MB0038 MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR ASSIGNMENT

Q.1 Write a note on the managerial roles and skills?

ANS: A) According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are as follows: 1. Informational roles 2. Decisional roles 3. Interpersonal roles 1. INFORMATIONAL ROLES: This involves the role of assimilating and disseminating information as and when required. Following are the main sub-roles, which managers often perform: a. Monitor collecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the organization b. Disseminator communicating information to organizational members c. Spokesperson representing the organization to outsiders 2. DECISIONAL ROLES: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be subDivided in to the following: a. Entrepreneur initiating new ideas to improve organizational performance b. Disturbance handlers taking corrective action to cope with adverse situation c. Resource allocators allocating human, physical, and monetary resources d. Negotiator negotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders

3. INTERPERSONAL ROLES: This role involves activities with people working in the organization. This is supportive role for informational and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles can be categorized under three sub-headings: a. Figurehead Ceremonial and symbolic role b. Leadership leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc. c. Liaison liasoning with external bodies and public relations activities.

B) Management Skills: Katz (1974) has identified three essential management skills: Technical Human Conceptual.

TECHNICAL SKILLS: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All

jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop this type of skill.

HUMAN SKILL: This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people
(both individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns. People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face difficulty to manage their subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate others even in adverse situation, and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and inspiring way.

CONCEPTUAL SKILL: This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and

forward a feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the best available option.

Q.2 Explain the social learning theory in details?

ANS: One of the most influential learning theories, the Social Learning Theory (SLT), was formulated by Albert Bandura. It encompasses concepts of traditional learning theory and the operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner. However, the theory strongly implies that there are types of learning wherein direct reinforcement is not the causal mechanism; rather, the so called social element can result to the development of new learning among individuals. Social Learning Theory has been useful in explaining how people can learn new things and develop new behaviours by observing

other people. It is to assume, therefore, that Social Learning Theory is concerned on observational learning process among people.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Observational Learning The Social Learning Theory says that people can learn by watching other people perform the behaviour. Observational learning explains the nature of children to learn behaviours by watching the behaviour of the people around them, and eventually, imitating them With the .Bobo Doll. Experiment, Bandura included an adult who is tasked to act aggressively toward a Bobo Doll while the children observe him. Later, Bandura let the children play inside a room with the Bobo Doll. He affirmed that these children imitated the aggressive behaviour toward the doll, which they had observed earlier. After his studies, Bandura was able to determine 3 basic models of observational learning, which include a. A Live Model, which includes an actual person performing a behaviour. b. A Verbal Instruction Model, which involves telling of details and descriptions of a behaviour. c. A Symbolic Model, which includes either a real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour via movies, books, television, radio, online media and other media sources.

2. The state of mind (mental states) is crucial to learning. In this concept, Bandura stated that not only external reinforcement or factors can affect learning and behaviour. There is also what he called intrinsic reinforcement, which is in a form of internal reward or a better feeling after performing the behaviour (e.g. sense of accomplishment, confidence, satisfaction, etc.) 3. Learning does not mean that there will be a change in the behaviour of an individual.

B. MODELLING PROCESS

The Modelling Process developed by Bandura helps us understand that not all observed behaviours could be learned effectively, nor learning can necessarily result to behavioural changes. The modelling process includes the following steps in order for us to determine whether social learning is successful or not: Step 1: Attention Social Cognitive Theory implies that you must pay attention for you to learn. If you want to learn from the behaviour of the model (the person that demonstrates the behaviour), then you

should eliminate anything that catches your attention other than him. Also, the more interesting the model is, the more likely you are to pay full attention to him and learn. Step 2: Retention Retention of the newly learned behaviour is necessary. Without it, learning of the behaviour would not be established, and you might need to get back to observing the model again since you were not able to store information about the behaviour. Step 3: Reproduction When you are successful in paying attention and retaining relevant information, this step requires you to demonstrate the behaviour. In this phase, practice of the behaviour by repeatedly doing it is important for improvement. Step 4: Motivation Feeling motivated to repeat the behaviour is what you need in order to keep on performing it. This is where reinforcement and punishment come in. You can be rewarded by demonstrating the behaviour properly, and punished by displaying it inappropriately

Q.3 Explain the Big 5 model of personality?

Ans : The big five model of personality is designed to bring out behaviours an individual expresses in his dealings with people as well as in their response to changes in circumstances as well as the environment. Generally, these five factors of personality are used to come up with a description of the human personality. In this text, I explain Tishas findings as well as look at how the predictions could be used to come up with a prediction of her success as a manager. The big five model of personality

1. OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
This factor acts to distinguish conventional individuals from those who are in one way or the other imaginative. Traits linked to individuals who are open to experience include intellectual curiosity, sensitivity to beauty as well as responsiveness to art. According to Cattell, H.E.P et al. (2007), such people are very creative and they are very likely to be more accommodating to beliefs considered unconventional. Such people are hence more likely to be accommodating to the views of others in the organizational setting and they are more likely to encourage innovation at the workplace. Tishas high score shows that she will be more straightforward and more likely see the simple aspects of complex situations.

2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
This factor shows an individuals ability and drive to achieve goals and strive for achievement. It also indicates that an individual has self discipline and prefers planned behaviour as opposed to spontaneous behaviour. Grucza et al. (2007) notes that individuals

who score highly in conscientiousness have a good impulse control and tend to be goal oriented. Tishas very high performance in Conscientiousness shows that she is organized and very attentive to detail. In an organizational setting, Tisha would be more likely to strive to ensure that organizational goals and objectives are met.

3. EXTRAVERSION
This factor consists of emotions that can be said to be positive as well as an industrious personality and ability to relate well with others. Cattell, H.E.P et al. (2007) notes that extraverts enjoy other peoples company and tend to be very active in group efforts. Tishas high score in extraversion indicates that in the work setting as a manager, she would tend to encourage team work. She will also dominate board and other meetings and have a high chance of pushing her proposals and suggestions forward.

4. AGREEABLENESS
This factor is characterized by compassion and cooperation towards others as opposed to antagonism tendencies. Cattell, H.E.P et al. (2007) notes that such individuals are easy to get along with and are more likely to be very accommodating to the views of others.

Tishas moderately high score on this factor shows that though she will be accommodate others view, she will expect her views also to be taken into consideration. She is likely to trust her subordinates more.

5. NEUROTICISM
This factor involves a high likelihood to get angry and have other negative emotions like anxiety. In most cases, this characteristic is linked to emotional instability. Individuals scoring low on neuroticism will experience bouts of mood swings triggered by frustrations by minor issues at the workplace (Grucza et al. 2007). Tishas low score on this factor shows she will be more likely to cope with problems as a manager and she will tend to be calmer while handling difficult situations.

Q.4 What are the different factors influencing perception?

Ans : Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and action in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception these factors can reside: i ) In the perceiver ii) In the Object or target being perceived or

iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER: Several characteristics of the

perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: a) Attitudes: The perciver's attitudes affect perception. For example, Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude with doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of other. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably. c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a sub ordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates. d) Self - Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers selfconcept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others. e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what other perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. f) Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits. g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalking and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal

i) Knowing one self makes it easier to see others accurately. ii) One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in other. iii) People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people. iv) Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill. These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives other environmental situation.

2) Characteristics of the Target : Characteristics in the target that is being observed

can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance pals a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Verbal Communication from targets also affects our perception of them. Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in a attempt to form an impression of the target.

3) Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the
perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In this situation, we assume that + i.e individual's behaviours can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition.

Q.5 Write a note on contemporary work cohort?

ANS: Contemporary Work Cohort Contemporary Work Cohort, proposed by Robbins (2003) divides the work force into different groups depending on the era or period in which they have entered into work. It stresses upon individuals values which reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. The cohorts and the respective values have been listed below: 1. VeteransWorkers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s and exhibited the following value orientations: 1. They were influenced by the Great Depression and World War II 2. Believed in hard work 3. Tended to be loyal to their employer 4. Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security

2. BoomersEmployees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid1980s belonged to this category and their value orientations were: a. Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, and baby boom competition. b. Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement and material success. c. Organizations who employed them were vehicles for their careers. d. Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition. 3. Xersbegan to enter the workforce from the mid1980s. They cherished the following values: a. b. c. d. e. Shaped by globalization, two career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers. Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction. Family and relationships were important and enjoyed team oriented work. Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations. Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure

4. Nextersmost recent entrants into the workforce. a. Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and Confident in their ability to succeed. b. Never ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job hopping. c. Seek financial success. d. Enjoy team work, but are highly self reliant. e. Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life. Q.6 What are the special issues in motivation? Discuss Ans : Some of the special issues in motivation are discussed below. Motivating Professionals The professional employees likely to seek more intrinsic satisfaction from their work than blue-collar employees. They generally have strong and long term commitments to their field of expertise are perhaps more loyal to their profession than to their employer. They need to regularly update their knowledge, and their commitment to their profession. Therefore, extrinsic factors such as money and promotions would be low on their priority list. Rather, job challenge tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions. Managerial Implications: A. Provide them with ongoing challenging projects. B. Give them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their work. C. Reward them with educational opportunities. D. Also reward them with recognition.

Motivating temporary Workers: Temporary workers may be motivated if: E. They are provided with permanent job opportunity F. The opportunity for training is provided to them G. Provide equitable pay. Motivating Low Skilled Service Workers: One of the most challenging managerial tasks in to motivate low skilled workers who are involved in repetitive physical work, where higher education and skills are not required. For this category of people, flexible work schedules and higher pay package may be proved effective motivational factors. Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers involves:a. Recruit widely. b. Increase pay and benefits. c. Make jobs more appealing.

Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks: a. Recruit and select employees that fit the job. b. Create a pleasant work environment. c. Mechanize the most distasteful aspects of the job.

Assignment Set- 2
Q.1 Explain the theories of emotion?
ANS: Psychologists have proposed a number of theories about the origins and function of emotions. The theorists behind the dissenting views do agree on one thing, however: emotion has a biological basis. This is evidenced by the fact that the amygdala (part of the limbic system of the brain), which plays a large role in emotion, is activated before any direct involvement of the cerebral cortex (where memory, awareness, and conscious "thinking" take place). In the history of emotion theory, four major explanations for the complex mental and physical experiences that we call "feelings" have been put forward. They are: the JamesLange theory in the 1920's, the Cannon-Bard theory in the 1930's, the Schacter-Singer theory in the 1960's, and most recently the Lazarus theory, developed in the 1980's and =90's.

THE JAMES-LANGE THEORY

The James-Lange theory proposes that an event or stimulus causes a physiological arousal without any interpretation or conscious thought, and you experience the resulting emotion only after you interpret the physical response. Example: You're late leaving work, and as you head across the parking lot to your car, you hear footsteps behind you in the dark. Your heart pounds and your hands start to shake. You interpret these physical responses as fear.

THE CANNON-BARD THEORY

The Cannon-Bard theory, on the other hand, suggests that the given stimulus evokes both a physiological and an emotional response simultaneously, and that neither one causes the other. Example: You're home alone and hear creaking in the hallway outside your room. You begin to tremble and sweat, and you feel afraid.

THE SCHACTER-SINGER THEORY

The Schachter-Singer theory takes a more cognitive approach to the issue. Schacter and Singer believe that an event causes physiological arousal, but that you must then identify a reason for the arousal before you label the emotion. Example: You're taking the last bus of the night, and you're the only passenger. A single man gets on and sits in the row behind you. When your stop comes around, he also gets off the bus. He's walking behind you. You feel tingles down your spine with a rush of adrenaline. You know that there have been several muggings in your city over the past few weeks, so you feel afraid.

THE LAZARUS THEORY

The Lazarus theory builds on the Schacter-Singer theory, taking it to another level. It proposes that when an event occurs, a cognitive appraisal is made (either consciously or subconsciously), and based on the result of that appraisal, an emotion and physiological response follow. Example: You're buying a few last-minute items at the gas station, when two young men in hooded sweatshirts enter the store in a hurry, with their hands in their jacket pockets. You think perhaps they're here to rob the place, so you get scared, and your feel like you might throw up. While each of these theories is based in research, there is no absolute proof as yet how emotions arise in our bodies and minds, or what determines our own individual experiences of them. What we do know is that feelings are a powerful force to be reckoned with, and should never be belittled.

Q.2 Discuss the techniques of decision making in groups?

ANS : Planning for Decision Making While decision making without planning is fairly common, it is often not pretty. The terms used to describe it--crisis management, putting out fires, seat-of-the-pants governing--all reveal the inelegance and awkwardness of this way of life. Planning allows decisions to be made in a much more comfortable and intelligent way. Planning even makes decisions easier by providing guidelines and goals for the decision. We might even say that planning is a type of decision simplification technique (see the discussion of these techniques below). Decision makers will find four major benefits to planning: 1. Planning allows the establishment of independent goals. The vision which will shape the decisions is set apart from surrounding events. Decisions are not made only as reactions to external stimuli. "Management by firefighting" is replaced by a conscious and directed series of choices. Managers now steer the organization, individuals now steer their lives, rather than being steered by external forces. Sometimes the difference between planning and not planning is described as "proactive" (taking control of the situation) versus "reactive" (responding to stimuli). 2. Planning provides a standard of measurement. A plan provides something to measure against, so that you can discover whether or not you are achieving or heading toward your goals. As the proverb says, If you don't know where you're going, it doesn't matter which way you go. 3. Planning converts values to action. When you are faced with a decision, you can consult your plan and determine which decision will help advance your plan best. Decisions made

under the guidance of planning can work together in a coherent way to advance company or individual goals. Planning is useful in emergency situations, too. When a crisis arises, a little thought about the overall plan will help determine which decision to make that will not only help resolve the crisis but will also help advance the overall plan. Without a plan, crises are dealt with haphazardly and decisions are made which may ultimately be in conflict with each other. 4. Planning allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way. Budgets, time, effort, manpower--all are limited. Their best use can be made when a plan governs their use. A simple example would be planning to buy a house or a car. Rather than having to decide between buying the item right now with all cash or never having it, you can plan to buy it over several years by making payments. Or, you might combine this plan with the plan to buy a smaller house and add rooms later as they could be afforded. By planning you can thus accomplish things that might otherwise look impossible.

DECISION LEVELS
We all recognize that some decisions are more important than others, whether in their immediate impact or long term significance. As a means of understanding the significance of a decision so that we can know how much time and resources to spend on it, three levels of decision have been identified: 1. Strategic. Strategic decisions are the highest level. Here a decision concerns general direction, long term goals, philosophies and values. These decisions are the least structured and most imaginative; they are the most risky and of the most uncertain outcome, partly because they reach so far into the future and partly because they are of such importance. For example: Decisions about what to do with your life, what to learn, or what methods to use to gain knowledge (travel, work, school) would be strategic. Whether to produce a low priced product and gain market share or produce a high priced product for a niche market would be a strategic decision. 2. Tactical. Tactical decisions support strategic decisions. They tend to be medium range, medium significance, with moderate consequences. For example: If your strategic decision were to become a forest ranger, a tactical decision would include where to go to school and what books to read. Or if your company decided to produce a low priced product, a tactical decision might be to build a new factory to produce them at a low manufacturing cost. 3. Operational. These are every day decisions, used to support tactical decisions. They are often made with little thought and are structured. Their impact is immediate, short term, short range, and usually low cost. The consequences of a bad operational decision will be minimal, although a series of bad or sloppy operational decisions can cause harm. Operational decisions can be pre-programmed, pre-made, or set out clearly in policy manuals.

For example: If your tactical decision is to read some books on forestry, your operational decision would involve where to shop for the books. You might have a personal policy of shopping for books at a certain store or two. Thus, the operational decision is highly structured: "Whenever books are needed, look at Joe's Books." An important comment should be made here. Issues should be examined and decisions should be made at all of these levels. If you discover that nearly all of your thinking and decision making is taking place at the operational level, then you are probably not doing enough strategic thinking and planning. As a result you will lead a reactive life, responding only to the forces around you and never getting control of your life, your direction or your goals.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR DECISION MAKING

This is a list of easy, practical techniques that can be applied to simple or complex decisions. They share the assumption that circumspect analysis is the key to making good decisions. Many decisions are made with too little information and too little thought, in a non-deliberate way. Think about it for a moment: how many people do you know who commonly spend even five minutes structuring and analyzing a decision? Note how these techniques provide a visible, structured, orderly set of factors involved in a decision, so that the decision maker can consider them in a thoughtful and coherent way. The first three techniques are especially for whether-type decisions, those involving yes/no, either/or, or two-possibility decisions. 1. T-Chart. A T-Chart is an orderly, graphic representation of alternative features or points involved in a decision. In one form, it can be a list of positive and negative attributes surrounding a particular choice. Drawing up such a chart insures that both the positive and negative aspects of each direction or decision will be taken into account. For example, what are the pros and cons of deciding to buy a sport utility vehicle? PRO better visibility safer structure can take off road CON higher insurance poorer gas mileage more expensive maintenance

In another form, two possible choices are listed, with the good points or arguments or effects listed for each. Suppose your company is trying to decide whether to create its own advertising or hire an agency. USE OUTSIDE AGENCY professional work expertise of ideas media connections WRITE ADS IN-HOUSE faster product better knowledge of product use same ad in flyers

To fill out this latter form, more than two choices can be included, and a list of negatives for each choice can be added as well. 2. PMI. Edward de Bono refines the T-Chart idea into a three part structure, which he calls PMI for plus, minus, and interesting. Here you first list all the plus or good points of the idea, then all the minus or bad points, and finally all the interesting points--consequences, areas of curiosity or uncertainty, or attributes that you simply don't care to view as either good or bad at this point (consequences that some people might view as good and others might view as bad, for example). The "interesting" category also allows exploration of the idea or choice outside the context of judgment--you don't have to evaluate the attribute into a positive or negative category. As simple as this technique seems to be, and as often as others will tell you, "Well, of course, everyone does that all the time," this is a very powerful but much neglected technique. Most people believe they list the pluses and minuses of a decision before making it, but in actual practice, many people make a decision or form an opinion before they consider the evidence in an orderly way. Only after they make a decision do they hunt around for reasons to support it. Considering the evidence on both (or all) sides before you commit yourself emotionally and psychologically to a position will have a major impact on the quality of your decisionmaking. 3. Buriden's Ass. This method of decision making is used when two or more equally attractive alternatives are faced. (From an old fable of an ass placed between two equally nice bales of hay. The ass couldn't decide which bale to turn to because they were both so attractive, and so it starved to death from indecision.) The method is simply to list all the negative points or drawbacks about each decision. That is, when two or more alternatives seem very desirable, we become blinded to any drawbacks. The Buriden's Ass method simply focuses on the drawbacks. 4. Measured Criteria. With this technique, you list the criteria you want your decision to meet and assign points to each criterion based on its relative importance in the decision. Then, each alternative is given a certain number of points according to how fully it meets the criterion. For points you can use a scale of 1 to 10, 1 to 100, or any other range that makes sense to you. In the example below, travelling by train is rated at 25 out of 30 points for the "comfort" criterion, while the plane is ranked a little less comfortable, at 21 out of 30. Once all the alternatives have been assigned their due points for each criterion, all the points for each alternative are added up and the alternative with the highest total points is the one chosen. In the example below, that would be the plane. 5. Decision Matrix or Weighted Decision Table. This is a slightly more sophisticated version of the measured criteria technique. Here a table is set up with each criterion given a

weight depending on its importance in the decision and with each alternative given a ranking for that criterion.

Q.3 Elaborate the different stages in process of conflict?

ANS: The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages: (1) Potential opposition or incompatibility- The first step in the conflict process is the presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. These cause or create opportunities for conflict to rise. (2) Cognition and personalization -conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not conflict exists is a perception issue. (3) Intentions -Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between peoples perception and emotions and their overt behaviour. These intentions are Competing, Collaborating, Avoiding, Accommodating or Compromising. (4) Behaviour -This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behaviour stage includes the statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. (5) Outcome- The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the groups performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance.

Q.4 Write a note on GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome)?

ANS: GAS or General Adaptation Syndrome is a very common medical problem that can have very serious repercussions if left unattended. It was psychologist Hans Selye who discovered that prolonged and excessive stress can lead to infection, illness, disease and death. He then named this condition General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). n general, there are three stages of GAS. They are Alarm, Resistance and Exhaustion. Let's talk a bit about each stage. STAGE ONE: ALARM Alarm is essentially the initiation of the "fight of flight" response which prepares the body for life-threatening situations. Normal body activities such as the digestive and immune functions are blunted or nearly shut down in order to supply resources to more immediate muscular and emotional needs. STAGE TWO: RESISTANCE Now, if we're under a constant state of alarm, we are in essence living in constant state of stress. At this point we start becoming used to these stress levels. The funny thing about this

stage is that initially our body and immune system are becoming more resistance to stress and disease. However, this stage requires abnormally high levels of emotional and physical resources. If things do not change for the better then the next stage of the GAS process is inevitable. STAGE THREE: EXHAUSTION Eventually reality kicks in and our bodies are unable to maintain high levels of stress resistance. Parts of the body literally start to break down and we become very unwell. To conclude this first section, please understand that Hans Selye and others experts are convinced that out-of-control stress negatively influences a person's entire organism. Furthermore, these authorities believe that if left untreated, run away stress can result in disease and eventual death. The point here is that as a hypnotist, your contribution as a stress management consultant is far more important than most people realize. Unmanaged stress is not just an 'inconvenience'. It is a health threaten By the way, remember to take some of your own medicine once in a while and listen to stress reduction hypnosis CDs. It is much easier to convince a client of the benefits of successful stress management when you are 100% congruent because of satisfying experience. By the way, remember to take some of your own medicine once in a while and listen to stress reduction hypnosis CDs. It is much easier to convince a client of the benefits of successful stress management when you are 100% congruent because of satisfying experience. Now, let's look at a case history that shows how to help a client suffering from severe GAS. When You're Client Has GAS --The Case of Bob First of all, in order to help a client with G.A.S., they must learn how to F.A.R.T. and B.U.R.P. so they can ultimately P.O.O.P. Now, before a person can B.U.R.P. (Begin Utilizing Response Procedures) or P.O.O.P. (Pursue Optimal Outcomes Persistently), they have to F.A.R.T. That is, they have to first Formulate Appropriate Response Techniques. This can be reduced to a simple statement. When a person starts to suffer from stress, they must S.T.O.P. and B.E.A.N.O. That is, they must Start To Observe Purposefully so that they can then Become Excited And Noticeably Optimistic. If they are unable to S.T.O.P and B.E.A.N.O., then they will have to F.A.R.T., B.U.R.P. and most likely, P.O.O.P. Let's look at a case history involving my client Bob. Bob has suffered for quite some time from severe stress effects. When he first came to our office, we realized that he was emotionally plugged up. In other words, his feelings were so bottled up that he absolutely could not P.O.O.P. The reason became apparent when it was discovered that he had never before learned how to properly F.A.R.T. and B.U.R.P. in response to stress. I knew this was

not a case where the client could simply B.E.A.N.O. because that would not address the cause of his inability to P.O.O.P. What he needed was an E.N.E.M.A. (Entirely New Explicit Meaning Association). As the reader may have guessed, this was a very sensitive situation because it involved reframing a learned response that was created in response to a family of origin dynamic. Apparently there was some S.O.B. (Subtle Obfuscating Behaviour) responsible for the onset of the client's difficulty. Defeating this without running into family loyalty conflicts and their accompanying resistance effects is quite a job that requires deft handling and discernment. However, since the client was extremely motivated to get past his problem and move on we advanced a rather bold tactic. We decided to initiate a reverse E.N.E.M.A. The client became quite excited at the idea. This was because we explained to him that we would go back in time and teach him as a young child how to P.O.O.P. In summary, the client has been relieved of his GAS because after undergoing a reverse E.N.E.M.A. he was able to B.E.L.C.H. (Begin Expurgating Lousy Childhood History) which enabled him to successfully F.A.R.T., B.U.R.P. and P.O.O.P. The point to this second section is that sometimes to heal, we just need to stop hanging onto old 'stuff' from our past because doing so makes us much more prone to insidious medical disorders such as General Adaptation Syndrome. One must wonder that if GAS can cause such serious consequences then, what common diseases are actually the results of prolonged, unhealed stress. Finally, as you can probably tell, this article was meant to be tongue-in-cheek but the point is very serious. Helping a client reduce stress is not just a "mental massage" that feels good in the short term. It is an essential element of a good and happy life. And, don't forget that the family members of your client are also benefiting from your valuable and skilled assistance because they have longer to enjoy a healthier and happier mom, dad or other important person. In closing I'd like to share a quote that can point a person toward a significantly more relaxed state of mind and being:

Q.5 Discuss the power and influence tactics?

ANS: POWER TACTICS

We review popular tactical options and the conditions under one may be more effective than another. Discussion is based around, Power tactics people use to translate power bases into specific action Options individuals have for influencing their bosses, co-workers, or employees Effective options out of these compared to others 1. COERCIVE POWER The target person complies in order to avoid punishments he or she believes are controlled by the agent. Commitment Is Very Unlikely Complianceis Possible If used in a helpful, non-punitive way. Resistanceis Likely If used in a hostile or manipulative way 2. REWARD POWER The target person complies in order to obtain rewards he or she believes are controlled by the agent 3. LEGITIMATE POWER The target person complies because he or she believes the agent has the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation to comply 4. EXPERT POWER The target person complies because he or she believes that the agent has special knowledge about the best way to do something. 5. REFERENT POWER The target person complies because he or she admires or identifies with the agent and wants to gain the agents approval INFLUENCE TACTICS Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics: 1. Legitimacy: Relying on ones authority position or stressing that a request is in accordance with organizational policies or rules. 2. Rational persuasion: Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable. 3. Inspirational appeals: Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a targets values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. 4. Consultation: Increasing the targets motivation and support by involving hi or her in deciding how the plan or change will be done.

5. Exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request. 6. Personal appeals: Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. 7. Ingratiation: Using flattery, praise, or friendly behaviour prior to making a request. 8. Pressure: Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. 9. Coalitions: Enlisting the aid of other people to persuade the target or using the support of others as a reason for the target to agree. Some tactics are usually more effective than others. Specifically, evidence indicates that rational, persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective. On the other hand pressure tends to frequently backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics. You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. For instance, using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions that might come from the appearance of being by the boss. But some influences tactics work better depending on the direction of influence. As shown in the table below studies have found that rational persuasion is the only tactic that is effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals works best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works almost always to achieve downward influence. And the use of personal appeals and coalition are most effective with lateral influence attempts. In addition to the direction of influence, a number of other factors have found to affect which tactics work best. These include the sequencing of tactics, a personal skill in using the tactic, a persons relative power, the type of request and how the request is perceived, the culture of the organization, and country-specific cultural factors. Preferred Power Tactics by Influence direction Upward influence Downward influence Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Pressure Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Lateral influence Rational persuasion Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Personal appeals Coalitions

You are more likely to be effective if you begin with tactics that rely on personal power such as personal and inspirational appeal, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to a harder tactics which emphasize formal power and involve greater costs and

risks such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure. Interestingly, it has been found that using a single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic; and that combining two soft tactics, or a soft tactic and rational persuasion, is more effective than any single tactic or a combination of hard tactics.

Q.6 Explain the characteristics of organization Development?

ANS: Values of OD This model places human centred values above everything else. They are the engine of its success. These values include mutual trust and confidence, honesty and open communication, sensitivity and to the feeling and emotions of others, shared goals, and a commitment to addressing and resolving conflict. There are organizations who value these human attributes above all other quick fix benefits. Stephen Robbins expresses these human values more concisely as follows: a) The individual should be treated with respect and dignity. b) The organization climate should be characterized by trust, openness and Support. c) Hierarchical authority and control are not regarded as effective mechanisms. d) Problems and conflicts should be confronted, and not disguised or avoided. e) People affected by change should be involved in its implementation. These values make OD a unique model and it will be shown later why it is the most suitable approach in resolving human afflictions and problems such as poverty alleviation.

1. OD APPROACHES
There are at least three planned change models that have been identified by Cummings and Worley) as shown in below. The first and the second are principally different but the third one is an improved version of Action Research methodology which has taken centre stage in the 1990s to take care of the trend of emerging mega organizations, strategic alliances, mergers and public private partnerships. The improved version named the Contemporary Action Research model is of great interest to the workshop participants as it can be used to promote projects in both public and private organizations. Later in this paper it will be shown how it can be used to promote Poverty Reduction Strategies and gender mainstreaming in local government. The distinction between Lewins model and Action Research model is in the repetitive nature of action research. Lewins model is a once only intervention. Buchanan and Huczynski, (1997) give seven steps that are followed in this intervention. 1. Scouting the initial stages of consultant and client exchanging ideas on the problem and the appropriate approach. 2. Entry contract is entered into to formalize the relationship of consultant and client.

3. Diagnosis information gathering to define the problem and identify causes. 4. Planning consultant and client members jointly establish the goals of an OD intervention and the proposed approach 5. Action the intervention strategies are implemented. 6. Stabilization and Evaluation the change is stabilized (freezing takes place) and the outcomes are assessed. 7. Termination The consultant withdraws from the assignment. The action research model differs in several particular ways with the Lewins model. In action research the outcomes are fed back so that further improvements and changes can be made. This distinguishes this model as a cyclical and iterative process. The research aspect connotes a search for knowledge that may be used elsewhere.

2. OD TOOLKITS
The above outlined procedure is the process through which results area achieved but action research methodology has what are described as toolkits. These are used to address specific areas of problem. Once diagnosis is complete and the problem identified one or more of these kits or interventions are employed to solve the problem. Some of these include; process consultation, change the structure, survey feedback, team building, inter-group development, role negotiation and sensitivity training. These are just a number but action research allows flexibility for the consultant to formulate a package of his own interventions to suit the clients needs. Such flexibility was illustrated through an OD consultancy in a local government organization.

3. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS

The Existence of certain conditions in an organization which may be described as the internal environment is sometimes assumed. Those who have been in an organization for too long cease to be conscious of such an environment and probably only newcomers notice such conditions. Different interventions are used when a need arises to change those conditions. Some of those interventions which are mentioned above deserve further explanation here.

4. CULTURAL ANALYSIS
This is perhaps one of the most complex change actions. Corporate culture is the result of long term social learning and constitutes of basic assumptions, values, norms and artefacts that have worked well in an organization. These are passed on to succeeding generations of employees .Some of these may have arisen from the principles of the founder and subsequently reinforced by succeeding top hierarchies of the organization. They may have an emphasis on product quality, customer care or employee relations. When problems arise the first question which would arise is how do we do things here? The answer will inform the type of solution that emerges. Therefore the organizational culture influences organizational

strategy, performance and policies. To change organizational culture may be a traumatic experience and will require careful analysis and handling. Such is the trauma that was experienced by American companies in the 1980s when they adopted the Japanese approach which was influence by a strong organizational culture of employee participation, open communication, Security and equality.

5. PROCESS CONSULTATION
People conceive consultation as that situation where an expert is invited to advise an organization that is experiencing a problem. Edger Schein has distinguished three types of consultations as; the expertise model, the doctor patient model and the process consultation model. The first model assumes that the client purchases from the consultant some expert information or service that he is unable to provide for himself. In the doctor patient model involves an activity similar to sickness diagnosis. The client who suspects or feels there is something wrong in the organization invites the doctor (consultant) to diagnose the organization so that he can advise on what is not right. The symptoms of the sickness may be low sales, employee instability or falling product quality. The doctor (consultant) diagnoses, prescribes and administers the cure. In this two models the knowledge and expertise remains with the expert and leaves the client fully dependent on the expert for future problems. OD advocates process consultation promoted by Schein who defines the process as: The creation of a relationship with the client that permits the client to perceive, understands, and act on the process events that occur in the clients internal and external environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client.

6. STRUCTURE CHANGE
This is an intervention that helps change the structure of an organization to make the work more interesting, challenging or productive. It may involve such activities as job enrichment, job enlargement, formation of autonomous work teams or business re engineering. Other actions may involve decentralization/centralization in an organization, flattening or extending of an organizations structure or even redesigning of focus from region to product or vice versa.

7. TEAM BUILDING
Team work is vital to the functioning of modern organizations. Members of teams bring different strings to the group such as leader, investigator, motivator, finisher, clown, coordinator, thinker, negotiator or politician. These roles are used at different stages of production when such role play becomes essential in the groups work. Teams take over from hierarchical systems where individuals are assumed to know everything depending on their level in the authority ladder. This system denies the organization the cumulative advantage of skills and strengths in different individuals.

8. ROLE NEGOTIATION

A misunderstanding between two individuals in an organization or group can affect its effectiveness. This is usually caused by lack of shared awareness, misunderstanding or lack of trust. This intervention helps to clarify individual perceptions and mutual expectations so that differences can be identified and reconciled or resolved.