these fa ts . Of ou se, the e is o ag ee e t a o g all of these a al sts a d that i ludes
the a ious a heologists of the Tell, as ell. These a ious a ati es eate o side a le
o fusio to the u fa ilia eade , a d this is espe iall so ega di g the Je i ho o igi al
Neolithi all. O e is ot e a tl su e as to hat p e isel is looki g at, o se i g a seg e t
of a fo tifi atio at Te“. He e s a sa ple of fou tee a ti les, see [ . ] - [ . ], i hi h this
o fusio eig s sup e e. The a al sis he e ill atte pt to sele ti el i teg ate the o o
o po e ts fou d i the all, a d p odu e ostl el i g o K. Ke o s a ati e a
ohe e t i te p etatio , ithout of ou se lai i g pe fe t a u a a d/o i falli ilit .
This fi st aso Neolithi Je i ho all st u tu e has ee i te p eted as ei g eithe a
defe si e e ha is o a flood p e e ti g st u tu e. Ho e e , a u e of pe ulia aspe ts of
this all see to go ou te to eithe o e o oth of these eadi gs a d i te p etatio s. Fi st
of all, this st u tu e is set o top of the ou d, a d al ost at its e e te , o a No th-“outh
a tuall a slightl No th-East to “outh-West a is, see K. Ke o s d a i g o p. of ef. [ . ],
Figu e . . The elati el sho t se tio of it u o e ed, sho i Figu e , ep ese ts a li e o a
slightl u i g a a tuall a e ide apse, as sho i figu e . of the a o e efe e e
[ . ] . The apse is poi ti g to the West, that is the a is o e f o the West a d o a e
f o the East; put diffe e tl , it see s to e a defe si e st u tu e fo i ade s o i g f o the
West, the ou tai ous a ea of the egio , a d f o the di e tio of the Medite a ea “ea. It
does ot see to e ai i g at epelli g possi le e e ies f o the East, the ‘i e Jo da Valle .
What is pe ple i g ith this i te p etatio of ei g a defe si e all is its height. Pa t of the
Neolithi all of Figu e a d a la ge ie of this seg e t is sho i the photo of Figu e .
Mo eo e , it does t see to e e losi g a sig ifi a t a ea o the ou d. Its elati el lo
height i o i atio of the ope fla ks i g i to uestio its defe si e effe ti e ess a d
apa ilit . Thus, its defe se pu pose is ha d to gauge. I the a o e- e tio ed diag a K.
Ke o , the e o st u ted e isio ed Ke o a d ot a tuall e a ated i toto i itial
Neolithi all , had a le gth of a out ete s, a d a idth at the No the a d ide side
of a out ete s. Mo eo e , its positio aises uestio s. The all is sitti g alo g a li ea
st et h a d e lose to the top of the hill. At its Easte side, the top of the hill is o l a out
ete s a a of the the ou d. It is ha d to see hat t pe of floodi g p ote tio as the e to
offe a d to ho . The ke ele e t i its o st u tio that e do k o f o the Ke o
e a atio s is that it does ha e a d a ui ed, as dis ussed, at a su se ue t phase of Neolithi
o st u tio o the Tell a asso iatio ith the to e of Je i ho. He e, the aisi g of the
to e as i teg all li ked to the p ese e of the p e-e isti g Neolithi o e o less li ea at
ost a i shape all. All this, leads o e to o lude that eithe the all as ot a defe si e
e ha is the a e toda ie it alls as e i li g hu a settle e ts o all sides fo
defe si e pu poses ; o , e eed to edefi e hat e u e tl i pl defe se . It a ell
ha e ee a li ea f o tal defe si e e ha is a d a fi st stage o phase of uildi g defe ses
i a fi st o last li e of defe se. A d this li e ould e a li e of defe se f o eithe side, East
o Wes, depe di g f o hi h side of this a phi all the e e as to o e. I this se se,
hi h is likel the ost app op iate a to des i i g this o u e t, this st u tu e is a p oto
a d u i ue i the histo of it fo tifi atio s a phi all defe si e e ha is . O the othe
ha d, it a si pl e a u fi ished pu li p oje t, a d gi e that this p o a l is the fi st la ge
s ale hu a e te p ise, it ould si pl e just that. Fi all , it ould also e so e t pe of a p oto
egalithi o u e t, the full esse e of it es api g ou a ilit to full o eptualize this
ultu e s desi es. It ust ha e o e at a ti e he e te al, assi e, ell o ga ized, pe siste t
th eats ust ha e fi st appea ed i the egio , e ui i g a assi e, ell put togethe , du a le
defe si e ou te easu e. Withi this f a e o k, e eed to app oa h the esse e of this
spe ifi st u tu e. Late , possi l at the s ale of a ille iu o so, the to e as added to,
a o g othe thi gs, e ha e the defe si e apa ilities of the Neolithi all, possi l a othe
ultu e tha that that uilt the to e .
The ti e he su h ell-o ga ized e te al th eats appea ed i the ho izo fo the eside ts of
the Tell ust had ee a ti e he e ough as to e p ote ted this p oto defe se li ea
all-to e s ste . The fi st Neolithi aso all of Je i ho as ost likel , gi e the u e t
e ide e f o e a atio s i the ‘egio to date, the fi st o e i the e ti e Le a t. It is of ou se
ot k o ho the uilde s of this Neolithi all alled it. O , hat e e the t i g to p ote t
uildi g it. Ho e e , e a guess that ag i ultu al su pluses a d possi l alua le li esto k
sto ed at the itadel ould e pa t of the i su ed the all o odities a d e e offe ed
p ote tio . Ho e e , the e is a othe aspe t to this all a d to e , gi e the lo atio al a d
s ale p o i e e it a d the , the all a d the to e , i o i atio e jo ed. The essage
se t the e e size su h u i ue fo the ti e fo tifi atio s , alo g ith atte pted
i ti idatio , it ould ha e ee e ei ed as a att a to fo i asio s as ell.

Figu e . Je i ho s o igi al Neolithi aso all, a oade ie of the seg e t sho i

Figu e . The st u tu e i the fo eg ou d, a d the fill at the a kg ou d a e ot pa t of this all.
“ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
He e, to the the pe ei ed a d e pe ted e efits fo uildi g this all-to e o i atio ,
the e ust had also ee e pe ted osts. What as the spe ifi al ulus i the a e i hi h
the pe ei ed e pe ted e efits e e to su essfull ou te the pe ei ed e pe ted osts is
uite diffi ult to o side a out i e ille ia late . E a tl ho these t o o po e ts i this
 o ple so ial e efits s so ial osts o i atio e e ou ted a d pla ed out a es ape ou
ode apa ilities to full o ei e. No etheless, the elati el sho t-li ed p ese e of the
ultu e that uilt the to e , as al ead alluded to ea lie , a p o ide so e hi ts as to thei
su ess o failu e i full a ou ti g all eal a d ate ialized e efits a d osts. The ultu e
espo si le fo the to e s o st u tio sho t p ese e a i di ate that these al ulatio s had
a kfi ed o the . The lo ge it of the Neolithi all uilde s o the othe ha d, a d the
i o ati e Neolithi all desig , sta d i o t ast to the sho t-li ed to e uilde s. But hat as
the o je ti e of the to e - all s ste , the spe ifi o je ts that the s ste i te ded to p ote ted
i a li ea fashio still e ai s a ope uestio .
Mo ile a tifa ts a d alua les, i ludi g tools a d household goods, as ell as foodstuff a d
hu a s a e o odities a d e tities offe ed pote tial pa tial p ote tio the all of ou se.
Ho e e , the all-i po ta t sp i gs e e to the East of this all, a d so as the ulk of the fe tile
la d ass e ploita le fo ag i ultu e. “o, the uestio e ai s, hat e a tl as it ei g
p ote ted this defe si e i st u e t that see s to ha e ee shaped so that it ould p ote t
pote tial i ade s f o the West. Besides, a d setti g aside fo a o e t the shape gi e it
K. Ke o a d assu e it as pe i et i all e i li g a s all thi l a d li ea l lo ated o u it
o top of the Tell, passi g a d a oidi g the all-to e s ste altogethe , a d a ess the
sp i gs a d the fields to the East of the Tell looks like a eas a eu e fo a o e ha gi g f o
the West. A d of ou se, these esou es ould e a eas p e to i ade s f o the East. The e
a e o e o ds e ou ti g these ea liest so ietal i t a- a d i te -settle e t o fli ts, the ei g
the ea liest possi le ti es he su h aids a d a he pote tiall ould ha e o u ed. O l
i di e t e ide e e ists, i the fo of lithi eapo s a d skeletal e ai s to gauge the o fli ts
s ale a d e a it , a d a ou t fo ou te - easu es. But this p oto Neolithi all a d espe iall
its su se ue t o i atio ith the to e ight e a good sou e to d a so e p eli i a
a s e s o these outsta di g uestio s. I this o te t, a o e p e ise a d ealisti esti atio
of the all s o st u tio date e o es a atte of sig ifi a t i po t. K. Ke o suggested that
this as a p e-potte Neolithi all, thus a p e- th ille iu BC o st u tio at least.
It is highl u likel that the fi st hu a settle e t at the Tell Es-“ulta as the settle e t that
uilt the all o e sees i Figu e . This a gu e t a e suppo ted o a u e of g ou ds.
Fi st a d fo e ost is that Natufia A hite tu e did e ist i the ‘i e Jo da Valle , i the Je i ho
egio spe ifi all at Ai -Es-“ulta sp i gs a d o Te“. The st u tu e i Figu es a d is ot
pu el Natufia , eithe i s ale o o pholog . But it is a e olutio of p e-potte Neolithi
Natufia A hite tu e. The la ge oulde i the iddle of the all a d at the e te of the photo
i Figu e a d at the lo e left i Figu e is ot Natufia . A d eithe is the o ta used to
hold these oulde s togethe see i Figu e , fo i g a odest t o to th ee ete s i height
a d a ete to ete a d a half thi k all. This is likel ea l th ille iu BC o st u tio ,
e tai l o olde tha late th ille iu BC A hite tu e. Noti ea le is i this o te t the alls
su ou di g the “ulta ia t pe st u tu e of Figu e . At the a k of the eside es a d pla es
a d/o te ple o pou d, the e is a lo i height a d thi all. This all s o st u tio is post
“ulta ia a d i effe t it is a a alga atio of oth Natufia a d “ulta ia st le. The all
seg e t of Figu es a d is a o e p i iti e, thus p io o st u tio to that all of Figu e .
He e, i the Te“ site of the p e-B o ze Age a d post Natufia E a e e ou te a Phase I
e ol ed Natufia t pe aso all a d a Phase II all that of Figu e , a Natufia -“ulta ia
h id. The Phase I talle a d thi ke aso all ust ha e appea ed at ea l th ille iu
BC pe iod. Whe eas, the Natufia -“ulta ia h id, Phase II N-“h , sli e a d lo e ut o e
de eloped aso all ust ha e ee i pla e the iddle to late th ille iu BC. The
Phase II N-“h all as put the e to p ote t the “ulta ia E a ad a es i su plus e o o i alue
a d ultu al a hie e e ts of the “ulta ia ultu e at Te“. The lo e all st u tu e of the Phase
II N-“h a i di ate that the E a as o e pea eful, a d so ial i te - as ell as i t a- o u al
o fli t lo e i the post iddle th
ille iu BC pe iod, tha the late th
ille iu BC ti e
f a e i the ‘egio .
This i u sta e ight e of i te est i ega ds to Go ekli Tepe o st u tio pe iod, a pe iod
hi h it likel as ha a te ized a pe iod of elati e pea e a d t a uilit i that pa t of the
fe tile C es e t egio , as it ill e fu the dis ussed i the e t se tio of the pape . Gi e , as
a gued i the ea lie su se tio , that the so- alled to e of Je i ho is a post fi st aso
Neolithi Je i ho all st u tu e, it follo s that the to e is a iddle th ille iu BC
o u e t, a d its pu pose ight ot ha e ee p i a il defe se, ut e e o ial a d so ial.

“etti g speeds of ha ge i A hite tu e s E olutio , du i g the th ille iu BC to the th

ille iu BC pe iod, e o es o a it o e a agea le. A detailed look i to the
o u e tal st u tu es of the pe iod, allo fo su h lassifi atio s, a d possi le ph loge eti
ta o o . The t a sitio f o Natufia I the st u tu e u de eath to e at TQ to
Natufia II the ke st u tu e to e at TQ to Natufia III the t a sitio al PPNA to PPNB of
the “t u tu es at TQ ought a out the PPNB “ulta ia I phase of the – BC pe iod,
ith a post PPNB “ulta ia II phase, the fo eg ou d st u tu e i a BC of Figu e . The fi st
aso all of Je i ho ust the e a ea l th
ille iu BC st u tu e, ith the all of Figu e
at the a kg ou d ei g a ea l to iddle th
ille iu BC o st u tio a out a ille iu
late tha the “ulta ia A hite tu e at the fo eg ou d .

The total outli e of the Phase II N-“h all is p ese tl u k o . But the E olutio a P i iples
a ti ulated i this pape i pl that it ust had ee lo ge a d e i li g a good se tio , ajo
luste possi l o tai i g the o e of the itadel s e ti e so io- ultu al elite s o u it . It
ust ha e ee igge i s ale le gth a d height possi l , ut ot e essa il thi ke as it as
stu die tha the o igi al Je i ho Neolithi all, o e i g the ule that has a la ge st u tu e
h o ologi all follo s a s alle i s ale st u tu e of the sa e a hite tu al st le.
Fi all , the ell-k o B o ze Age all of Je i ho a ui es u de this a al sis a e
i te p etatio . It has ee a gued a heologists that its aso lo e pa t as used as
e et e t, i its fu tio as a suppo ti g o po e t a d pa t of the B o ze Age fo tifi atio s
of a spatiall e pa ded o u it o the Tell. Ho e e , this is o l afte ost likel this aso
 o st u tio as used to te a e the slopes of the hill, a d ake it o e a e a le to eside tial
use fo a settle e t that su u a ized , a d that e likel had i eased i populatio size
a d ith a lo e de sit of li i g, as sta da ds of li i g i eased u de a ad a ed o
e o o i s ste a d de og aphi o ditio s at least odestl i the i te e i g ille ia. It
is oted agai , this is the pe iod of the la ge out- ig atio o e e ts out of the Fe tile C es e t
o to the est of Eu asia. This spe ifi spot at the Weste leg of the Le a t s Fe tile C es e t as
the ajo feedi g sou e of that out ig atio flo . F o a desig sta dpoi t, it is a e olutio
of Natufia II A hite tu e. I fa t, it is a E olutio a i te ediate step et ee Natufia I a d
the C lopea alls of the Late B o ze ea l i o Age of the Hittite a d M e aea Cultu es.

Figu e . Tell Es-“ulta : The aso fou datio s of the B o ze Age – BC aso
all of Je i ho . O top of this st u tu e a all f o ud i k lo ks as aised, of a out e ual
height. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

The ase of the B o ze Age all of Je i ho is a spe i e fa o e o ple that the sophisti atio
sho i its aso st u tu e. That B o ze Age Je i ho all of Figu e is also a Phase III
“ulta ia a dista t, th ee ille ia e olutio of late Natufia A hite tu e of the iddle th
ille iu BC. Its lea i g alls li e is f o the ea lie e pe i e t ith the o e-like st u tu e
of the egalithi to e of Je i ho. Mo eo e , the o ept of ha i g ud i k lo ks o top of
sto e fou datio s is p e isel the i e e ou te ed i the ase of the “ulta ia A hite tu e
e se le of eside es a d pala es of Figu e . But of ou se, o e o e a oss this
e olutio a path i desig f o oth the egalithi to e a d the atio alized a d effi ie t
i of ate ials i a u h la ge s ale, o e i g the s ale p i iple i a hite to i e olutio .
Middle to late th ille iu BC is a out the ti e the post Natufia i ol i g sto e e losu es
A hite tu e of Go ekli Tepe appea s i the ho izo , ith thei o olithi egalithi featu es i
thei o thostats a d pilla s. The ti e of the appea a e of the st u tu e, sho i Figu e ,
suppo ti g the ud i k supe st u tu e of the B o ze Age Je i ho alls takes pla e at the
Neolithi to the B o ze Age ou da . It is this ou da that this all of Je i ho a ks, a d it is
this ou da he the site at Go ekli Tepe is u ied. To that site e tu e t.

Figu e A. Ba lo ia Ma duk holdi g the pu ifi atio s ol. Wall elief. The s ol is a ke
featu e a d li k et ee Go ekli Tepe a d Lo e Mesopota ia at the B o ze Age, ef. [ . ].
 Go ekli Tepe C- Related E ide e: Co ta i ated a d La gel I ele a t
I t odu tio
I this se tio th ee p io pape s the autho , ef. [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ], a e e isited. The
sti ulus to do so is a epo t the a heologists i ha ge of the e a atio at Go ekli Tepe GT ,
see ef. [ . ]. A e detailed diag a is offe ed i thei epo t, hi h sho s the e a t lo atio s
fo he e sa ples o tai i g o ga i ate ial has ee e t a ted f o the o u e t a d C-
dati g a al sis has ee pe fo ed. Based o the eadi gs f o these C- a al ses, a o g
othe easo s ited the a heologists a d e u e ated i the set of pu li atio s ited i the
afo e e tio ed pape s, the o lusio has ee de i ed that the a heologi al site at GT
o tai s PPNA/B o u e ts. It is the pu pose of this se tio to sho that this is ot e essa il
so, addi g o to the a gu e ts al ead stated i the th ee a o e listed pape s the autho .

Co ta i ated e ide e
Lo atio of sa ples used fo C- dati g. The fo al poi t of the o e ts offe ed he e pi ots
o the diag a of Figu e . The diag a is f o ef. [ . ], hi h o tai s a Ju e ,
a ou e e t f o Tepetelepg a s, the pu li atio outlet of the a heologists at GT. I this
diag a , the e a t poi ts a e sho , f o he e sa ples o tai i g o ga i ate ial ha e ee
e t a ted. A al sis of these lo atio s a d hat the i pl fo dati g the st u tu es C a d D of
the GT site is a ied out i this spe ifi se tio . Casual i spe tio of the diag a i di ates that
all the sa ples ith the e eptio of t o, that ill e e a i ed i o e detail i a it a e take
f o spots lo ated outside the ke st u tu es C a d D, a d thei La e s III – these ei g the oldest
st u tu es a d la e at the site, a o di g to the a heologists. It is that these spe ifi sto e
e losu es C a d D the a heologists a gue that st u tu e D is the oldest a e the o es ho
date GT. Whethe C o D is the oldest st u tu e does ot affe t the a gu e ts he e, si e hat
ill e p ese ted applies e uall to oth.
It has ee a gued i [ . ], a d it is ot a suppositio ut a a heologi al gi e , that fills do ot
date st u tu es. It is a o o se se state e t, e e t i ial, easil ei g u de stood all. Fo
e a ple, o e a use toda s soil that is take f o so e pla e that o tai s li i g
i oo ga is s a d fill a o u e t uilt i a ti uit sa fo e a ple, Tuta kha u s To .
This fill ould i o a affe t the dati g of the to a th
e tu BC st u tu e . O e a also
use soil f o a site that o tai s e lusi el Holo e e-Pleisto e e ou da th
ille iu
BC o ga i ate ial. Agai , this should i o a affe t the dati g of the to . The ule is si ple:
fills do ot date st u tu es. O l the A hite tu e of st u tu es dates st u tu es, o ate ial
u de eath the st u tu e a d ot a o e it o outside of it. This ge e al p i iple ust e also
ualified u de s o i g the i po ta e of st atig aph , to e su e that hat has ee
a u ulated u de eath the st u tu e as pla ed the e geologi al d a i s elated
p o esses o e i g the la that fu the do st ata i pl geologi all olde st ata a d ot a
lo al geologi al foldi g a o al . Fu the , that the o se ed st atifi atio as ot the out o e
of hu a i te tio al a tio , hate e that i te t ight ha e ee .
 Figu e . Go ekli Tepe: the lo atio s he e sa ples o tai i g o ga i ate ial ha e ee
e t a ted, that u de e t C- dati g. “ou e of diag a : ef. [ . ].

He e, the o l pe ti e t ate ial fou d i side the ke st u tu es C a d D, is the sa ple

desig ated as KIA- f o a o thostat s plaste d essi g i side st u tu e D. A othe sa ple,
desig ated as KIA- is also take f o the i e su fa e of the side i g all s plaste o
sto e e losu e, st u tu e D. The o thostat # of st u tu e D, f o hi h sa ple KIA- is
take , is a fi el d essed, egalithi o olith, ith ell-defi ed e ta gula sides, a d pe fe t
edges. As e ha e see i the e te si e o e age of PPNA/B st u tu es i oth TQ a d Te“, as
ell i all PPNA/B sites this autho a al zed i pape s [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ], o he e do e
e ou te su h o olithi egalithi o st u tio i the Le a t – o a he e o Ea th fo that
atte , at that ti e pe iod.
Mo eo e , a d these a e A t a d A hite tu e ased a gu e ts full de eloped i the a o e
ited th ee efe e es a d ill ot e epeated he e i a detail, this t pe of egalithi ut a d
o e d essi g of sto es as si pl ot i the a ds at that ti e pe iod, the p e-potte
Neolithi . A d eithe as the A t fou d o the . I sho t, plaste i g of o thostats o alls as
ot p a ti ed the , a d the o l plaste i g o e i g of i te io alls e ha e i p e-potte
Neolithi houses is f o ud as e sa i oth ase e a i e he e TQ a d Te“ . O l i late th
ille iu BC do e e ou te the ea liest e a ples he e sophisti ated d essi g of alls,
floo s a d s all i s ale pilla s, as is the ase ith the Te ple last o st u tio phase of Ne ali
Co i, a late th ille iu BC st u tu e, takes pla e.

“a ple KIA- . To slightl add a d la gel e d this pa t of the a al sis ega di g the o tai i g
of e ide e o the dati g of the site f o o thostat # su fa e plaste , it is oted that as the
a heologists of GT ha e stated pilla s a d o thostats at GT e e fou d to ha e ee usuall e-
su fa ed. Ofte , the stated, the e a e i di atio s that p io i o og aph o o thostats as
e ased, a d e i o og aph as applied o to the . He e, if this plaste i g is the last su fa e
plaste i g that as applied o to o thostat # , it di e tl follo s that the o thostat itself ould
e a fa ea lie o st u tio tha that i di ated f o C- a al sis of its plaste . Of ou se, this
pushes the edi ilit of the dati g e ha is fu the i to the a ss. A othe fa to a al zed i
[ . ] affe ti g the deg ee of o ta i atio suffe ed the spe ifi t pe of plaste used to d ess
o thostat # easil a e a le to o ta i atio a d thus o uptio of the esults, a d it is due
to the pe ea ilit of the plaste i g age t. I a fi al a al sis, the a out of this o u d u o
ho to deal ith the C- pa ado e sus the o ete A hite tu e e ide e – a o g the a
othe fa to s, ot listed he e ut fou d i the th ee a o e e tio ed pape s the autho is to
a ept the o ious: that the spe ifi spot f o he e the sa ple of plaste as take fo a o
dati g a al sis as o ta i ated a PPNA/B spot i side the fill used to u the o u e t.
The e is a solutel o dispute to the fa t that the GT st u tu es e e u ied i la ge pa t soil
f o a PPNA/B site. This is a i te esti g aspe t of the e ti e a ati e o GT, the spatio-te po al
o igi s of the soil used to u the o u e t. Yet, p e ious little has ee offe ed the
a heologists a d othe a al sts of GT o this topi . Mo e o this su je t ill e added at the last
se tio of this pape . A d it holds so e su p ises ega di g the a e it as a ied out.
“a ple KIA- as the ke a d si gle ost i po ta t e ide e that as ited the o igi al
a heologist i ha ge of the e a atio at GT, Klaus “ h idt, as the iti al e ide e o hi h
to ase the a ati e that GT is a PPNA/B site. It as e tio ed i a ke pu li atio a d
 u e ous othe s , ited i ef. [ . ], as the o e idi g fa to fo alli g Go ekli Tepe as p e-
potte Neolithi site. Othe fa to s, i ludi g lithi e ide e agai f o the fill, as also ited to
suppo t this a gu e t. No A hite tu e, A t, Hu a a d Ph si al Geog aph , De og aphi s,
E o o i s, Cli ati o Geolog elated e ide e the a heologists has ee supplied. But
these fa to s e e all put togethe i to hat e a e the t io of pape s the autho a gui g
that it is i tuall i possi le fo Go ekli Tepe to e a p e-potte Neolithi o u e t. E ide e
f o the t o additio al sites Tell Qa a el, a d Tell Es-“ulta offe ed he e o fu the alidate
these a gu e ts the autho . The eade a just look at the A hite tu e a d A t of the
PPNA/B pe iod u h of it as p ese ted he e , a d ask the si ple uestio : ho is it possi le
that these so io- ultu al o ditio s i the Le a t that p odu ed so a ut ot so diffe e t
setti gs – setti gs a al zed i the p io th ee pape s a d the t o additio al setti gs a al zed
he e – to ha e o-e isted ith Go ekli Tepe, a setti g so diffe e t i so a espe ts f o all
othe s. It si pl is t possi le.

“a ple KIA- . This is the e e ide e fou d i Figu e , e ide e ot k o to this

eade he the pape s [ . ] – [ . ] e e itte , thus, it as ot i luded the e. But it is
add essed he e o . The sa ple as take f o the i te io su fa e of the all of e losu e
st u tu e D s i e i g, lo ated et ee o thostats # a d $ . This e e ide e does t
alte a si gle iota of the a a gu e ts al ead stated, it si pl i plies that the o ditio s of
o ta i atio appli a le i the ase of KIA- appl to KIA- as ell. What i effe t
these sa ples date is the pat h of the fill hi h as i o ta t ith these st u tu al ele e ts of
e losu e D.
O the est of the sa ples a d thei lo atio s. A u e of othe eight sa ples ha e ee
a o dated, as sho i Figu e . What e a tl these sa ples date is as u lea . Fo su e the
date the fill se tio f o he e these spe ifi sa ples ha e ee d a a d e e i o ta t ith
thei o ta i ated pat hes o the st u tu es. These sa ples e tai l do ot date the st u tu es
p ope . App op iate dati g of the othe st u tu es o thei oute i gs ould pote tiall p o ide
a histo iog aphi a ati e of the e ti e site of ou se. As al ead stated, it is still u lea hethe
st u tu e C o st u tu e D is the oldest a o g the t o, a d he e do the est of the st u tu es
E a d F, a d o e to o e sta d i h o ologi al o de . I [ . ] a d [ . ] the autho has ade
so e h potheses ith ega ds to the h o olog of a u e of GT st u tu es. Ho e e , the
spe ifi h o ologi al se ue e, ot ei g the pu pose of this pape , ot u h ill e added.
The i te ested eade is di e ted to these pape s fo o e a al sis a d details. The e ight e
g ou ds to suggest that the athe p i iti e oute la e s of GT s ell-fo ed st u tu es a e u h
ea lie sto e e losu es. That those o io t pe la e s su ou di g the ell e losed aso
st u tu es A, B, C, D, a e of the Natufia st le a d e e o st u ted utilizi g the the fa ilia
fo s of p i iti e a s o apses. Ho e e , these a -t pe st u tu es do ot o tai a
o thostats o pilla s i the . The possi l ould e p e-potte Neolithi i desig .
“u se ue tl , the fa o e sophisti ated sto e e losu es of the C a d D t pe ight ha e o e
i to e iste e, i fa t u h late , uite possi l as al ead has ee suggested i the iddle to
late th ille iu BC.
I ge e al, a d i su a , the eti ulous a d a eful p o ess of filli g the st u tu es ith
PPNA/B soil a d u the , as a ied out those ho e ded the o u e t s life has
appa e tl o ta i ated a pa ts of this site. What i effe t the fill has do e is to e de the
C- e ide e i ele a t.
Mo e diffi ulties ith the dati g. I a u e of o asio s, th oughout the a al sis offe ed
the a heologists i ef. [ . ] a efe e e o tai i g the Tepeteleg a s, o e all a uite
i fo ati e outlet o e o es a oss othe seg e ts hi h lea l le d suppo t to the
a gu e ts put fo a d he e. Fo e a ple, i the pa ag aph just u de the photo i the epo t
sho i g K. “ h idt i st u tu e D, the a heologists e tio that o je ts f o the past e e
i te tio all deposited i the fill . “u h o se atio di e tl i plies that the fill as i deed olde
tha the st u tu e, easo a l assu i g that the ha a te izatio past efe s to the ti e the
st u tu e as uilt a d ot to the ti e of the fill. The ultu e that e ded up e e ole tl u i g
the o u e t as e shall see i the last se tio , the e ould e t o diffe e t age ies i ol ed
i the u ial - a i itial age u de ale ole t i te t, a d a fi al age u de e e ole t
i te t as appa e tl i te ested i p ese i g histo . If so, the ust ha e atte pted to
p ese e a tifa ts f o thei past, o side ed sa ed the , ell efo e the sa tua a d
e e o ial e te of GT as o st u ted. At the e d, these a tifa ts e e pla ed i the
sa tua fo safekeepi g i poste it , gi e that the sa tua itself this so io- ultu al site e
olle ti el efe to as GT o as uilt fo the a d hat these a tifa ts ep ese ted f o the
e sta t.
The e is o e u settli g e ide e o the a o - dati g. Fu the do i the epo t ef. [ . ] ,
t o pa ag aphs elo the a o e e a k, a d o li e se o d li e f o the otto of the
pa ag aph the a heologists ote: The efo e, the data fail to p o ide a solute h o ologi al
poi ts of efe e e to a hite tu e a d st ata . A o di g to the , the e ide e is so e ati as
it offe s eadi gs fo as a k as the th ille iu do to the th ille iu alBC. We
dis ussed this p o le ith so e a o - e ide e i the ase of TQ ea lie as ell. The
a heologists go o to state that the p o ide a te i us a te ue fo the a kfilli g of the
e losu es a d the a a do e t of the site . The put this at the La e II phase, i pl i g that
the a peg a lo e ou d o the ti e that the fi al u ial of the site took pla e. Ho e e , this
a kfill does p e ious little to date eithe the st u tu e a d espe iall La e III of st u tu es C
a d D, the ke so fa sto e e losu es at GT o to date the spe ifi ti e pe iod the fi al filli g
as a ied out. Ba kfill ould had o e f o a he e f o a geologi al ti e zo e st atu .
I thei a ati e, the histo iog aph of the site is su h that it alls fo a th ille iu BC u ial
– as the o iousl eje t a th ille iu BC u ial of the site, a eje tio NOT ased o a o -
dati g ut o thei o assu ptio s a out the o u e t. O e a easil ag ee that the th
ille iu BC u ial is u ealisti , ut so is the th ille iu BC u ial. Both a e ased ot
o e ide e d a f o the st u tu es the sel es, ut f o sa ples that ha e little to do ith
the st u tu es.
Lithi e ide e. “i ila to the a gu e ts a out the C- dati g a e the a gu e ts a out the
lithi e ide e. It is he e that the Je i ho site o es i to the pi tu e, as the GT a heologists
e tio lithi e ide e f o Je i ho. Pa e theti all , it as p e isel this efe e e that
p o pted this autho s o k o Je i ho, ot the lithi s of Je i ho ut its A hite tu e. Co i g
a k to lithi s, if the soil used to fill the st u tu es as PPNA/B soil, it is of ou se atu al that the
lithi e ide e fou d i it is also PPNA/B. Agai , the lithi e ide e ight date the fill ot the
st u tu e. As al ead stated, i a fi al a al sis, A hite tu e dates st u tu es.

Go ekli Tepe A hite tu e Related E ide e: Post Te ple Phase Ne ali Co i

I t odu tio
I this se tio of the pape t o spe ifi A hite tu e elated pie es of e ide e ill e p ese ted,
as the a e ot i luded i the th ee pape s [ . ], [ . ] a d [ . ] itte this autho o GT.
O e is elated to so e e e t e ide e p odu ed the a heologists at GT a d is elated to
st u tu e B of the site. The othe is so e e ide e that li ks the Ne ali Co i a heologi al site
ith the Go ekli Tepe site, a d it has to do ith thei pilla s a d o thostats. These t o pie es of
e ide e ill e add essed i tu .

Figu e . Go ekli Tepe, st u tu e B: the lo atio of the po thole at the otto of the sto e
lo k i di ated the ed a o . The all of i te est he e is that o e to a ds the “outh-East
fa i g the e et e t all, pa t of hi h is this po thole lo k. “ ale a d No th a e sho o the
e te -left pa t of the photo. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
 The all i st u tu e B
“t u tu e B at GT, see Figu e , is a e losu e that the a heologists of the site do ot o side
to e as old as st u tu es C a d D, although the ha e e e spe ified its date. I a e e t
Tepeteleg a epo t dated Ap il , , see ef. [ . ] the a heologists p ese t its spatial
a a ge e t a d dis uss at so e le gth the po thole a d the i o og aph asso iated ith t o
fo es a d a u a iu . What the a heologists did ot add ess i that epo t is a all to the
“outh-East of that pothole. This all is hat ill e the su je t of this su se tio , as its
A hite tu e speaks loud a d lea as to the possi le dati g of this pa t of the sto e e losu e.

I Figu e , a photo f o the top of the st u tu e B is sho , i hi h a detailed ie f o pa t

of the e losu e is offe ed. A se tio also f o o thostat # see Figu e is sho , at otto
e te of the photo. What is of sig ifi a t i te est, is the uppe pa t of the side a s U-shaped
aso all to the No th-East of the o thostat a d to the “outh-East of the po thole. The
po thole is lo ated di e tl i f o t of the o thostat s a o side to a ds the No th-West. The
autho has a al zed this i te esti g all i a esea h post see Note No. fo o e details .
The U-shaped spa e, as is the spa e to the No th of it, although too a o fo hu a utilizatio
as li i g spa e, ould e useful spa es to keep a i als dead o ali e . I the ase of li e a i als
a d the t o fo es a d a ull i o og aph ight poi t to that effe t the e as a spa e to keep
a i als ead fo possi le sa ifi e. Ho e e , the e ould also e othe uses fo these spa es a d
thei o stitue t alls. Espe iall the U-shaped all to the ight of the o thostat ight ell ha e
ee a pa tial st u tu al suppo t to this o thostat # . Gi e the s ale of the photo, the
o thostat s idth ust e a ou d e ti ete s, a d it le gth app o i atel e ti ete s.

I this U-shaped aso all, the i te esti g f o a st u tu al E gi ee i g ie poi t se tio

of it is its No the a h. It is ade f o ediu size oulde s a d s all size sto es. The idth
of this leg of the all is too a o to e si pl of the d ashla t pe. Boulde s of that size i ed
ith s all size sto es si pl fo a highl u sta le e se le, i possi le fo the to e esti g
o ea h othe fo a sig ifi a t height o e a sig ifi a t le gth of ti e. The eed a o ta
ith o side a le adhesi e apa ilit a d po e to hold the st u tu e togethe . Usuall , e e t
o o ete is used fo this pu pose.
It is ot k o hat o ta t pe as used to p o ide st u tu al sta ilit to this all. No atte
hat it as, the all ust ha e ee a u h late tha th ille iu BC o st u tio , si e to
date o a heologi al site has p odu ed e ide e that aso alls of that thi k ess a d
o positio e e possi le u de d ashla o ditio s. Mud as ofte used as a adhesi e
age t to hold sto es a d oulde s togethe i all o st u tio till the th ille iu BC.
Ho e e , that as fo alls ith a sig ifi a t idth, at least a ete thi k; o fo ases he
heights did ot e essi el e eed idths.
 The Ne ali Co i pilla
Ne ali Co i is a o i u dated the Atatu k da ate site, hi h this autho e te si el
a al zed i all of his p io th ee pape s o GT, see ef. [ . ], [ . ], [ . ]. it as a gued that this
pa ti ula site is a odal o e i u de sta di g Go ekli Tepe, a d its h o olog . The a gu e ts
ill ot e epeated he e, he e so e e ate ial ill e added ega di g the pilla fou d i
Ne ali Co i s e ta gula i floo pla Te ple. If the e is a spe ifi A hite tu e a d A t elated
su je t hi h ide tifies a u istaka l o e-di e tio al li kage i pl i g a lea h o ologi al
se ue e, he e a p io st u tu e poi ts to a su se ue t o e is the li esto e pilla of Ne ali
Co i s Te ple he o pa ed to the e t al li esto e pilla of st u tu e D egalithi o olith
# at GT. I Figu es .a, . , a d . the Ne ali Co i app o i atel o e ete i height T-
shaped pilla is sho ; he eas i Figu e .d the o olithi egalithi T-shaped o e tha si
ete s i height # pilla i st u tu e D is fou d.

Figu e .a. Ne ali Co i, Te ple last phase of o st u tio the e . The T-shaped o olithi
pilla u de dis ussio is the egalith sta di g at the e t al pla e of the te azzo e ta gula
floo e te left at he e it is a ho ed. Appa e tl , the e e e t o o oliths i the Te ple s
ai spa e, ut o l o e su i ed. F o the size of the floo ope i g to suppo t the o olith s
ase it ould e i fe ed that its size ight had ee g eate tha the o e that su i ed. The
autho has a al zed this Te ple i [ . ] a d [ . ]. Of i te est a e also the s all s ale o thostats
at the e ta gula te ple s aso pe s. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
I a o da e ith the fu da e tal p i iple of E olutio i Fo , as ha i g ee e p essed
this autho i this pape a d othe ele a t pu li atio s, i oth A hite tu e a d A t, a d also
ased o e te si e e pi i al e ide e alidati g this p i iple – so e of it p ese ted al ead i
this pape - a A hite tu e st u tu e hi h is o e o ple a d of a la ge s ale ut i ol i g
the sa e ualitati e the e, ust o e late tha a A hite tu e st u tu e hi h is si ple a d
s alle i s ale, he e the the e as possi l fi st o ei ed, tested a d lau hed. The ti e
dista e et ee the pe iods he the t o st u tu es appea ed is a fu tio of thei espe ti e
diffe e es alo g these t o a ia les o ple it a d s ale . The t o st u tu es sho he e, the
Ne ali Co i T-shaped pilla a d the Go ekli Tepe T-shaped pilla # a e ases i poi t.

Figu e . . Ne ali Co i e t al li esto e pilla a out a ete i height . “ou e of photo:

ef. [ . ].

Figu e . . D a i g of the t o sides of the Ne ali Co i s Te ple e t al o olithi T-shaped

pilla . A p i iti e oti e is sho hi h late as e pa ded i oth its o ple it a d s et
ualities as ell as s ale at Go ekli Tepe. “ou e of d a i g: [ . ].
Both o tai si ila i o og aph , ut the e t ao di a o ple it a d s et fou d i pilla
# at Go ekli Tepe o hi h o ple it a d s et this autho has e te si el ela o ated
i his t ilog of pape s o GT ited ea lie u istaka l poi t to a u h late dati g fo GT a d
a ea lie Te ple Phase of Ne ali Co i. O top of this lea a o of ti e at o k he e asso iated
ith the i o og aph s o ple it , the diffe e e i s ale is also e telli g: the Ne ali Co i
o olith is ot egalithi o i g at slightl less tha a ete i height ; he eas GT s
o olithi egalith is talle a d a lo g shot at o e tha si ete s . The sa e applies to
the t o setti gs’ o hostats. The o htostats of Ne ali Co i Te ple s e hes a d thus the Te ple
itself ep ese t a su - atego of o hthosts fou d fi st i the Je f el-Ah a Natufia a h of
A hite tu e. Of i te est is that Ne ali Co i s Te ple is a e olutio a d thus a a h of
“ulta ia s e ta gula A hite tu e. He e, Ne ali Co i a i e settle e t ep ese ts a odal
a hite tu al st le. It is f o this - ile a a setti g that Go ekli Tepe s A hite tu e took off
a d e a e the o olithi egalithi A hite tu e i hi h oth Ad a ed Natufia a d
Ad a e “ulta ia st les et a d oss-fe tilized.
I the p io th ee pape s, the autho ade the ase that Ne ali Co i s last phase, the Te ple
Phase, ust ha e ee a ea l th ille iu BC st u tu e, a d e tai l follo i g the
Catalho uk ea l a d iddle phases. Both a e ha a te ized “ulta ia A hite tu e. At GT,
pu e “ulta ia A hite tu e did a i e also. The e is a e ta gula e losu e the e, see Figu e
.e. But this e losu e ust had o e afte the Ne ali Co i Natufia -“ulta ia te ple. It also
ust had o e afte the sig ifi a tl e ol ed Natufia phase of the ai e losu es at GT,
st u tu es C a d D.

Figu e .d. Go ekli Tepe, o e of the t o e t al li esto e pilla s i st u tu e D. it is o e

tha si ete s i height. The e sophisti ated desig a d e t ao di a s et of this T-
shaped egalithi o olith pilla # the autho has e te si el a al zed a d dis ussed i his
pape s o GT, espe iall i ef. [ . ]. “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].
Figu e .e. The e ta gula st u tu e at GT. This st u tu e ep ese ts a e olutio of the
e ui ale t Ne ali Co i e ta gula Te ple st u tu e. It o tai s o olithi egalithi pilla s a d
o thostats, to s all s ale pilla s a d o thostats of the Ne ali Co i Te ple. “ou e of photo, ef.
[ . ].

It ould e of i te est to set the speeds of e olutio a d e st le a d su -st le fo atio s i

the Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e, ased o the ases e ie ed i this pape . The task ould
e ui e a fi e ali atio of dates, gi e so e ates of ha ge at the i o-le el, o siste t ith
the a o le el steps of A hite tu e s E olutio f o p e-Natufia at the Epipaleolithi to the
th
ille iu BC GT ad a ed Natufia ad a ed “ulta ia o olithi egalithi st les.
‘oughl , at the a o-le el, the t o ajo st les of the Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e took a out
si ille ia to u fold. Of that, a out th ee ille ia e e al ost e lusi el o opolized
the Natufia st le, f o the iddle th
ille iu BC p e-Natufia to e at TQ, to the
iddle th
ille iu BC, he the “ulta ia st le appea ed at Te“. The e t th ee ille ia
e e sha ed a e ol i g Natufia st le, a “ulta ia st le, a d thei i . The ul i atio of
these t o st les as the A hite tu es of GT. The late ad a ed Natufia o st u tio s at GT,
a d the li tels of Je i ho s to e , e e the st u tu es that lau hed the e t ao di a il a ied th
to d ille iu BC Neolithi o olithi egalithi A hite tu e of Eu asia. I that e olutio ,
the li tels f o the to e at Je i ho s stai a pla ed as ig of a ole as the pilla s of GT.
 Go ekli Tepe’s Bu ial: B o ze Age a d i T o Phases
I t odu tio
I this se tio of the pape the u ial of this e t ao di a iddle to late th ille iu BC
o u e t is dis ussed. It is a topi that a el , if e e , gets a detailed e tio i a ious
a al sts i ludi g the a heologists o k, a d o l i passi g is add essed a d la gel e jo s
u do u e ted e a ks. “i e ot u h i fo atio is a aila le o the topi , the ajo it of the
a al sis offe ed he e ust e o st ued as o ki g h potheses. These h potheses a e su je t
to fu the e ifi atio f o i fo atio hopefull fo th o i g f o ot o l GT elated sites, ut
also f o asso iated a eas a d ‘egio s of the Le a t a d the Fe tile C es e t, pa ti ula l the
“outhe pa t of the Tau us ou tai a ge, the Mesopota ia Basi oth, Uppe a d Lo e
Mesopota ia , a d the Jo da ‘ift Valle . GT s u ial as it as p a ti ed ight e a o e
o ple e e t tha its fo atio , a d ot a e essa il a u i ue e e t that o l o u ed at GT.
I the GT ase, ost likel t o disti tl diffe e t a d ajo phases took pla e i its u ial, he e
at least t o diffe e t age ies ultu es e e ost likel i ol ed. These t o phases a e
ela o ated i tu e t. “o e possi le s e a ios a e put fo a d i this o te t. The a ope
up i do s to a ds a e app oa h i a al zi g GT.
Phase I: dest u tio a d possi le fi st atte pted u ial?
Not all of GT s so fa u ea thed st u tu es e e fou d i ta t a d i p isti e o ditio . “o e of
the o thostats a d pilla s e e fou d da aged. I di atio s f o the f a tu es see o so e
a uee o po e ts of the sa tua o e e o ial/ ultu al e te see to suggest that
so e of the da age as i te tio all i fli ted, a d so e as aused egle t. Da age is
i di ated toppled st u tu es, oth o thostats a d pilla s, as ell as f o f a tu ed o ile
o je ts. “o e of the da age as topi al, a d s all i s ale. The e is o e ide e e ealed so fa
to suggest o side a le a d la ge i s ale, i te tio all i fli ted, holesale da age. Cases of
da age a ied out ith di e t ale ole t i te t, o ale ole t eglige e he e att i uted to
e i o e tal de a a d a atu al apital dep e iatio p o ess ithout upkeep a e e ide t i
Figu e .a.
Th ee ases of da age i pl i g ale ole t i te t a e those of the e t al pilla i the photo
he e the pilla as i te tio all f a tu ed at t o poi ts at least ; the f a tu ed pilla i the
fo eg ou d at otto e te of photo ; a d the o thostat at ight just elo e te . Othe
isolated da aged a eas o pilla s a d o thostats a e also e ide t, so e of it possi l due to
e i o e tal deg adatio of the li esto e, a a do ed to the ele e ts fo so e p olo ged
ti e pe iod. A othe e a ple of possi le ale ole t da age to a o thostat is the ase sho
i Figu e . . “o e s all i s ale dest u tio o it see s to ha e ai ed at pa tiall dest o i g
the f o tal top of the T-shaped li esto e egalith. Ho e e , this da age ould also e due to
ale ole t o etheless egle t, a d e i o e tal deg adatio .
Although this is ot a stud i Histo o p e-Histo , it is o etheless o th e tio i g that
the pe iod of hiatus i the Tell Es-“ulta post Je i ho to e phase oi ides ith the ise of GT.
It is a the e that ill e fu the tou hed upo i the e t a d last su -se tio of this pape .

Figu e .a. Go ekli Tepe, i di atio s of i te tio all i fli ted dest u tio . “ou e of photo:
ef. [ . ].

O iousl , the ultu e hi h atte pted to i te tio all i fli t da age to the o u e t ould
ot ha e ee the sa e ultu e that uilt this e t ao di a set of st u tu es. Was the e a
atte pt to u the o u e t those ho i itiall i fli ted the da age at spe ifi pla es i
spe ifi e losu es? It is ot et k o as a o plete histo iog aph of the e ti e o u e t at
GT is la ki g at p ese t. It has ee esta lished although dati g e ai s o t o e sial that ot
all st u tu es e e o st u ted, a d possi l da aged o u ied, at the sa e ti e. Could it e
that so e dest u tio a d u ial as taki g pla e as e o st u tio as u de a ? That
ould ha e ea t that a e the o u e t as a hole u de e t pa tial t a sitio s i ult
o shipi g. The p ese e of ofte diffe i g i o i s ols o the pilla s a d o thostats ould
sig if s all o la ge i s ale t a sitio s i pa ti ula ult do i a e. It looks highl u likel that
the o u e t as a hole as u de o e a d ho oge eous ult fo its e ti e life le of a out
to e tu ies. But dest u tio is p ese t at the o u e t s a ious st u tu es, a d that
dest u tio p e eded the o u e t s fi al u ial of ou se. O tai i g a ha dle o the
dest u tio a d u ial ight shed light o its fo i g.

Figu e . . Go ekli Tepe s pilla ith the Bull; i di atio of s all s ale dest u tio , o
i te tio al lo g-te egle t of the o u e t. Pu li do ai photo.

Phase II fi al u ial a d p ote tio

To add ess the uestio , ho as the o u e t u ied, ho a d he , a asi uestio
ust fi st e add essed: if the e ti e site as u ied at the sa e ti e, he e did this
o side a le olu e of soil a d pe les, that ade up the ate ial used to a efull a d
eti ulousl u all its st u tu es to thei e top, o e f o ? Pla es he e o oliths e e
 ua ied do ot suppl su h ua tities of soil fo that pu pose. A de i ati e uestio is, ho o e
a d i the fill hi h this autho o te ds a e f o a pla e, o pla es, that o tai ed PPNA/B
stuff soil a d a tifa ts f o u h late ultu es a d ti e pe iods take to e e a ts of the
Classi al E a, B za ti e a d Isla i e ete ies, the latte t o a o di g to U i e sit of Chi ago
a heologists that fi st e a i ed this site i the s a d dis issed it as a u i po ta t a d
a heologi all o e o less ste ile g ou d as fou d? These t o asi uestio s e a e set to
e plo e at so e depth e t. I so doi g, a e i do ope s up to a e ie of Go ekli Tepe.
The t o Faultli e e e ts. At the outset, it ust e oted that i di iduals do ot u
o u e ts, ultu al fo es do. “pe ifi i di iduals a a out the a tual a t, ut the a e
si pl age ts a ti g o ehalf of those oade a d u h o e po e ful so ietal, t a sitio al
a d t a sfo ati e ultu al fo es. Cultu e ig ites a d foste s eligious a d so ial o je ti es
hi h i tu eate, ai tai o dest o , a a do a d u o u e ts. The size of o u e ts
thei ake s efle ts the size of those oti ati g fo es; as the deg ee of dest u tio of
o u e ts also efle ts the st e gth i the u de l i g hostilit a d ese t e t the
dest o i g ultu e to a ds the o e hose o u e t it dest o s. Thus, s ale i o u e ts is
di e tl p opo tio al to the eati g ultu e s st e gth. I a Ce t al Pla e Theo , )ipf-size
dist i utio o te t, see ef. [ . ], [ . ] o those su je ts, the top ultu e do i ates ithi its
a ket a ea. The top luste of this hie a h eates the g eatest i s ale o u e ts, a d a k
the , that as GT. I the e ti e spatial do ai he e su h a Ce t al Pla e Theo hie a hi al
st u tu e has fo ed i ou o te t, the Weste Eu asia ‘egio e fe luste s e e the
o e e te s, at a poi t i ti e, a d the top setti g as that ep ese ted GT, hi h e jo ed
p i a a o g all othe o es. Hu a Geog aph D a i Ce t al Pla e Theo a d e ol i g
)ipf-size ules go e the E olutio of “o ieties, thei A hite tu es, a d thei o u e ts alike.

It is this set of e po e ful fo es that a e espo si le fo the eatio of the e fe a d e

la ge i s ale Neolithi egalithi o u e ts of Hu a it o e the ille ia, like “to ehe ge,
the P a ids of Giza, a d the )iggu at of U du i g the Neolithi a d the B o ze Age i Weste
Eu asia. Both o st u tio a d dest u tio of o u e ts d a i s at a la ge spatio-te po al
s ale a e the out o e of agg egate so io-e o o i - ultu al d a i s ope ati g o these
o u e ts, A hite tu es a d “o ieties. “u h la ge i s ale ultu al fo es ope ate o e lo g i
ti e s ale pe iods a d o e a ast a ou t of spa e, the a e ot lo al a d sho t i te e e ts.
GT as a la ge i s ale o u e tal site, as it as Je i ho, a d as it as Tell Qa a el at its ti e.
He e, to full g asp the oad so ietal fa to s that ga e ise to GT a d ulti atel aused its
de ise, o e eed to look at the la ge i s ale e e ts u de a at oth e ds, its o st u tio
phase o side ed he e to e the th ille iu BC a d at its u ial phase o side ed he e to
e the th e tu BC i the e ti e Le a t.
Middle th ille iu BC e pe ie es the full s i g of the Chal olithi , the e d of the PPNB
pe iod. It is he p oto iti g o u s, a d e luste s of settle e ts sta t to appea i the
Balka s a d No th-East Af i a as the ag i ultu alist f o the Le a t a d the Fe tile C es e t
sp ead West f o the Easte Medite a ea sho es. This is the pe iod that p odu es the la ge
i s ale e e t ep ese ted the Go ekli Tepe site fo atio , a d the i itial stages of the U aid
pe iod i Lo e Mesopota ia. O the othe e d, the th e tu BC is a othe histo i al
Faultli e i Eu asia, the ou da et ee the Neolithi a d the B o ze Age. This is the pe iod
that it essed the fi al u ial of the la gest a heologi al site the e ti e Eu asia had see
o st u ted et ee these t o e h a ks, GT. The e olutio a path et ee these t o
Faultli e pe iods as ot s ooth a d o ti uous, a d eithe as Go ekli Tepe s lifespa . At
eithe e d, the sta t a d the fi ish of this la ge i s ale o u e tal site, e e ts of oth eatio
a d u ial e e ot i sta ta eous, sha p a d sho t i ti e du atio . Ve likel the took
e tu ies to u fold, a d the o u ed i stages, i o-stages o pa ed to the la ge ti e
ho izo s i ol ed i the o u e t s life le.
Possi le e li g of e losu es i ol ed. The o lusio is that the u ial did t happe at o e,
it as ot fast a d it likel took e tu ies to o plete a d o u ed i phases. He e, o e a
po de the uestio : is it possi le that the a ious st u tu es at GT e e e- led – ea i g,
o e o a fe as e e eated, the u ied a d the e t o e a fe eated as a follo up,
possi l the esult of a othe ult do i a e? If this uestio is a s e ed i the affi ati e,
the o e a i agi e that the e is o eed to fi d i o e step a e la ge ua tit of soil to u
the e ti e site, as the soil e t a ted f o the aki g of o e o a fe st u tu e s as used to
u the p e ious at h. Thus, the e ould e e led soil a d possi l spots. “u h a s he e
ep ese ts a ti e lapse a e fu tio , se ue tiall eati g a d u i g o u e tal
st u tu es e losu es . Ea h step possi l lasted o e a fe e tu ies, the e ti e p o ess
spa i g t o a d o e-half ille ia possi l slightl lo ge . If the e a e i g ou d at GT
sepa ate sets of st u tu es o so as possi l i di ated g ou d pe et ati g ada , ea h set of
st u tu e o the a e age a ha e lasted a out a e tu .

A d this p ese ts a e ti el diffe e t ie of Go ekli Tepe as a e e o ial e te . It also ight

e plai the ast dis epa ies o tai ed f o the C- dati g. The ope ati e uestio is this: h
as the e a eed to ha e all the o e tha possi l o , agai , if g ou d pe et ati g
ada i di ato s a e a u ate e e o ial sto e e losu es luste s fu tio i g
si ulta eousl ? What size of a e e o ial e te ould suppo t su h s ale of o u e tal
o st u tio , a age e t, ai te a e a d ope atio ? The De og aphi s a e si pl dau ti g
a d at least uestio a le, e e fo a B o ze Age last phase do i a t setti g. Wo ki g out the
de og aphi de a ds fo su h a ope atio ould e a o th hile esea h p oje t.
The o te ts of the GT fill. Ne t o es the othe asi uestio , ha i g to do ith the o te ts
of the fill, i oth atego ies, a el h the o tai hat the ha e ee fou d to o tai
i ludi g e t a eous ate ial ; a d h the do ot o tai hat the e e supposed to
o tai if the e e potte Neolithi o u e tal e losu es. Putti g it i slightl diffe e t
te s, ho o e a d the e a e o potte she ds i the o u e t, hile the e is e t a eous
stuff i it? To a s e this set of uestio s, detailed st atig aphi e ide e is eeded, to hi h
the autho has o a ess, e ept hat it is i the pu li do ai as a ou e e ts the
a heologists i ha ge of the e a atio .
A ou e e ts the a heologists of GT a ou d i di ati g the p ese e of PPNA/B ate ial
i the fill. That is appa e tl u de ia le, a d this autho e tai l does ot de it. The uestio
is ho e e , f o he e did this PPNA/B ate ial o e? The a s e the , i ie of the s e a io
outli ed, is e uall lea : su essi e diggi g up of PPNA/B ate ial o tai i g g ou d, fo the
e i ula i -g ou d spa e fo the e e losu e ith the o thostats a d pilla s , hile
o o ita tl filli g up the p io i ula e losu e s spa e ith the PPNA/B soil p odu ed f o
the diggi g. PPNA/B g ou d ate ial as si pl e led f o o e i ula e losu e to the e t.
No o e de ies that the a heologi al GT site i toto sits o PPNA/B ate ial o tai i g soil. This
s e a io is o siste t ith the a heologists fi di gs of PPNA/B ate ial i the fill s soil; a d it
also a s e s the uestio , he e did all that soil o e f o to fill all these st u tu es spa e: it
is the e soil o a d f o hi h these st u tu es e e o st u ted a d to hi h the
etu ed. O e a e illi g to dete t so e p ofou dl s oli gestu e/a ts to this se ue e
of e o st u tio a d u ial of the old st u tu e. The e t asi uestio is easil a s e ed;
the fills o tai ed e t a eous ate ial si pl e ause late a ti it all o e the site i se ted stuff
i to it f o late la d uses.
Co se ue tl , o e is left ith the fi al a d ost diffi ult uestio to add ess: si e the GT site
as eated a d ope ated du i g the potte Neolithi , ho o e a d it did t lea e a t a es
of its potte E a past? The a s e to this iti al uestio is pote tiall fou d i the a eful
a e a d eti ulous a e of its e u ial as it as a ied out i stages ulti atel
e e ole tl a ti g ultu es illi g to p ese e the o u e t s e losu es.

Figu e B. The pu ifi atio sig at the head of the T-shaped egalithi o olith # i La e
II, of st u tu e C, at Go ekli Tepe. Autho ’s opped se tio of a photo i the pu li do ai .
All o a le o je ts, i ludi g possi l all potte , as appa e tl take i stages f o o e
st u tu e to the e t, o it as pe a e tl e o ed. This step ise, se ue tial, dis ete
d a i s i ol i g p o ess o the a e age lasti g e tu -lo g ti e pe iods , also i luded the
last filled st u tu e s to u de go this a t of etu to he e the st u tu e s a e f o its soil
a d its la d. The potte e ide e he e as ot u ied, ut e led a d o ed to so epla e
else. A d to that h pothesis, the e is e ide e to suppo t it.

Fo the o ilit of s ols, e g a ed a d i , so e i sta es, e ased a d e-e g a ed o the

o thostats a d pilla s, o i g to diffe e t a d fa a a spa es e ha e e ide e: the pu ifi atio
s ol, see Figu e B, of the o thostat # o the oute La e II of st u tu e C, f o GT t a elled
to U uk, “u e a d Ba lo ia, to e o e the s ol sho to e held Ma duk s ight ha d
i the photo of Figu e A, pla ed at the egi i g of this se tio of the pape .
This s e a io lea es o e last pa t of the uestio o t a es of potte Neolithi ot left ehi d
still u a s e ed. What happe ed to the hea ths at GT? Wh is the e o e ide e of u ed
ate ial i the g ou ds of all these st u tu es? Wh a e the e o kil s? Was heat ot a ele e t
eeded the e, the ? Total la k of hea ths o kil s i a st u tu e e a ated thus fa , i gs up a
set of othe ostl e i o e tal i atu e t pe of uestio s. It e tai l p o ides ai tight
p oof that the Go ekli Tepe site as ot a You ge D as E a setti g.
Wa a d Pea e at the Neolithi – B o ze Age Bou da N-BA . At the sta t of this pape , i
Figu e W of page , the Wa side of the “ta da d of U as sho . I Figu e P elo , the othe
ajo side of this geo et i all i te esti g t apezoidal -d solid is sho , the Pea e side. The
Neolithi – B o ze Age N-BA ou da it see s as ot a pa ti ula l pea eful ou da . It as
a tuall a ou da i Hu a it s Histo ha a te ized sig ifi a t so ial st ife a d o fli t.
P ofou d te h ologi al ad a es e e u de a , a d as a esult old so io- ultu al setti gs
do i a e as ei g halle ged e setti gs isi g ilita , so io-e o o i , a d
de og aphi do i a e. I sho t, deep ultu al t a sitio s e e u de a . The old o e p i e
setti g of a p e iousl do i a t luste i a Ce t al Pla e Theo o te t, had de li ed. A e
o e a d p i al setti g as o the as e t, the Lo e Mesopota ia setti gs a d thei luste
a d of ou se the luste s do i a t p i e u a agglo e atio s, fi st U uk a d the U .
Lo atio al o pa ati e ad a tages spatiall shift i the lo g haul; the do ot sta put fo
p olo ged ti e pe iods – the a e foot loose .
This pape does ot of ou se i te d to del e i to these la ge i s ale spatio-te po al
t a sfo ati e e e ts of Mesopota ia a d the Le a t of that pe iod. But o e i spe ifi aspe t
of this e e t is the Mesopota ia o fli t i ol i g the Uppe a d Lo e Mesopota ia as ell
the East of the Tig is a d West of the Euph ates isi g th eats to the Mesopota ia Wo ld. I
the thi k of these spa e-ti e ho izo s a e the th ee ajo setti gs add essed he e, thei
o u e ts a d thei A hite tu es. At the e e te of these la ge i s ale te ito ial o fli ts,
at that te po al N-BA ou da , e e the it -states of U uk a d U a d thei asso iated i
a Ce t al Pla e Theo o te t setti gs i the Lo e Mesopota ia egio , a d Go ekli tepe
a d its asso iated setti gs i the Uppe Mesopota ia egio . It a e the a ti e he the
 e te s of the t o ajo egio al luste s of setti gs i the Le a t fa ed a fatal o fli t. The
ilita -i dust ial o ple of the “outh la gel due to its ad a es i te h olog a d
a age e t got the uppe ha d. The su essi e adjust e ts the GT setti gs see i the
u i g of the old a d the eati g of e st u tu es at GT as ot e ough, as the e d of the
N-BA the last of the st u tu es of GT fell i ti to the gales of eati e dest u tio , a d a ished
f o Histo , till it as u o e ed a heologist Klaus “ h idt i the late s.

Figu e P. The “ta da d of U , the pea e side. The o ple t apezoid is a i a

BC a tifa t fou d i the o al e ete ies of U . “ou e of photo: ef. [ . ].

Co lusio s
Go ekli Tepe is a fas i ati g setti g fo A heolog , Histo , A hite tu e, E gi ee i g, A t,
Hu a Geog aph , De og aph , E o o i s, a d a u e of othe elated fields. A d so a e
the t o othe setti gs a al zed i this pape , Tell Qa a el a d Tell Es-“ulta the a ie t Cit of
Je i ho . I o i atio , a d ithi a o pa ati e a al sis f a e o k, these th ee setti gs
p o ide a e elle t g ou d fo fo ulati g a E olutio a Theo of Ea l Neolithi
A hite tu e. O l the outli e of su h a d a i theo of A hite tu e as supplied ith this
o og aph. Mu h eeds to still e do e. A e ief su a of hat as suggested follo s.
Th ee ajo st les e e ad a ed as ep ese ti g the s he a of a e olutio a t ee, i hi h
a ious a hes a e atta hed – leadi g possi l to a ds a ph loge eti a d ta o o i
lassifi atio s he e of Ea l a d the a ot ela o ated he e su se ue t, late to e tial
e olutio of Neolithi A hite tu e, a fo al task left to futu e esea h a d to a i te ested
 eade . It is of so e additio al i te est that all these ajo a hite to i st les see to ha e
appea ed i the Le a t. The e e e easo s fo hat appea ed i that spa e-ti e ilieu, as it
ill e iefl estated e t.
I a si gle se te e, the i itial ea l stages of A hite to i E olutio a e aptu ed as follo s:
a Natufia st le fi st appea ed, hi h as su eeded a “ulta ia egalithi st le, hi h i
tu p odu ed the Go ekli Tepe t pe o olithi egalithi o u e tal M st le of Ea l
Neolithi A hite tu e. It as esta lished that these th ee ajo a d disti t st les o u ed at
spe ifi ou da ies of so io-spatial-te po al a d e i o e tal t a sitio s. The set ajo ti e
a ke s i Hu a Histo , a d left ajo o u e tal sites at la d a k lo atio s i the Le a t
a d Weste Eu asia. I o e detail, the t a sitio asso iated ith the hu te -gathe e t pe
hu a o ditio ei g t a sfo ed i to a pasto al o adi li i g st le ought a out the p e-
You ge D as Natufia thi alls aso a a d i ula o st u tio A hite tu e see at
Tell Qa a el s to e . The You ge D as e e t esulted i a full sede ta Natufia thi k
alls aso A hite tu e of the PPNA st le at “outhe Asia Mi o “outh of the Tau us
Mou tai ‘a ge a d the ‘i e Jo da ‘ift Valle . The e d of the You ge D as ought the
t a sitio to a PPNB a d a p e-“ulta ia st le A hite tu e, i ol i g sta da dized ud i k o
aso fou datio alls a d thus a o i atio of o st u tio ate ials sto e a d
ud i k , a st le that e pe ie ed its peak i pe fo a e a d effi ie du i g a t a sitio al
post-PPNB A hite tu e, that of the ea l th
ille iu BC A hite tu e of the Tell Es-“ulta at
Je i ho. “ulta ia t pe A hite tu e is also e ou te ed i a setti gs du i g the PPNB f o
ea l to late pe iod, i ludi g the settle e ts of Catalho uk a d Ne ali Co i. The sta t of the
Chal olithi i the late th ille iu BC pe iod, a d the egi i g of the U aid pe iod i Lo e
Mesopota ia, a k a ajo so ietal phase t a sitio , also i pa ti g a d e ou te ed i
A hite tu e. The li tel of the to e of Je i ho s stai ase, a d of ou se the egalithi
o u e t of the to e itself a d the fi st aso it all of Je i ho i g a out a e E a i
o u e tal o st u tio the ‘i e Jo da , at Tell Es-“ulta , a d set ti e a ke s a d
la d a ks i the E olutio of Neolithi A hite tu e. The da i g of a E a takes pla e he the
o olith s at the Te ple last Phase of o st u tio at the Ne ali Co i settle e t the
Euph ates he e the oupli g of o thostats a d Natufia A hite tu e of Je f el-Ah a et the
“ulta ia e ta gula st le a d p odu ed the u i ue A hite tu e of Ne ali Co i s Te ple.

The Natufia a d “ulta ia o i atio of st les A hite tu es, at the Chal olithi t a sitio
poi t, p odu ed the egalithi o olithi o u e tal M o st u tio at Go ekli Tepe
the iddle to late th
ille iu BC. The Je i ho i o atio of the li tel, a d the M A hite tu e
of GT lau hed the e Neolithi Mo u e tal A hite tu e of Eu asia, the e a of the T-shaped
o oliths, li tels, sto e i g e losu es, e hii s a d dol e s, as ell as the passage to s
ha e s a d thei o ido s. Coupled ith the tu ulus u ial t aditio s of the Ku ga Cultu e
that had ig ated f o the Po ti step of Cau asus, the Le a t laid the fou datio s of the
Weste Eu asia o u e tal la ds ape of the th a d th ille iu BC, f o Malta, to B itta
to the I ish passage to s of ‘i e Bo e, the O k e s a d e e tuall lead to the d ille iu
BC “to ehe ge.
Go ekli Tepe s futu e as sealed at a othe ajo t a sitio pe iod, pu tuated the Neolithi
to the B o ze Age ou da N-BA , he its last sto e e losu e st u tu e at GT is u ied.
This o u s he the B o ze Age alls a e aised at Je i ho. A e E a of iole t so ial e e ts
a ks a pe iod of sig ifi a t te h ologi al i o atio s, i ludi g iti g, that e de ed the
u de l i g ultu al fou datio s of a u p ote ted alls-f ee pea eful i o og aphi Go ekli
Tepe, a sa tua a d e te fo e e o ial fu tio s e alti g Natu e a d its eatu es, o solete
a d possi l hostile to the e E a s uli g elites po e ase a d the people s e o o i , so ial
a d eligious o es that glo ified o fli t.
But the lega a d ultu al i ludi g A t, E gi ee i g a d A hite tu e i pa ts left ehi d
GT p o ed to e lite all ea thshaki g. A ille iu late e fi d the GT i o og aph of the
pu ifi atio s ol all o e the “u e pala es of U uk. We fi d the a ious a i al ult
ep ese ted at GT s egalithi o oliths i p i ted i the ult figu es of “outhe Eu ope a d
e o d, all the a f o Malta i to the B itish Isles. The full sto of i flue es e e ted GT
upo the Eu asia s o olithi egalithi o u e tal A hite tu e, E gi ee i g a d A t is still to
e itte .

I p ese ti g this histo iog aph , spa i g lose to te ille ia i ti e, a d the e ti e Weste
Eu asia a d No th-East Af i a ‘egio , so e ajo h potheses e e ad a ed i fo ulati g the
outli es of spatio-te po al i flue es gi i g ise to ajo stages i the E olutio of Ea l
Neolithi A hite tu e. A ajo oti ati g fa to i this e dea o as of ou se to atio alize
the A hite tu e of Go ekli Tepe, gi e that the dati g a epted the a heologi al
esta lish e t is o side ed this autho to e si pl e o eous. I a epti g lithi e ide e
f o Je i ho, fo i sta e, as p oof that the settle e t at GT is a PPNA/B st u tu e thus
ad itti g a a o of i flue e poi ti g f o Je i ho to GT , hile ot a tuall e ou te i g a
i flue es f o GT to a ds Je i ho s A hite tu e, si e the alleged u de l i g p e ise is that
these t o setti gs o-e isted i ti e, o e e that GT p edated Je i ho, is fla ed logi . This ould
e essit e ui e a t o- a flo of i flue es, hi h is ot o se ed. He e, the alleged
dati g of GT, that it is a PPNA/B o st u tio , is ot a defe si le p opositio . The A hite tu e
e ide e o hi h this pape ai l fo used st o gl poi ts to GT ei g a late tha Je i ho
site, thus ad itti g i esse e i to e ide e the Je i ho to a ds GT a o of lithi i flue e,
hile sol i g the pe ple i g p o le of la k of i flue es flo i g the othe a .
Fu e a p a ti es. A issue ot add essed at all this pape is the topi of a est al o ship
a d that of skull plaste i g usto s a d p a ti es. That the e a e o o fu e a p a ti es
a o g setti gs is a e i po ta t fa to i ide tif i g thei so ial a d ultu al li kages, thus also
a d e essit thei A t a d A hite tu e li kages o la k the eof . This topi , although ot
add essed he e, fu the st e gthe s the h o olog of e e ts a d the t polog of A hite tu es
as stated i this pape , as ell as it fu the le ds suppo t to the te po al se ue i g of the sites
A hite tu e, thus the sites the sel es. A ke s oli a d, as su h, a topi i the eligious a d
ultu al aspe ts of o u e ts use a d fu tio s is the o e tio et ee o ship ,
e e e e , a d lo e e te ded the li i g to the dead. O iousl , the e is so e e olutio a
aspe t to that o e tio . It is also a topi fo a al sis fo A hite tu e, si e this o d to a la ge
e te t affe ted a hite to i a d desig de isio s. Cultu es uilt o u e ts, a d although
i di idual elite e e s a d a hite ts a ha e pla ed, a aged, fi a ed, desig ed, uilt
a d ai tai ed these st u tu es, it as i di iduals elo gi g to the ultu es ho used, odified
o the a , a d ulti atel dest o ed o u ied these o u e ts as age ts a ti g o ehalf of
the ultu al fo es the ep ese ted. Fu e a p a ti es e e i ti atel li ked to these la ge-
s ale fo es, fo oth the life a d dead of the i di iduals a d the o u e ts the uilt a d
u ied.
Ast o o a d Ea l Neolithi A hite tu e. I o ludi g this su a , a poi t eed e ade
hi h, to so e deg ee also is a all fo fu the esea h, as all ajo topi s of this pape a e. The
Ast o o of the Natufia a d “ulta ia A hite tu es is a topi ot ell de eloped, a d i fa t,
ot de eloped at all. It ust e looked at a efull , as it ight i di ate the fi st steps a d the
ea l egi i gs of the p oto Ast o o elated fo es that shaped the desig of o u e ts i
the ea liest phases of hu a o st u tio a ti it , at the Epipaleolithi a d the Ea l Neolithi .
“u h a stud ight shed additio al light o the oti ati g fa to s that shaped Ast o o
o side atio s i the desig a d use of st u tu es du i g a d u de su se ue t Neolithi
Mo u e tal A hite tu e st le s . it as a a ot o l to li k thei o u e tal o st u tio s
to the Hea e s, ut also to tie these st u tu es to the Ea th a d its Ag i ultu e o e ted dualit ,
fe tilit a d u e tai t , k o a d u k o , g o th a d de li e, i th a d death ites

Note .
The autho ites i a fe i sta es o k eithe o epo ti g o p ofesso ‘ sza d Mazu o ki
o k at Tell Qa a el itte i Polish. It ust e oted that the autho does ot ead Polish.
Thus, the efe e es ited he e to o k a d photos i luded i those efe e es do ot take
u de a ou t the o e ta itte i Polish ut si pl the photos. The a al sis this
autho of these photos is of ou se a ied out i o ju tio ith itatio s the a heologists
of Tell Qa a el, a aila le i E glish.

Note .
The autho s o k o the oles of shado s i Neolithi o u e tal A hite tu e a o g a host
of othe su je ts is fou d i a u e of pape s lo ated at the follo i g th ee sites:
https://ka sas.a ade ia.edu/Di it iosDe d i os
https:// . esea hgate. et/p ofile/Di it ios_De d i os
https://di it iosde d i os.a ade ia.edu/
 Note .
A fi st o e t o the su je t of Go ekli Tepe s a o - dati g a d the diag a of Figu e
as fi st ade i a post the autho o his Fa e ook page:
https:// .fa e ook. o /pe ali k.php?sto _f id= &id=

Note .
O Ap il , , the autho a al zed the st u tu e B all, the su je t of the su se tio i a
Fa e ook post i a g oup he e: https:// .fa e ook. o /g oups/ /

O Ju e , , the autho dis ussed the e ide e o Ne ali Co i s pilla fou d i side the
e ta gula floo pla Te ple the e , i the sa e g oup as he dis ussed that st u tu e B all
issue. This is a Fa e ook g oup eated a d ad i iste ed this autho he e su je ts elated
to Gogekli Tepe a e dis ussed a o g its e e s.

Note .
“o e o e details o Je i ho’s to e
He e a fu the ela o atio is offe ed o the Geo et of Je i ho s to e , a d its i te io . It
assu es that the to e has a . - ete all, a d the i te io spa e is si pl the e ai i g pa t
of the t u ated o e o e this all s olu e is take out. This o putatio ill allo o e to
de i e a effi ie easu e e t, si ila to that o tai ed fo to e of the Tell Qa a el
BC st u tu e, a d ake so e o pa iso s of a e olutio a atu e i o pa i g the t o
e sio s of Natufia A hite tu e. The i te io of the to e , assu i g . ete s of all, is si pl
o tai ed usi g the sa e fo ula used ea lie fo o puti g the total olu e V, e ept o
the le gths a e as follo s: ‘= ete s a d = ete s, as the height e ai s the sa e.
Pa e theti all , it is o ious that this a t e a full des iptio of the to e s i te io ; ut fo
la k of a o e detail of the i te io s st u tu e, the a o e spe ifi atio s ill e used. The
fo ula gi es a total ope i te io spa e of ^ . This olu e i tu i plies that the a ou t
of to e olu e take the alls is e ual to ^ . I tu , this ou t i plies a effi ie
i de of spa e utilizatio of / = . , a sig ifi a t i p o e e t o pa ed to that of the
TQ s to e , of a out . . Thus, it is a ua titati e o fi atio of a e olutio a i de i
easu i g o st u tio effi ie , i e if i g that the Je i ho s to e is a late o st u tio tha
the TQ s to e .
 Refe e es
Autho ’s o k
[ . ] Di it ios “. De d i os, Ja ua . , A P i e o Go ekli Tepe , a ade ia.edu. The
pape is fou d he e:
https:// .a ade ia.edu/ /A_P i e _o _Go ekli_Tepe

[ . ] Di it ios “. De d i os, No e e , , Go ekli Tepe: a th

ille iu Mo u e t ,
a ade ia.edu. The pape is fou d he e:
https:// .a ade ia.edu/ /Go ekli_Tepe_a_ _th_ ille iu _BC_ o u e t
[ . ] Di it ios “. De d i os, “epte e , , Dati g Go ekli Tepe , a ade ia.edu. The
pape is fou d he e:
https:// .a ade ia.edu/ /Dati g_Go ekli_Tepe
[ . ] Di it ios “. De d i os, last update: “epte e , , F o Ne g a ge to “to ehe ge:
Mo u e ts to a Bull Cult a d O igi s of I o atio , a ade ia.edu. The pape is fou d he e:
https:// .a ade ia.edu/ /F o _Ne g a ge_to_“to ehe ge_Mo u e ts_to_a_B
ull_Cult_a d_O igi s_of_I o atio
[ . ] Di it ios “. De d i os, Ap il , , Ale a de s Net o k of Cities a d thei D a i s ,
a ade ia.edu. The pape is fou d he e:
https:// .a ade ia.edu/ /Ale a de s_Net o k_of_Cities_a d_thei _D a i s

Wo k othe s
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[ . ] https://tepeteleg a s. o dp ess. o / / / /ho -old-ist-it-dati g-go ekli-tepe/
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[ . ] http:// . i le-histo . o /i h/Is ael+Cities/A haeologi al+“ites/Tell+es-

“ulta +A ie t+Je i ho

[ . ] http:// . e t u a heologii.u .edu.pl/filead i /pa /PAM_ _XI/ .pdf

[ . ] http:// .p a.u .edu.pl/i de .php?id= &L=
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[ . ] http:// . o .f / essou es- u e i ues/ ases-de-do ees/A“P‘O
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[ . ] https://e . ikipedia.o g/ iki/Khia ia

[ . ] http:// . e s.u s .edu/ / / a odia o ds-a e-fo e e
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[ . ] https:// ooks.google. o / ooks?id= - OM U C&pg=PA # =o epage& &f=false

[ . ] http://aso log.o g/ / / /tell-es-sulta -a-pilot-p oje t-fo -a haeolog -i -
palesti e/
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[ . ] http:// . iki a d. o /e /Tell_es-“ulta
[ . ] http:// .ge e atio o d. o /Is ael/je i ho.ht l
[ . ] https:// a a s a de i gs. o / / / /the-t e hes-of-je i ho/

[ . ] http:// . i lea haeolog .o g/post/ / /the- alls-of-je i ho.asp

[ . ]
http:// .edusk pt.pl/ et_a othe _se satio al_dis o e _ _polish_a haeologists_i _s
ia-i fo- .ht l
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[ . ] http://people.o ego state.edu/~ a lsa d/ a lso _e lopedia_Quat_ _YD.pdf

[ . ] https://e . ikipedia.o g/ iki/You ge _D as

[ . ] http:// .s i- e s. o /geolog /s ie e- ou ge -d as- li ate-shift-aste oid- o et-
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[ . ] http://s ie ei pola d.pap.pl/e / e s/ e s, , et-a othe -se satio al-dis o e -
-polish-a haeologists-i -s ia.ht l
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[ . ] http:// .ata.o g.t /ata-o g-t -fi hie _pdf/O igi al .pdf

[ . ] http://thedail jou alist. o /the-histo ia /u k o - i ilizatio s-tell- a a el/

[ . ] http:// .jpost. o /Video-A ti les/Video/Wo lds-fi st-sk s ape -sought-to-
i ti idate- asses
[ , ] http:// .a haeolog . u/Do load/Ha is/Ha is_ _P i iples.pdf
[ . ]
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df.ht l
[ . ] Kathlee Ma Ke o , , A heolog i the Hol La d, Lo do .
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[ . ] Kathlee M. Ke o , , E a atio s at Je i ho: the a hite tu e a d st atig aph of
the Tell; Plates, B itish “ hool of A heolog , Je usale .
[ . ] Kathlee M. Ke o , , E a atio s at Je i ho Volu II: to s e a ated i - ,
Lo do .
[ . ] Kathlee M. Ke o , , Diggi g up Je i ho, Lo do .
[ . ] http:// . iki a d. o /e /Tell_es-“ulta #/Wall_of_Je i ho
[ . ]
http:// . . o.uk/i sideout/ o te t/a ti les/ / / / est_ea th o s_da i _s _
_ ideo_featu e.sht l
[ . ] http:// . ala di . et/Is ael/Je i ho-Tell_es-“ulta .ht
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[ . ] http:// .a usi gpla et. o / / /p a ids-of-a ie t- o ld.ht l
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[ . ] http:// . iki a d. o /e /To e _of_Je i ho

[ . ] M. C. Da is, , Da e Kathlee Ke o : Diggi g Up the Hol La d, Left Coast P ess,

Wal ut C eek, CA.
[ . ] https://tepeteleg a s. o dp ess. o / / / /t o-fo es-a d-a- u a iu -the-fi st-
i -situ-po thole-sto e-f o -go ekli-tepe/
[ . ] http:// .a o etopse et. o /fo u /th ead /pg
[ . ] http://a ti uateda ti ua ia . logspot. o / / /hu a it s-fi st- egaliths.ht l
[ . ] http:// . estphotosite. et/the-oldest- uildi g-i -the- o ld

[ . ] http:// .theli i g oo . o / a ie ts/ files/Tu ke _Go ekli_Tepe_ .ht l

[ . ] http:// ahoo u ka oo. logspot. o / / /go ekli-tepe-thousa ds-of- ea s-
efo e.ht l

A k o ledg e ts
The autho ishes to a k o ledge the o t i utio s ade to his o k all his Fa e ook f ie ds,
a d espe iall the e e s of his u e t ele e g oups the autho has eated a d is
ad i iste i g. Thei posts a d o e ts ha e i spi ed hi i his esea h o e the past al ost
th ee ea s si e he ope ed his Fa e ook a ou t. But ost i po ta t a d dea to this autho
has ee the al ost ea s of e ou age e t a d suppo t he has e ei ed f o his ife
Cathe i e a d thei daughte s Daph e-I is o a d a half ea s of age a d Ale ia-A te is
i etee ea s of age . Fo thei o ti ui g suppo t, assista e, e ou age e t a d
u de sta di g fo all those lo g hou s he allotted doi g esea h, he he ould ha e sha ed his
ti e ith the , this autho ill al a s e deepl app e iati e a d g ateful.

Legal Noti e o Cop ight

© The autho , Diit ios “. De d i os etai s full legal op ights to the o te ts of this pape .
‘ep odu tio i a fo , of pa ts o the hole of this pape , is p ohi ited ithout the e pli it
a d itte pe issio a d o se t the autho , Di it ios “. De d i os.