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The Holistic approach to information systems

All systems are composed of interrelated parts or subsystems and the system can only be
explained as a whole.
General systems theory
The General systems theory states that the whole information system can be broken down into
parts(sub-systems)in order to study how each part works. The aim of studying the individual
parts is to explore how Each one contributes to the overall wellbeing of the whole system.
-Systems are hierarchical, parts of a subsystem are made up of other smaller parts.
-The parts of a system cannot be altered without affecting other parts.
-The sub-systems should work towards the goal of higher systems and not pursue their own
objectives independently to avoid sub-optimality
-There should be goal congruency which means that the objectives of the subsystems should
align to the objectives of the system or organisation as a whole

System Boundary
An interface across which two independent systems meet and act on or communicate with each
other
System entropy
The measure of the level of disorder in a closed system. It is the tendency for a system’s outputs
to decline when the inputs have remained the same.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
a. Deterministic/non-probabilistic systems
Predictable systems. Output can be accurately predicted from input. For example, a computer
programme or a machine producing component output can be predicted without error.
b. Stochastic/Probabilistic system
There is a degree of error by predicting conditions of a system from a previous state. For
example, most industrial and business systems are predictable. In business the average demand
can be predicted
c. Adaptive system
A system that is able to adapt to changes both in internal methods and structures and its
relationship with the environment.
It responds to the changes in the environment in a way to improve its performance and to
survive. For example, human beings, animals. ·
d. Non-adaptive system
is a system which does not respond to the environment. For example, machines.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

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It covers a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are privately
owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design
and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial
cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –
MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area
as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same
or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN
range in terms of Mbps.(megabits per second)

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN
are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company
network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a
city

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a
connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be
limited to an organization or accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and
relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. The fault tolerance of
a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication medium used
for WAN is PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) or Satellite Link. Due to long-
distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from a few kilobits per
second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest
problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home
computer to the Internet.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Bus Topology

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All the stations (nodes) are connected through a single cable known as the backbone cable. When
a node sends data, it is broadcasted along the bus and can be received by any nodes. Each node
checks the destination address on the information packet until the intended node is found.

Advantages of Bus topology:

▪ Low-cost
▪ Easy installation
▪ Fewer cables required than Mesh and star topology
▪ Moderate data speeds
▪ A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

▪ Backbone performance is critical

▪ Easily congested on busy periods
▪ Efficiency decreases rapidly with each added node
▪ Data can only travel in one direction at any point in time
▪ It is difficult to troubleshoot when a problem occurs
▪ If the cable fails then the entire network will go down.

Ring Topology

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▪ The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
▪ The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
▪ The data flows in a single loop continuously
▪ It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
▪ The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

Advantages of Ring topology:

▪ Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network down.
▪ Low incidence of collision due to the use of token-based protocols, which
only allow one station to transmit data at a given time.
▪ Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
▪ Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

▪ The failure of one node can take the entire network out of operation.
▪ Difficult troubleshooting
▪ The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.

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▪ Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.

Star Topology

All the devices or nodes are physically connected to a central node such as a router, switch, or
hub. The central node (hub) acts as a server, and the connecting nodes act as clients.

Advantages of Star topology

▪ Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as

compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers
of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
▪ You can add new computers without having to take the network offline like you would
have to do with a ring topology.
▪ Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
▪ Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
▪ Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
▪ Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports
on the hub.

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▪ Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
▪ High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one
of the most popular Star topology networks.
▪ Disadvantages of Star topology
▪ A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
▪ Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

Mesh topology

▪ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
▪ There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
▪ The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
▪ Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
▪ Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

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▪ Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
▪ Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
▪ Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

▪ Its expensive: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and more transmission media than other topologies.

▪ Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
▪ Reduced efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

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