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Extending the Service Life of Activated Carbon Filters

Article in Journal of the New England Water Works Association · December 2015

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 New England Water Works Association
ORGANIZED 1882
VOL. CXXIX December 2015
This Association, as a body, is not responsible for the statements or opinions of any individual.
Extending the Service Life of
Activated Carbon Filters
By Alan Carifio*
Received June 29, 2015
ABSTRACT
Changing Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
filter beds was performed on a set schedule in
20 of the last 25 years at the Andover Water
Treatment Plant. Originally the plant consisted
of four GAC filters expanding to six and even-
tually eight. At least two or three filters were
changed yearly and no filter was in service for
more than two years. Because of consistently
good Total Organic Carbon (TOC) removal
with low distribution Trihalomethane (THM)
and Haloacetic Acid (HAA) values, and no taste
and odor problems, it has been 3 years since
any filters were changed. Four of the eight
filters were changed in 2012. Two other filters
have been in service for four years and two
filters for five years. Between 1 and 1.5 billion
gallons have been filtered through 6 of the
8 filters without compromising water qual-
ity. All filters will remain in service until fall
2015 and by then even the newest filters will
have treated over 1 billion gallons each. All
aspects of treatment have been monitored
and extensive data was compiled over the
last five years. The author believes the GAC
filters have been so successful because of
changes in surface water algae management,
combining and optimizing ozone and pow-
dered activated carbon pretreatment, and the
evidence of biologically activated processes
extending the life of the carbon.
*Chief Chemist/Lab Director, Andover Water Treatment Plant,
397 Lowell Street, Andover, MA 01810, (978) 623-8350 ext. 532,
acarifio@andoverma.gov
NO. 4
Introduction
Andover’s drinking water is supplied by
Haggetts Pond, a 220 acre Class A surface
water supply, and the surrounding 1,422 acres
of watershed area. Pond depths range from shal-
low areas along the shore (3-5 ft) to one section
at 35-40 feet with a total capacity of 1 billion
gallons. Past sampling shows the pond to be
stratified during the summer months with a
defined thermocline and spring and fall turnover.
The pond is subject to a spring diatom increase
with the predominant species being Asterionella.
Microcystis or Anabaena, a blue green algae
occur during late spring and summer months
and can appear and dominate rapidly. The sup-
ply is supplemented with chlorinated water from
the Merrimack River and Fish Brook via a 3 mile
long force main from Fish Brook Pump Station
to Haggetts Pond accounting for one-half the
yearly water demand. Andover retains 14 mil-
lion gallons of water storage in the distribution
system. The land surrounding Haggetts Pond is
monitored to ensure that Andover’s water sup-
ply is protected from contamination. The Town
of Andover, the Conservation Commission and
the Andover Village Improvement Society have
purchased land within the watershed, developed
subdivision and zoning regulations to protect
wetlands and implemented septic system regula-
tions and management programs.
Raw and treated water have been continu-
ously monitored over the past 25 years for
many parameters including algae counts and
identification, Total Organic Carbon (TOC), pH,
color, turbidity, UV254 absorbance, Dissolved
Organic Carbon (DOC), Specific UV Absorbance
(SUVA), and total coliform & E.coli enumeration.
Journal NEWWA December 2015 225
Extending the Service Life of Activated Carbon Filters
The Andover Water Plant Lab is Massachusetts
State Certified for TOC analysis using method
SM5310C-UV-Persulfate Oxidation with a
Teledyne Tekmar Phoenix 8000 analyzer. The
lab is also certified for source water analysis
for Total Coliform & E. Coli and Heterotrophic
Plate Count (HPC) bacteria using methods
MF-SM9222B, SM9223, SM9222G & EPA 1604.
The Granular Activated Carbon in the filter beds
is tested each spring and fall for Iodine Number
(a rapid test developed by the author in 2004 –
NEWWA Journal volume 118, No.1, March 2004),
Remaining Adsorption Capacity3, Percent Ash,
and Sieve Analysis. TOC results are analyzed
monthly on raw water, settled effluent, each
separate filter and combined filter effluent.
Treatment Diagram
Water from Haggetts Pond travels through
screens (1) and then pumped to the ozone
facility (2) where it is ozonated. This process
removes tastes and odors, reduces organics and
aids in coagulation (3). The water then flows to the
rapid mix and flocculation basins (4) to mix with
chemicals, Powdered Activated Carbon followed
by Alum. The chemicals attach to contaminants
in the water, and the mixing causes the particles
to cluster. The clustered particles settle in the
slow-moving water in two tray sedimentation
basins (5). The water is filtered through granu-
lated activated carbon to further remove tastes,
odors, and fine particles and enhance biologi-
cal removal (6). The filtered water is stored in
a clearwell (7) and disinfected with chlorine. At
the final stage, filtered water is pH adjusted and
pumped to the distribution system (8) where
storage tanks provide water to meet the demands
of the customers.
226 Journal NEWWA December 2015
Treatment
Ozone was installed as a pretreatment pro-
cess in 1990 using an ambient air feed system
and updated in 2005 using liquid oxygen (LOX)
to help oxidize iron and manganese and help
improve taste, odor and color removal without
the inherent THM limitations of chlorine. Liquid
oxygen gas from the LOX system passes through
Ambient Vaporizers where it is changed to a
gaseous form and passed through inlet filters
to feed the ozone generators. A small amount
of nitrogen gas is added to the inlet gas from
the nitrogen generator. In the ozone genera-
tor the oxygen is exposed to a silent electrical
discharge where ozone is continuously formed
in the gas stream. The oxygen/ozone mixture
from the generator flows to the venturi injec-
tors where control valves control the rate of gas
flow. The injectors diffuse the gas into the water
flow and mixed at the contact basins inlet by a
static mixer. The LOX tank is a vessel designed
to store and deliver a cryogenic liquid for use
at low pressures. The ozone contactor consists
of multi stages which are connected in series
to minimize the effect of short circuiting and
provide contact time.
Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) is added
after ozonation in the first carbon contact cham-
ber but before rapid mix and flocculation to help
remove dissolved organic materials that cause
taste, odor and color from raw water. It can also
be used as a weighting agent for alum floccula-
tion and settling. Detention time in the carbon
contact chamber can vary from 2.5 minutes @
15 MGD to 6.5 minutes @ 6 MGD. PAC used in
Andover is a bituminous based product with a
highly porous structure and large surface area so
it can adsorb a great variety of dissolved organic

material. The PAC storage bin is made of mild
steel and has a capacity of 1,700 cubic feet. The
bin is 12 ft. in diameter and 26 ft. high with a 60°
cone hopper at the bottom. The desired PAC
amount is mixed with water and discharged to
the application point.
Liquid alum (45% aluminum sulfate) is used to
coagulate suspended and colloidal matter in the
raw water forming a floc heavy enough to settle
out in the sedimentation basins thereby eas-
ing the amount of material the GAC filters must
remove and increases the size of the particles
that might pass through the filters. Raw water
suspended and dissolved matter removal is the
purpose for rapid mixing, flocculation and sedi-
mentation. Efficient operation of this pretreat-
ment process will produce longer filter runs by
minimizing the load placed on the filters and
ensure trouble free operation. Pretreatment
units at Andover consist of eight trains. Each
train consists of one carbon contact chamber,
two rapid mix basins, two flocculation basins
and one two-level sedimentation basin with
sludge scraping mechanisms and telescoping
sludge valves for withdrawal. Discharge openings
between successive chambers are strategically
located to minimize short circuiting. Total time
in the settling basins can vary from 8 hours @
6 MGD to a little over 3 hours @ 15 MGD.
Treated and settled water flowing from the
sedimentation basins is discharged into the filter
influent channel and then to eight filters – each
21 X 25 ft. From there the water is filtered through
48 inches of a bituminous base granular activated
carbon (GAC) where it travels to a finish water
reservoir (clearwell) of approximately two million
gallons (with a 24 MGD design capacity of 4 gpm/
ft 2). Empty bed contact times (EBCT) range from
30 minutes @ 6 MGD to 12 minutes @ 15 MGD.
Sodium Hypochlorite (12.5% available chlorine),
or liquid bleach is used for disinfection to prevent
pathogenic bacteria from entering the distribu-
tion system and provide a residual chlorine level
in the water to prevent the formation of bacteria
and algae throughout the distribution system.
Chlorine is added after filtration at the entry
point to the clearwell and free chlorine residual
is monitored at this point and the entry to the
distribution system. The clearwell has a 2 million
gallon storage capacity to provide detention time
to ensure that disinfection is complete before
being pumped to the distribution system.
Alan Carifio Alan Carifio
Fluoride (Hydrofluosilicic Acid) is added to the
drinking water for the purpose of reducing tooth
decay, particularly in children. Optimum fluoride
concentration is set at 0.7 mg/l.
Sodium Hydroxide (25% solution) is added after
the clearwell at the entry point to the distribution
system to increase the water pH to 8.3 – 8.6 for
corrosion control.
5 Year Monitoring Results
Filter changeout schedule over the last five
years and approximate water filtered by each
filter through May 2015 is listed in TABLE 1. Filters
1 & 2 are on their 5th summer in 2015 with the
newest filters heading into their 3rd summer.
The average yearly low lift flow over the past
5 years is 2.6 billion gallons, which would aver-
age 890,000 gallons per filter per day totaling
975 million gallons on a 3 year old filter, 1.3 billion
gallons on a 4 year old filter and 1.6 billion gallons
on a 5 year old filter.
One method of evaluating the adsorption
property of GAC is the Iodine Number. It is
described as the milligrams of iodine (I2) that
are adsorbed per gram of carbon when the equi-
librium concentration of the bulk saturation is
0.02N2. Because iodine is a small molecule, it will
provide an indication of a particular carbon’s abil-
ity to absorb small molecules. Freshly changed
GAC in Andover has an iodine number of 1000
and is tested yearly in spring and fall. The iodine
number will decrease over time as adsorption
occurs and reach a plateau if biological regenera-
tion occurs. TABLE 1 shows the iodine number
values in March of 2015 with the lowest values
of 550 and 583 for filters 1 & 2. A “Remaining
Adsorption Capacity” 3 surrogate test was also
performed on each filter to determine remaining
adsorption space. This test measures the heat
change in temperature when GAC is immersed
in a non-oxidizing solvent (mineral oil) and is
proportional to the adsorptive capacity remain-
ing. Exhausted carbon will show no change in
temperature.
The ozone dose was increased from 2 mg/l
to 2.5 mg/l maxing out a little over 3 during the
summer of 2013 (FIGURE 1).
PAC dose was also increased during the same
period from 1.7 mg/l to 3 mg/l (FIGURE 2) and
remained on throughout the year.
The alum dose (FIGURE 3) during this period
was decreased from 30 mg/l to 25 mg/l while filter
Journal NEWWA December 2015 227
Extending the Service Life of Activated Carbon Filters
Table 1. Filter profile status since 2010
Remaining
Adsorption
APPROXIMATE
DATE FILTER Iodine Number, Capacity
FILTER GALLONS
CHANGED March-2015 (Celsius
FILTERED
Temperature
Change)

Filter 1 (12/2010) 1,462,000,000 550 2.3

Filter 2 (12/2010) 1,462,000,000 583 2.3

Filter 4 (09/2011) 1,219,000,000 715 3

Filter 6 (09/2011) 1,219,000,000 669 3

Filter 7 (04/2012) 1,030,000,000 750 3

Filter 8 (04/2012) 1,030,000,000 670 3

Filter 3 (11/2012) 813,000,000 675 2.6

Filter 5 (11/2012) 813,000,000 710 2.6

run hours before backwashing (FIGURE 4) and
applied chlorine dose (FIGURE 5) have remained
the same.
Distribution THM’s and HAA’s results (FIGURES
6 x 7) show no increase in values but instead a
decrease. TOC results from each individual filter
have equalized and remained steady the last
3 years, about the time the last GAC filters were
changed. The settled water TOC values follow
along with the raw water TOC with a consistent
percent reduction with the arrow showing the
time of last filter change out (FIGURE 8).

Figure 1. Ozone Dose, mg/l 2010-2015

228 Journal NEWWA December 2015


Figure 2. Powdered Activated Carbon Dose, mg/l 2010-2015
Discussion
Multiple factors have enabled the GAC at the
Andover Water Plant to perform extremely well
after five years. Management of Haggetts Pond
with respect to algae blooms has changed over
the past years. Monitoring for algae starts as
soon as the ice melts in the late winter and con-
tinues throughout the spring, summer and fall
Figure 3. Alum Dose, mg/l 2010-2015
Alan Carifio Alan Carifio
seasons and this has not changed. What has
changed is the timing of the application of cop-
per sulfate. Early practice was to monitor the
blue green algae until the counts approached
500-1000 cell/ml of sample 4 and then apply
copper sulfate. This process didn’t always work
as multiple applications (3 or 4) were needed
throughout the summer and it was a continuous
Journal NEWWA December 2015 229
Extending the Service Life of Activated Carbon Filters

Figure 4. Filter hours before backwashing, 2010-2015

Figure 5. Finish Water chlorine dose, mg/l 2010-2015

catch up game to get a handle on the blooms.
At times algae were entering the filter gallery
and putting a load on the filters. This process
was changed about six years ago to apply the
copper sulfate as soon as any blue-green algae
were notice, even in late spring. This application
change has resulted in one treatment application
needed for the entire summer season with no
pond reoccurrence or algae entering the treat-
ment process.
UV254 absorbance of raw and treated water
is measured in Andover with a Perkin Elmer
Lambda 3B benchtop spectrometer. Specific
UV absorbance (SUVA) is also calculated. While
UV254 absorbance is a measure of problem-
atic forms of organics in water and a good

230 Journal NEWWA December 2015

 Alan Carifio Alan Carifio

Figure 6. Distribution point THM’s, ug/l 2010-2015

Figure 7. Distribution point HAA’s, ug/l 2010-2015

representation of humic content, SUVA is more
specific for determining disinfection by-prod-
uct formation. SUVA is the UV254 absorbance
divided by the dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
of a water sample. The DOC of a sample is the
fraction of TOC that passes through a 0.45 um
filter. Andover’s raw water is 95% DOC with a
calculated SUVA consistently below 3 (<3). SUVA
values <3 are typical of waters containing non-
humic substances and low molecular weight
materials. Humic substances were discovered
to be reactive with chlorine during disinfection
producing disinfection by-products (DBP’s) such
as trihalomethanes. The higher the SUVA (>3),
the higher the DBP potential (THM & HAA for-
mation). The lower SUVA value of Andover raw

Journal NEWWA December 2015 231

Extending the Service Life of Activated Carbon Filters
Figure 8. TOC, mg/l 2010-2015
water (<3) is one possible reason THM & HAA
values remain low while treatment processes
consistently removes >90% UV254 absorbance.
The ozone dose was increased slightly over
the monitoring period to a current value of 2.5
mg/l. In the past ozone was lowered to 1 mg/l
during colder months and increased to 2 mg/l
in the summer. The same could be said of PAC.
The dose has been increased from 1.5 mg/l to
3 mg/l over the test period. In the past PAC was
added only during the summer months but has
been on year round during the past 5 years. The
combination of year round higher ozone dose and
PAC facilitates organic removal by GAC and bio-
logical activity. When ozone was initially installed
in the early 1990’s, PAC was used occasionally per
recommendations that it would not be needed
with ozonation. We have found that year round
use of PAC after ozonation has improved color
reduction of settled water, sludge drawoff odors
and now extending GAC filter life. Studies have
also shown that toxins released by algae cells
after copper sulfate addition are not removed by
flocculation, sedimentation or rapid sand filters,
but can be removed by PAC & GAC.5
Previous Haggetts Pond analysis has shown to
contain low levels of Methylisoborneol (MIB) and
Geosmin. These organic compounds present in
low concentrations can produce taste and odors
and are normally products of blue-green algae.
232 Journal NEWWA December 2015
MIB and Geosmin are oxidized by ozone and
removed during biological filtration. Ozone alone
can remove 60% of these compounds and ozona-
tion plus biological filtration can remove 93-100%
of the compounds6. Ozone can increase the bio-
degradability of naturally occurring organic mat-
ter in water and is not likely to create distribution
system bacterial regrowth in distribution systems
while also reducing the formation of chlorinated
by-products.
Evidence for biological growth is seen in HPC
counts from each filter and can indicate bio-
logical activity. In Andover, filter effluent counts
during the colder months run between 50- 100
CFU/ml (colony forming units) but warmer water
counts are 2000 CFU/ml or more. E.Coli counts
are non-detected. Chlorination occurs after fil-
tration as water enters the clearwell and HPC
counts in the clearwell and entering the distri-
bution system are non-detected. It has been
reported that bacteria which proliferate in GAC
filters may be responsible for a fraction of the net
removal of organics in the filter. GAC adsorptive
capacity is assumed to have been exhausted
within the first 2-3 years and begins working in a
biological mode from that point on and referred
to as biologically activated carbon (BAC)7 which
is enhanced using ozone for pretreatment.8 Pre-
ozonation was found to significantly enhance
the biological activity on GAC. Initially organic

removal is accomplished by adsorption, but over
time sites become saturated and biological deg-
radation operates in parallel with adsorption. A
steady state period develops where biological
oxidation is the predominant process respon-
sible for organic removal. If the steady state con-
ditions meet treatment objectives, the service
life of the GAC can be significantly increased8.
Conclusions from AWWA Research Foundation
state: Even though ozone increases biodegrad-
ability of NOM, it will not create distribution bac-
terial regrowth problems as long as a disinfection
residual is maintained in the distribution system
and the combination of ozone and biological
filtration reduces the formation of chlorinated
by-products compared to conventional treat-
ment without ozone.6
Conclusion
The combination of proactive algae control,
higher ozone dose with year round PAC addition
and low raw water SUVA contribute to and allow
for extended service life of GAC in Andover. Over
five years, filter profiles show no adverse effects.
Turbidity (NTU) is monitored at each individual
filter and backwashed if values exceed 0.1 NTU
or loss of head increases above a certain point.
Average filter runs have not changed over five
years (FIGURE 4). Chlorine demand has stayed
steady over the same time period further show-
ing no breakthrough or any ill effects from bio-
logically activated growth (FIGURE 5). Disinfection
by-products have improved and all state testing
has exceeded DEP requirements.
The decision to keep filters in service for five
years is treatment plant specific and must take
into account source water quality, treatment
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Alan Carifio Alan Carifio
processes and monitoring and testing capa-
bilities. Most literature recommends changing
filters every 2-3 years. The oldest three filters
in Andover will be changed by spring of 2016
and the rest changed over the following three
years. Water quality and safety come first, but
the ability to extend the life of each filter can be
cost effective. Each filter change in Andover is
approximately $80,000.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Bridget Morris, Northeastern
University, Boston, Mass. Chemical Engineering
Co-op student for help with lab analysis and
graphing years of data.
References
1 Using Activated Carbon to Remove Toxicity From Drinking
Water Containing Cyanobacterial Blooms, AWWA, 1989,
Ian Falconer, Maria T.C. Runnegar, Tom Buckley, Van L.
Huyn, Peter Bradshaw.
2 Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption. USEPA –
Technology Transfer, 1974.
3 Activated Carbon Test Methods. Professional Analytical
& Consulting Services, Inc. PA. Henry Nowicki, Ph.D.
4 Millipore Filter Method – Phytoplankton Analysis AB310.
5 Ozone in Drinking Water Treatment, Rakness, Kevin L.
AWWA 2005.
6 Ozone and Biological Treatment for DBP Control and
Biological Stability, AWWA Research Foundation, 1994.
7 Biofiltration Performance: Evaluation and Optimization
for the Removal of Organic Carbon and Genotoxicity,
2014 AWWA WQTC, Taylor-Edmonds, Liz Meteer, Laura,
Andrews, Robert C.
8 The Biological Activated Carbon Process for Water
Purification. Bertrand W. Dussert and Gary R. Van Stone
2000-12-28.
Journal NEWWA December 2015 233