REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literature reviews to Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment
of the Ecological Consequences of Chemical Waste Disposal Practices.

Assess the extent of the chemical waste disposal practices

Regulatory Compliance

points out the benefits of integrated GRC capabilities as improved alignment of objectives with
mission, vision, and values of the organization; better decision-making agility and confidence;
sustained, reliable performance and delivery of value; capital allocation to the right initiatives at
the right time; top to bottom accountability for key objectives, risks, requirements, and related
initiatives and meaningful cost savings within the integrated capabilities. (Switzer et al., 2015)
Information Security has and continues to be a major concern among major corporations storing
either personally identifiable, health related and/or financial information. The number of data
breaches, security hacks and sometimes mistakes of staff members has led to numerous financial
and reputation costs.(Quick, Hollowood, Miles, & Hampson, 2016).
In a European survey on IT professionals that polled to see how they fared against the draft EU
GDPR; 68% stated that it is a financial burden to keep up with changing data regulatory
requirements, 69% stated that in order to comply with new regulations they would have to invest
in new technology and services and about 1/5 of businesses are still not aware if changes in the
regulation will apply to them. (IPSWITCH, 2015).

Waste Segregation and Labeling

The study found that 90% of respondents had some training in Medical Waste Management
(MWM), with 66.9% having knowledge about health risks. Segregation of medical waste should
occur at the generation point. The facility had a color-coding system, but a lack of knowledge
about improper waste management was identified as a major obstacle. Improvements include
access to waste disposal points and personal protective equipment.
Medical waste management is crucial in hospitals due to potential public health risks. A study
assessed waste management practices in selected hospitals and the impact of Lagos Waste
Management Authority (LAWMA) intervention programs. The majority of respondents were
females, and all facilities follow a process of segregation, collection, transportation, storage, and
off-site transportation. LAWMA services were employed for final waste disposal and treatment.
However, no policies or guidelines were in place. To improve waste management practices,
capacity building and policy formulations are needed at all levels.
Malaysia faces challenges in household waste segregation due to population growth, economic
growth, enforcement, infrastructure, public attitude, and public participation. A survey in
Kuching South City found that age, sex, race, and education are insignificant factors. The ease of
access to facilities and collection methods are major limiting factors preventing households from
segregating, with a significant difference between waste segregators and non-segregators.

Waste Collection and Transportation

Municipal solid waste (MSW) accumulation in developing countries is a significant issue due to
inequitable waste collection and treatment. A case study in the West Bank and Gaza Strip of
Palestine revealed challenges in waste management, including lack of skilled manpower,
irregular collection services, inadequate equipment, legal provisions, and resource constraints.
The study also found a significant relationship between educational attainment and hazardous
waste awareness, suggesting measures to prevent accidents. National policy and legislation
development, along with specialized health education and training programs, are needed to
address this issue.
This study examines public knowledge, awareness, attitude, and willingness to pay (WTP) in
WEEE management in Bangladesh. Survey data from 400 households revealed a limited
knowledge of WEEE, with only 9% being aware. Economic factors such as competitive price,
warranty period, brands, and installment facilities were found to be important factors. 30% of
households sold WEEE items to scrap collectors for economic benefits, while over 20% threw
WEEE with household waste. Only 5-10% were willing to pay for new WEEE management
systems. The research aims to promote scientific discussion and successful WEEE management
policy making in Bangladesh.
The study surveyed 1750 females in Kermanshah, Iran, on solid waste management, revealing
that 79% had satisfactory knowledge and 86% had a positive attitude. However, 77% had poor
performance. Females with academic education and public employment had higher knowledge
but less satisfaction with waste collection systems. The study suggests that increasing
participation, education, and recycling programs by governmental and private sectors is crucial
for improving waste management practices. Municipalities and participatory programs can
promote environmental activity and improve citizens' knowledge.

Public Awareness and Education

According to Fatokun et al. (2019) state that, many innovative teaching and learning strategies
are already in existence but many science teachers do not utilize them when teaching, either
because they are not well vexed on how to use them or as a result of their unwillingness to make
effort and try these new approaches. They further state that, many of those few of the science
teachers that have access and are aware of the innovative instructional strategies were not willing
to give up their old practices and adopt the new strategies

According to Oyelekan et al. (2017) revealed that science teachers’ experience and qualifications
did not influence their utilization of the innovative teaching strategies and the result of their
study showed that out of thirty six (36) selected innovative teaching strategies, only two (2) were
utilized by most of the science teachers the remaining thirty four (34) were rarely utilized. This is
despite that, many scholarly works have emphasized the importance of innovative instructional
strategies in science teaching and learning

Impact of chemical waste disposal practice to the environment

Water Quality

According to Cervancia et al., (2019) recommends in their study to dwell on implementing the
DepEd Child Protection Policy focusing on monitoring the system adopted by schools and on
probing on the capacity of activities afforded to teachers in both public and private educational
settings.

Sustainability issues in water resource consumption are becoming more important due to global
warming and land utilization complexities. Understanding anthropogenic activities and natural
processes is crucial for assessing surface water and groundwater systems. This review focuses on
pollutants discharge from anthropogenic activities, natural processes, and inorganic substances.
It emphasizes the need for transdisciplinary research and cross-border communication to achieve
sustainable water quality using sound science, adaptable legislation, and management systems.
The increasing urban population and food demand in Ethiopia lead to increased waste
generation, which is often thrown into open dump sites, causing severe impacts on soil and
surface water quality. This study assessed the effect of a solid waste dump site on soil and river
water quality in Tepi town, Southwest Ethiopia. The results showed that heavy metals such as
cadmium, zinc, lead, and copper were found in soil samples, while lead, cadmium, manganese,
nickel, copper, and zinc were found in leachate water. The study suggests that solid waste open
dump sites pose a potential health risk through the food chain.
Soil Contamination

The growing volume of waste from agricultural livestock operations, particularly concentrated
animal feeding operations (CAFOs), poses a greater risk to water quality due to potential
contaminants like antibiotics and veterinary drugs. Current waste management practices do not
adequately protect water resources from contamination. The work-group identified the need for
rigorous ecosystem monitoring near CAFOs, improved characterization of toxicants, and best
practices to minimize inputs of nutrients and toxicants into freshwater and marine ecosystems.

According to(Landrigan et al., 2018) Describes the conditions leading to uptake by plants of
different types of pollutants, and their impact on human health and soil ecosystem services
(mainly related with agricultural and livestock practices). The text also focuses on the
toxicological effect of the main groups of contaminants, and describes the main exposure
pathways for humans. This section stresses the need for further research on the long-term impact
of soil pollution on human health. Also, basic toxicological data and research on exposure
pathways or on what constitutes “acceptable” doses are direly needed at this point.

According to(Chen et al., 2015; Heys et al., 2016), have demonstrated the existence of
synergistic or antagonistic effects among pollutants. Also, the authors of the book call for
regulations to take bioavailability of contaminants into account, i.e., to adapt the risk assessment
and the remediation efforts to the bioavailable fraction that actually causes potential risk, and not
to the total concentration of pollutants in soils.

Air Quality

According to (FAO, 2017) is a very good read. The text details an extensive list of practices for
integrated crop, soil fertility, nutrient, pest, and weed management, as well as the selection of
crops, the manipulation of soil properties and the importance of crop rotations to reduce the use
of pesticides or metal uptake. The VGSSM aim to be easily accessible and readily
understandable for a wide variety of stakeholders, including farmers, and the account that the
book provides leaves the reader thinking that we can indeed adopt easy and simple practices to
reduce soil pollution, and hinder the entry of pollutants in the food chain. A very strong point of
this section is the inclusion of a description of biofertilizers, viewed by the authors of the book as
an attractive eco-friendly alternative to conventional fertilizers, due to their low cost and low
impact on soil quality, and their applicability in organic agriculture.

According to Huixiang Liu (et al.2019) have taken two different cities Beijing and Italian city for
the study purpose. They have forecasted the Air Quality Index (AQI) for the city Beijing and
predicting the concentration of NOxin an Italian City depending on two different publicly
available datasets. The first Dataset for the period of December 2013 to August 2018 having
1738 instances is made available from the Beijing Municipal Environmental Centre [5] which
contains the fields like hourly averaged AQI and the concentrations of PM2.5, O3, SO2, PM10,
and NO2 in Beijing. The second Dataset with 9358 instances is collected from Italian city for the
period of March 2004 to February 2005. This dataset contains the attributes as Hourly averaged
concentration of CO, Non methane Hydrocarbons, Benzene, NOx, NO2 [5]. But they focused
majorly on NOxprediction as it is one of the important predictor for Air Quality evaluation. They
used Support Vector Regression (SVR) and Random Forest Regression (RFR) techniques for
AQI and NOx concentration prediction. SVR shows better performance in prediction of AQI
while RFR gives the better performance in predicting the NOx concentration.

According to Ziyue Guan and Richard O. Sinnot (2018) used the various machine learning
algorithms to predict the PM2.5 concentration. Data were collected from the official website of
Environment Protection Agency (EPA) for the city Melbourne that contains PM2.5 air parameter
and they have also collected the unofficial data from Airbeam which is the mobile device used to
measure PM2.5 value [8]. The machine Learning Algorithms Artificial Neural Network (ANN),
Linear Regression (LR) and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) recurrent neural network were
used for the PM2.5 prediction but out of these algorithms LSTM gives the best performance ad
predict the high PM2.5 value with reasonable Accuracy.

According to HeidarMaleki (et al.2019) predicted the hourly concentration values for the
ambient air pollutants NO2, SO2, PM10, PM2.5, CO and O3 for the stations Naderi,
Havashenasi, MohiteZist and Behdasht in Ahvaz, Iran which is the most polluted city in the
world. They have also calculated and predicted Air Quality Index (AQI) and Air Quality Health
Index (AQHI) for the four air quality monitoring stations in Ahvaz mentioned above. They used
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) machine learning algorithm for the prediction of air pollutants
concentration (hourly) and two air quality indices AQI and AQHI over the August 2009 to
August 2010. Input to ANN algorithms involves the factors such as meteorological parameters,
Air pollutants concentration, time and date.

Wildlife and Ecosystem Impact

According to(University of Saskatchewan, 2022) Annual rates of productivity in wildlife

populations are influenced by climatic and biotic factors, and offspring production and
recruitment are key components of population growth in many duck species. For lesser scaup
(Aythya affinis; scaup), a species of conservation concern, productivity can be particularly
influential to population growth, although our understanding of factors affecting production is
incomplete. I sought to identify local drivers of productivity in scaup and several other duck
species by testing hypotheses related to: (i) spring phenology; (ii) local breeding-season weather;
(iii) density dependence; and (iv) predator-prey dynamics. To test these hypotheses, I used long-
term datasets from two distinct breeding areas: a montane site at Red Rock Lakes (RRL)
Montana, USA, and a boreal site, the Yellowknife Study Area (YKSA) near Yellowknife,
Northwest Territories, Canada. Ducks breeding at these sites have been studied for periods of 9
(RRL, scaup) to 26 (YKSA, multiple boreal duck species) years. I used age-corrected body
masses of 5727 scaup ducklings at RRL and 26 years of annual duck pair and brood abundance
counts at YKSA to assess annual variation in duckling quality (RRL) and productivity (YKSA).
Age-corrected scaup duckling body mass was lower in years of both early and late spring
conditions (i.e., ice-out dates) at RRL. There was no effect of the timing of spring conditions on
brood abundance at YKSA. Warmer local weather conditions in the pre-nesting period were
positively associated with metrics of duckling quality (RRL) and productivity (YKSA). Brood-
rearing weather conditions had a small positive relationship with duckling quality at RRL, but no
relationship was found with brood abundance at YKSA. I also related scaup duckling quality to
the density of conspecifics at RRL. Age-corrected body mass of scaup ducklings was lower in
years of higher duckling density, a pattern that is consistent with possible density dependent
regulation of scaup productivity at this site. At YKSA, overall duck brood abundance increased
more slowly than pair abundance (i.e. regression slope < 1:1), suggesting lower duckling
production in years of higher pair density. Finally, to test effects of predator-prey dynamics on
duck productivity, I related annual duck brood abundance to a small mammal index, hare density
and indices of fox and lynx at YKSA. I found a non-linear relationship between brood abundance
and small mammals. Furthermore, brood abundance was consistently lower when hare density
was high in the current and previous years, perhaps because predators prey on species
unselectively when prey abundance is high. Predator abundance indices were not strongly
correlated with duck productivity, but brood abundance had a weak negative relationship with
lynx abundance. My research identified several climatic and biotic mechanisms influencing
productivity in ducks on breeding grounds across time and geographical range. It highlights the
importance of long-term data to evaluate hypotheses at small spatial scales.

According to(Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 7 (1), 1-11, 2015) Artisanal small-scale
mining (ASM) has devastating impacts on the environment, such as deforestation, over-stripping
of overburden, burning of bushes and use of harmful chemicals like mercury. These
environmental impacts are a result of destructive mining, wasteful mineral extraction and
processing practices and techniques used by the artisanal smallscale miners. This paper explores
the ecological problems caused by ASM in Mzingwane District, Zimbabwe. It seeks to
determine the nature and extent to which the environment has been damaged by the ASM from a
community perspective. Interviews, questionnaires and observations were used to collect
qualitative data. Results indicated that the nature of the mining activities undertaken by unskilled
and under-equipped gold panners in Mzingwane District is characterised by massive stripping of
overburden and burning of bushes, leading to destruction of large tracts of land and river systems
and general ecosystem disturbance. The research concluded that ASM in Mzingwane District is
an ecological time bomb, stressing the need for appropriate modifications of the legal and
institutional frameworks for promoting sustainable use of natural resources and mining
development in Zimbabwe. Government, through the Ministry of Small Scale and Medium
Enterprises, need to regularise and formalise all gold mining activities through licensing, giving
permanent claims and operating permits to panners in order to recoup some of the added costs in
the form of taxes. At the local level, the Mzingwane Rural District Council (MRDC) together
with the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) need to design appropriate environmental
education and awareness programmes targeting the local community and gold panners.

According to(Wong and Candolin, 2015). The behavioral responses can be direct reactions to the
environmental change, such as when animals move away from a disturbed area, or a
consequence of changes in physiology or life history traits, such as higher stress levels or
reduced size at maturity. These behavioral responses influence in turn other species in the
community and can cause cascading effects that ripple through the community via the network of
species interactions.