GE-MMW MODULE # 1 - Mathematics in Our World

 Mathematics in Our World
Module 1
The Nature of Mathematics
Mathematics in Our World
Mathematics in the Modern World
1
Overview
In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical

Thinking”, American mathematician Jordan Ellenberg wrote: “I think
we need more math majors who don't become mathematicians,
more math major doctors, more math major high school teachers, more math
major CEOs, more math major senators. But we won't get there unless we dump
the stereotype that math is only worthwhile for kid geniuses.”
Do you agree with Ellenberg? Do you think the world will be a better place
if most of us were math majors, and yet not necessarily mathematicians? What
does it mean to be a math major yet not a mathematician?
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of
mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. A math
major on the other hand is someone who learns math skills like logic, analysis,
abstract reasoning, and problem solving, which are valuable skills to his or her
future employment.
In this module, we shall learn some math skills that are essential in the
practice of your chosen field of specialization. Our topics include the nature of
math, the patterns that we see in nature and in the world in general. We shall also
learn logical patterns, numerical patterns, and isometries.
Learning Outcomes
After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:
1. Summarize the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;
2. Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;
3. Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;
4. Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-

designed patterns;
5. Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.
2
Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)
What is mathematics?
How do you describe mathematics?
Mathematics has been called the greatest and most original invention of
the human mind. It is one of the great social institutions built up by cooperation
during the long history of civilization. It is a mode of thinking that is necessary for
the evolution of the human race. It relies on both logic and creativity, and it is
pursued both for a variety of practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest.
Those who study mathematics for intrinsic interest believe that the essence
of mathematics lies in its beauty and intellectual challenge. As a theoretical
discipline, mathematics explores the possible relationships among abstractions
without concern for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real
world. This kind of mathematicians, called pure mathematicians, are interested
only in finding a pattern or proving that there is none, but not in what use such
knowledge might have.
Those who study mathematics for practical purposes believe that the chief
value of mathematics is how it applies to a person’s own work, like the scientists,
engineers, economists, etc. Mathematicians of this kind focus their attention on
solving problems that originate in the world of experience.
Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical

mathematician discovers the usefulness of a certain mathematical concept or
theory that a pure mathematician had introduced. Nevertheless, the discoveries
of theoretical mathematicians frequently turn out to have unanticipated
practical value, and the results of theoretical and applied mathematics often
influence each other. It is the pure mathematicians who set up the framework,
the structure, and the pattern that describe the tangible objects which the
scientists (or practical mathematicians) study.
The story of mathematics is considerably as old as humanity itself. Since

early civilization, mathematics has been instrumental to advances in science,
engineering, philosophy, and the way of life in general. It has evolved from simple
counting, measurement and calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes
and motions of physical objects to the broad, complex and often abstract
discipline we know today. Through the application of abstraction, imagination
and logic, our great mathematicians were able to give us foundation in
understanding phenomena around us. Following is a presentation of some of the
most significant events in development of mathematics from the beginning until
now.
3
Let us now look at how mathematics developed from the beginning until now.
Prehistoric Mathematics
Mathematics was used for counting and tallying.

In Central Africa they used Ishango bones as
early as about 20,000 years ago to record counts
and tally.
Image source: https://aiminghigh.aimssec.ac.za/years-6-12-
ishango-bone/
Geometric designs were used in artifacts, not as

the systematic treatment of figures, patterns,
forms, and quantities. Pre- dynastic Egyptians
and Sumerians, as well as Europeans,
decorated their places with geometric designs
as early as the 5th and 3rd millenium BC.
Image source: https://www.pinterest.ph/gomanp/predynastic-
amratian-3600-3400bce-egypt-naqada-i/
Mathematics proper was developed when

civilization settled and as a response to the need
to develop agriculuture in Mesopotamia,
particularly Sumeria and Babylonia.
Image source: http://www.hiddenfact.com/human.htm
The use of 60 and 360 in the circle measurements

is arguably exhibited in Stonehenge monument
in England, which dates back to 2300 BC.
Image source: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-

ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-
found-near-stonehenge
4
Sumerian/ Babylonian Mathematics
Mathematics was used for developing agriculture

(measurement of plots of land) and for
beaurucratic needs (taxation of individuals)
possibly as early as the 6th millennium BC.
Image source: https://worldhistory.us/ancient-history/river-valley-
communities-in-ancient-civilizations.php
Starting as early as the 4th millennium BC, large

numbers were described using symbols to chart
the course of day and night sky which they
needed in order to develop their sophisticated
lunar calendar.
Image source: https://www.livingwiththemoon.com/tag/babylonian-calendar/
The Sumerian and Babylonian Number System:

Base 60 was developed.
A circle character for zero was used.
Meteorology, multiplication and reciprocal tables,
tables of squares, square roots and cube roots,
geometrical exercises and division problems
existedfrom around 2600 BC onwards.
Image source: https://www. From about 1800 to 1600 BC, some Babylonian
sciencemag.org/news/’2016/01/mat
h-whizzes-ancient-babylon-figured-tablets cover topics on fractions, algebra, linear,
out-forerunner-calculus quadratic, and cubic equations.
The Babylonians used geometric shapes in their buildings

and designs and in dice, which they used for their leisure
games like backgammon. They already calculated
areas of triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids, as well as
volumes of simple shapes like bricks and cylinders.
Image source: https://scientificgems.wordpress.com/2017/08/27/the-

plimpton-322-tablet-re-examined/
Pythagorean triangles were already discussed as early

as 1800 BC as evidenced by the Plimpton 322 clay
tablet which shows 15 perfect Pytahgorean triples.
Image source: https://www.sutori.com/the-history-of-fractions
5
Egyptian Mathematics
Measurements were based on body parts and a

decimal numeric system was developed based
on the ten fingers. A mathematical text, called
Moscow Papyrus, was known to have existed
around 2000- 1800 BC.
Image source:
https://www.blendspace.com/lessons/G5uAhAnW2JBqTA/1-1-take-me-
to-your-ruler
The Ancient Egyptian Number System: Base 10

was fully developed as early as 2700 BC.
Image source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10971731/
The Rhind Papyrus existed around 1650 BC. It is a kind of

instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. It
demonstrates how multiplication and division was
carried out at that time. There are also other math
knowledge contained there like prime and composite
numbers,found-near-stonehenge
fractions, arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic
means, linear equations, and arithmetic and geometric
series. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-
Image source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/419397784034480682/
A notation for fractions was developed in order to

solve practical problems of trade and the market.
It is called the Eye of Horus. This also led to the first
known geometric series: 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16,...
Image source: https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-
Images/rhind-papyrus.html
6
Greek Mathematics
In about 450 BC, the ancient numeral system

called Attic or Herodianic numerals was fully
developed in Greece. It was somewhat similar to
the earlier Egyptian system (base 10) and the later
Roman system.
Image source:
https://yandex.ru/q/question/drevnie_greki_ispolzovali_rimskie_i_ili_u_
20f90caa/
The guidelines for the abstract development of geometry

was laid down by Thales through his Thales' Theorem and
Thales' Intercept Theorem
Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus
One of the best known mathematical theorems was

introduced:found-near-stonehenge
the Pythagorean theorem.
Image source: https://medium.com/swlh/why-the-pythagorean-theorem-is-
true-1d4c8a508510
The Three Geometrical Problems were

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-
stonehenge
introduced. These problems were
profoundly influential on future geometry
and led to many fruitful discoveries. In 440
stonehenge
BC, Hippocrates of Chios published his
influential math book "The Elements", which
was the first compliation of the elements of
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Geometry and which was an important
source for Euclid's later work.
Image source:
stonehenge http://www.lukemastin.com/storyofmathematics/greek.html
The idea of infinity was contested by the

Greeks. In the 5th century BC, Zeno of Elea
posed paradoxes including the Dichotomy
Paradox and the well- known paradox
Achilles and the Tortoise.
Image source: https://unbumf.com/7-famous-paradoxes-world-
Image source:
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-
science/achilles-and-the-tortoise/
https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-
shafts-found-near-stonehenge
The idea of proof and the deductive
Images/rhind-papyrus.html
method of using logical steps to prove or
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-
disprove theorems from initial assumed
shafts-found-near-stonehenge
theorems were developed by the Greek
mathematicians.
https://aspirantforum.com/2014/11/26/part-4-contribution-of-the-western-thinkers-
pythagorus-socrates-plato/
7
Hellenistic Mathematics
Alexandria in Egypt became a great center of

learning by the 3rd century BC. Euclid, Archimedes,
Eratosthenes, Heron, Menelaus and Diophantus were
some of the famous mathematicians who studied
and taught in the Library of Alexandria.
Image source: https://za.pinterest.com/henrihettaf/ancient-egypt/
Euclid- was the great chronicler of the mathematics of the

tim. He virtually invented classical (Euclidean) geometry as
we know it.
Archimedes- one of the greatest pure mathematicians of
all time.
Eratosthenes- invented an algorithm for identifying prime
numbers, called the “Sieve of Eratosthenes”.
Heron- became known for his Heronian triangles, Heron’s
Formula for finding the area of a triangle, and Heron’s
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Method for iteratively computing a square root. He was
also the first mathematician to confront at least the idea of
−1 . stonehenge
Menelaus- author of the book "Sphaerica”, which delat

with the geometry of the sphere and its application in
astronomical measurements and calculations.
Diophantus- the first to recognize fractions as numbers, and
is considered an early innovator in the field of what would
later become known as algebra.
Image source: https://mahara.uni-leipzig.de/view/view.php?id=28760
In the 3rd century BC, Apollonius of Perga became

famous for his work on geometry, particulaly conics
and conic sections which was very influential on later
European mathematicians. It was Apollonius who
gave the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola
the names by which we know them, and showed
how they could be derived from different sections
through a cone.
Image source: https://steemit.com/mathematics/@harlotscurse/the-conics-of-
apollonius-of-perga
The first recorded female mathematician, Hypatia,

lived in the middled of the 1st centry BC. She was a
stonehenge
renowned teacher who had written some
respected commentaries on Diophantus and
Apollonius. She was dragged to her death by a
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Christian mob in 415 CE.
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-
Roman Mathematics
By the middle of the first century, Roman

numerals were the dominant number system
for trade and administration in most of Europe.
Image source:
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/roman+numerals
Mayan Mathematics
As early as 2000 BC, Mayans have known the

importance mathematics in astronomy
and calendar calculations. They have constructed
quite early a very sophisticated number system,
possibly more advanced than any other in the world
at the time.
Image source: https://home.freeuk.net/elloughton13/aztecs.htm
As early as 36 BC Mayans and their neighbours had
independently developed the concept of zero, and
they have already been with sums up to the hundreds
of millions. They also produced extremely accurate
astronomical observations using no instruments other
than sticks and were able to measure the length of the
solar year to a far higher degree of accuracy than that
used in Europe.
Image source: https://medium.com/@genekogan/from-deep-learning-down-

85e527a5fe7b
stonehenge
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Chinese Mathematics
In the 2nd millennium BC the Chinese numbering

system was developed. It was a simple but
efficient system which used small bamboo rods
arranged to represent the numbers 1 to 9, which
were then placed in columns representing units,
tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.
Image source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/chinese.html
Numbers and mathematical patterns were fascinating to the ancient

Chinese. In around 650 BC, they had magic squares of numbers which
were regarded as having great spiritual and religious significance.
Image source: https://www.mathenjeans.fr/sites/default/files/comptes-
rendus/carres_magiques-nantes-2014.pdf
In the 13th Century, Chinese mathematician Yang Hui

produced a triangular representation of binomial coefficients
identical to the later Pascals’ Triangle.
Image source:
https://mathimages.swarthmore.edu/index.php/Pascal%27s_triangle
A textbook called “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the

Mathematical Art” was written probably by several authors over
time. It became an important tool in the conduct of civil service,
covering hundreds of problems in practical areas such as trade,
taxation,
stonehengeengineering and the payment of wages.
Image source: https://geoswag.wordpress.com/my-geoswag/polymer-clay/
stonehenge
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was also a
particularly important guide on how to solve equations.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hue-circle
stonehenge In 263 AD, China had Liu Hui formulated an algorithm
which calculated the value of π as 3.14159.
Image source:
stonehenge https://liuhuimathmatician.wordpress.com/2014/04/03/biography-of-liu-hui/
In the 3rd century, a technique for solving problems like the
stonehenge
Chinese Remainder Theorem was posed by Sun Tzu and
considered one of the jewels of mathematics. It was being
used to measure planetary movements by Chinese
astronomers in the 6th Century AD, and even today in Internet
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
cryptography.
Image source: https:// math-physics-
problems.wikia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_Mathematics_(1600_BC_-_600_AD)
By the 13t century, a rather violent and corrupt imperial
administrator and warrior , Qin Jiushao, lived. He is one of the
most brilliant Chinese mathematicians, who explored solutions
to quadratic and even cubic equations
10
Indian Mathematics
Before 1000 BC, Indians already had Vedic math.

Image source: https://www.cuemath.com/learn/vedic-maths-tricks/
In the 4th century BC, Buddha was already enumerati g numbers up

to 1053, as well as describing six more numbering systems over and
above these, leading to a number equivalent to 10421.
Image source: https://sites.google.com/site/the0nline3mpire/products-services/religious-beliefs?overridemobile=true
As early as the 8th century BC, the Sulba Sutras was written. It
contained lists of Pytagorean triple, solutions of linear and
quadratic equations, and an accurate value of 2.
Image source: https://www.scienceteen.com/mathematics-in-ancient-india/
As early as the 3rd or 2nd century, Indian mathematicians were

already been discussing the concept of infinity.
Image source: https://vedicmathschool.org/aryabhata/
In the 3rd century CE, the Hindu- Arabic number system was
perfected by the Indians.
near-stonehenge
Image source: https://www.powwows.com/learning-a-native-american-language/
In the 7th century, Brahmagupta made the brilliant conceptual
near-stonehenge
leap to include zero as a number in its own right, rather than
merely as a placeholder, a blank or empty space within a
number, as it had been treated until that time.
Image source: https://www.quora.com/Who-are-the-mathematicians-involved-in-quadrilaterals
In 400 CE, a text called Surya Siddhanta by unkown authors was

published. It contained the roots of modern trigonometry, including
stonehenge
the first real use of sine, cosine, tangent, inverse sine, and secants.
Image source: https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/surya-siddhanta-NZC073/
stonehenge
stonehenge
As early as the 6th century BC, Aryabhata have been aware
hat π is an irrational number, and that any calculation can only
ever be an approximation, something not proved in Europe until
stonehenge
1761.
Image source: https://swarajyamag.com/ideas/indian-astronomy-and-mathematics-in-the-classical-era-of-aryabhata
The most accomplished mathematician lived In the 12th century.
He was Bhaskara, who was credited with explaining the previously
misunderstood operation of division by zero.
Image source: https://redsocial56.wordpress.com/2015/02/15/historia-de-las-matematicas/
In the 14th century, The Kerata School of Astronomy and
Mathematics was founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama,
who the greatest mathematician-astronomer of medieval11
stonehenge
India. He possibly influenced later European works.
stonehenge
Islamic Mathematics
In the 8th century, mathematics was raised to the form of an art in

Islam countries . They extensively used complex geometric patterns
to decorate their buildings and other things. Over time, Muslim
artists discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be
depicted on a 2-dimensional surface.
The House of Wisdom was set up in Baghdad around 810, where

the major Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomy
works where translated into Arabic.
Image source: https://www.islamicity.org/60008/baghdad-the-house-of-wisdom-bayt-al-hikmah/
In the 9th century, outstanding Persian mathematician,

Muhammad Al- Kwarizmi, advocated the use of the Hindu
numerical system, which he recognized as having the power
and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic mathematics.
Image source: https://ahmadzsaffi.com/home/2018/1/6/algorithms-introduction-part-1-of-2
Muhammad Al Karaji was the first to use the

method of proof by mathematical induction
in the 10th century.
Image source: https://www.mathemania.com/lesson/principle-
mathematical-induction/
In the 13th Century, trigonometry was already treated
as a separate mathematical discipline, distinct from
astronomy, through the Persian astronomer, scientist
and mathematician Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi. He also
formulated the Law of Sines.
Image source: https:// www.mindomo.com/eu/mindmap/trig-project-suazo-
72360af651bf4933a3e09bbe35c4e8ec
By https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
the 9th century, Arab Thabit ibn Qurra, was already developing
a general formula by which amicable numbers could be derived.
Amicable numbers were re-discovered much later by
both Fermat and Descartes.
Image source: https://stephenjblog.wordpress.com/2018/09/14/pythagorean-
contributions/
The use of decimals instead of fractions was introduced by the10th

Century Arab mathematician Abul Hasan al-Uqlidisi.
Image source: https://unmondoaccanto.blogfree.net/?t=5603397
As early as the 11th century, Persian Ibn al-Haytham who made
groundbreaking work on optics and physics, established the
beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry.
Image source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/ibn-al-haytham-33305.php

12
Medieval European Mathematics
From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European mathematics was limited

mainly to Boethius’ translations of some of the works of ancient
Greek masters. All trade and calculation was made using the
Roman numeral system, and with an abacus based
on Greek and Roman models.z
Image source: https://nation.com.pk/20-Jul-2016/middle-ages-europe-and-21st-century-pakistan-are-
uncannily-similar
In the 12th century, the great expansion of trade and commerce

created a growing practical need for mathematics. Common
peple, not only those in academe, started using arithmetic.
Image source: https://onartandaesthetics.com/2015/11/06/light-in-medieval-manuscripts/
When printing press was invented in the mid-15th Century,

numerous books on arithmetic were published for the purpose of
teaching business people computational methods for their
commercial needs. By this time European mathematics was
gradually given a more important position in education.
Image source: https://www.pinterest.com.au/VanDiemensLand/gutenberg/
In the 13th century, Leonardo of Pisa, intoduced the very

interesting Fibonacci sequence. He was instrumental in
spreading the use of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
throughout Europe, through his Book Liber Abaci. It opened the
way for great advances in European mathematics.
Image source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/leonardo-fibonacci-3791.php
In the 14th century, Frenchman Nicole Oresme used a system of
rectangular coordinates centuries ahead his countryman René
Descarte. He was perhaps the first to make a time-speed-distance
graph; the first to use fractional exponents, and the first to prove
that the harmonic series 1⁄1 + 1⁄2 + 1⁄3 + 1⁄4 + 1⁄5… is a divergent infinite
series.
Image source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/guy-de-chauliac-447.php
In the 15th century, the German scholar Regiomontatus published
the first great printed book on trigonometry. The book called De
Triangulis described much of the basic trigonometric knowledge
which we learn in today's high school and college.
Image source: https://cache.timetoast.com/timelines/historia-de-la-trigonometria-e4ebca8a-99b1-
491d-813f-473cd68a7fdc
Germany also had a 15th Century mathematician, Nicholas of
Cusa, whose ideas on the infinite and the infinitesimal directly
influenced later mathematicians like Gottfried Leibniz and Georg
Cantor. 13
16th Century Mathematics
In 1514, a so-called “super magic square” with many more

lines of addition symmetry than a regular 4 x 4 magic square
was included in the work of famous artist Albrecht Dürer. It
was a proof and tribute that mathematics was held in
respect in Europe.
Image source: https://www.artsy.net/artist-series/albrecht-durer-melencolia
In about the 15th century, Luca Pacioli, published a book

on arithmetic, geometry and book-keeping . It contained
mathematical puzzles and it introduced the symbols for plus
and minus for the first time in a printed book. Pacioli also
investigated the Golden Ratio.
Image source: https://www.famousmathematicians.net/luca-pacioli/
During the 16th and early 17th Century, the equals,

multiplication, division, radical (root), decimal and inequality
symbols were gradually introduced and standardized. The
decimal point notation was popularized in early in the 17th
Century. A Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin was ahead
of his time to suggest that all types of numbers, whether
fractions, negatives, real numbers or surds should be treated
equally as numbers in their own right.
Image source: https://www.britannica.com/science/decimal-fraction
In the 16th century, Bologna University, which was famous for its
intense public mathematics competitions exposed a young self-
taught Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia. He revelaed through the
contests the formula for solving first one type, and later all types,
of https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
cubic equations which had stumped the best
mathematicians of China, India and the Islamic world..It was an
achievement that was considered impossible at that time.
Image source: https://www.historyhit.com/who-was-a-typical-oxford-student-in-the-

fourteenth-century/
Tartaglia and two other Italian mathematicians

Grrolamo Cardano and Lodovico Ferrari demonstrated
the first uses of complex numbers. Bolognan
mathematician Rafael Bombelli explained what
imaginary numbers reallly were and how they could be
used. Cardano published perhaps the first systematic
treatment of probability.
Image source: https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Tartaglia/
14
In the early 17th Century Scottish mathematician John

Napier invented the logarithm which contributed to the advance of
science, astronomy and mathematics by making some difficult
calculations relatively easy.
Image source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/john-napier-546.php
American mathematician Henry Briggs produced extensive

lookup tables of common logarithms, and in 1622 English
mathematician William Oughted had produced a logarithmic
slide rule- an instrument which became indispensible in
technological innovation for the next 300 years.
Image source: https://www.tomsmodelworks.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=679
Mersenne primes were studied by Frenchman Marin Mersenne.

Image source: https://twitter.com/Rainmaker1973/status/1303329826615459840
In the mid-17th Century French mathematician René

Descartes started the development of analytic geometry and
Cartesian coordinates. This allowed the orbits of the planets to be
plotted on a graph, and it laid the foundations for the later
development of calculus. Descartes is also credited with the first use of
superscripts for powers or exponents.
Image source: https://www.cuemath.com/learn/rene-descartes/
Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal were contemporary mathematicians
who used to to exchange letters which led to the development of the
concept of expected values and the field of probability theory.
Fermat formulated many theorems on number theory, and contributed
some https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
early work on infinitesimal calculus. Pascal gave us the Pascal’s
Triangle of binomial coefficients.
Image source: https://openspaceranchi.blogspot.com/2011/08/pierre-de-fermats-last-theorem.html
Using the understanding gained by major thinkers who

have gone before him, Englishman Sir Isaac
Newton formulated the laws of physics in an
unprecedented way. He also laid the groundwork for
almost all of classical mechanics. Becasue of these, he is
considered as one of the greatest mathematicians of all
time. Leibniz is Newton's contemporary who introduced
the calculus notation still in use today.
Both Newton and Leibniz contributed greatly in
mathematics, including Newton’s generalized binomial
theorem, the theory of finite differences and the use of
Image source: infinite power series, and Leibniz’s development of a
https://sjisblog.com/2017/12/06/students- mechanical forerunner to the computer and the use of
present-the-dark-secrets-of-sir-isaac-newton/ matrices to solve linear equations.
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge15
Other notable mathematicians of this time were Italian

Bonaventura Cavalieri (developed a geometrical approach to
calculus); Englishman John Wallis (systematized and extended
The period was dominated by one family, the Bernoulli’s of

Basel in Switzerland, which gave three generations of
exceptional mathematicians, particularly the brothers,
Jacob and Johann. They further developed Leibniz’s
infinitesimal calculus as well as Pascal and Fermat’s
probability and number theory.
Image source: https://www.keralapool.com/photos/bernoulli-family.html
Another mathematician from Basel, Leonhard Euler, was able to

find unexpected links between the different fields of mathematics,
all of which he had distinguishable superiority. He proved many
theorems, introduced new methods, standardized mathematical
notation and authored many important textbooks throughout his
long academic life.
Image source: https://www.pinterest.de/celalsoyarslan/euler/
Christian Goldbach was Euler's contemporary. In one of

his letters to Euler, he proposed the Goldbach
Conjecture, which states that every even integer greater
than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.
Image source: https://fredericbenque.com/2018/03/25/urnes/
During this period, Abraham de Moivre formulated his de Moivre’s
formula, (cosx + isinx)n = cos(nx) + isin(nx), which links complex
numbers and trigonometry. He also generalized Newton’s famous
binomial theorem into the multinomial theorem, pioneered the
development of analytic geometry, and his work on the normal
distribution and probability theory were of great importance.
Image source: https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/De_Moivre/
1. Joseph Louis Lagrange- worked on the calculus of
variation, differential equations and number theory,
pioneered the theory of groups, which would
become so important in 19th and 20th
Century mathematics.
2. Pierre Simon Laplace- made the geometric study
of classical mechanics calculus- based, opening up
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehe
a much broader range of problems; he worked on
differential equations, probability and statistics.
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehe
3.Adrien-Marie Legendre- mademportant
contributions to statistics, number theory, abstract
algebra and mathematical analysis; his extremely
accurate measurement of the terrestrial meridian
inspired the creationof the metric system of
Image source: https://
www.slideshare.net/Musielak/germain-and-
measures and weights.
proof-of-flt-musielak
16
Napoleon emphasized the practical usefulness of mathematics and his

reforms and military ambitions gave French mathematics a big boost.
Image source: https://media.timetoast.com/timelines/napoleon-bonaparte-ec377e4b-
8119-4ee2-b240-d841ea08934d
In the 19th Century, another important advance in mathematical analysis was

made by Joseph Fourier in his study of infinite sums in which the terms are
trigonometric functions.Meanwhile, German mathematician Lejeune
Direchlet contributed towards defining exactly what is meant by a function.
Image source: https://technobyte.org/simple-explanation-laplace-fourier-z-transforms/
In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand published his paper on how complex numbers
could be represented on geometric diagrams and manipulated using
trigonometry and vectors.
Image source: https://www.nature.com/articles/35038549
Galois‘ work laid the groundwork for further developments such as the beginnings
of the field of abstract algebra, including areas like algebraic geometry, group
theory, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces and non-commutative algebra.
Image source: https://www.quora.com/How-was-Evariste-Galois-able-to-learn-and-accomplish-so-much-in-
so-brief-of-a-life/
Germany supported pure mathematics for its own sake, detached from
the demands of the state and military.
Image source: https://mrarroyoworldwonders.weebly.com/kagan-ch-12-conservative-restoration-and-reform-in-the-19th-century.html
Gauss’ ideas were a hundred years ahead of their time, and touched on many
different parts of the mathematical world, including geometry, number theory,
calculus, algebra and probability. He is widely regarded as one of the three
greatest mathematicians of all times.
Bernhard Riemann formulated his famous Riemann Hypothesis, still unproven after
150 years, and remains one of the world’s great unsolved mathematical mysteries
andhttps://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-stonehenge
now the testing ground for new generations of mathematicians.
Image source: https://www.shilohrelics.com/cgi-bin/Display_Items_Gal.asp?T=&M=165&S=733

The true forerunner of the modern electronic computer was
designed during this period by Charles Babbage of England. The
machine's design could automatically perform computations
based on a program of instructions stored on cards or tape.
Babbage's large “difference engine” of 1823 was able to
calculate logarithms and trigonometric functions.
Image source: https://cache.timetoast.com/timelines/history-of-computing-59b5abed-
1112-4005-8ff4-3bf9c11b881b
English mathematician George Peacock invented symbolic algebra
and extended the scope of algebra beyond the ordinary systems of
numbers. In the mid-19th Century, the British mathematician George
Boole devised an algebra (now called Boolean algebra or Boolean
logic), in which the only operators were AND, OR and NOT, and
which could be applied to the solution of logical problems and
mathematical functions.
Image source: https://www.perlego.com/book/113102/a-beginners-guide-to-mathematical-
logic-pdf
Mathematics became ever more complex and abstract, but it reexplored
and emphasized the use of some older methods like mathematical 17
rigour. Some notable mathematicians of this period are William Hamilton
The first foundations of set theory were established by Georg Cantor and
(Irish) , Arthur Cayley (Englishman) , the priest Bernhard Bolzano
Richard Dedekind defined concepts such as similar sets and infinite sets
(Bohemian), Augustin-Louis Cauchy (French), the Germans Karl
(both are Germans). In 1881, the Englishman John Venn introduced his
Weierstrass, August Ferdinand Möbius, Carl Jacobi, and Felix Klein, Marius
“Venn diagrams” which become useful and constantly encountered tools in
Sophus Lie (Norweigian), and 16-year Niccolò Paganini (Italian).
set theory.
Mathematics increasingly became generalized and abstract. But it

became a major profession. New specialized areas and fields of
study in mathematics has developed.
Image source: https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/math-teacher
British mathematician G.H. Hardy and his young Indian

protégé Srinivasa Ramanujan, were two of the great mathematicians
of the early 20th Century. They tried their best to solve problems of the
previous century, such as the Riemann hypothesis.
Image source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/20th_hardy.html
In 1904, ten years after he started it, Johann Gustav Hermes finally
completed his construction of a regular polygon with 65,537 sides (216 +
1), using just a compass and straight edge as Euclid would have done.
Image source: https://factrepublic.com/facts/23166/
The field of mathematical logic has began to rise through

mathematicians Giuseppe Peano, L.E.J. Brouwer, David Hilbert,
Bertrand Russell, and A.N. Whitehead
Image source: https://www.amazon.com/Principia-Mathematica-Alfred-North-Whitehead/dp/168422330X
A historic convention of mathematicians was held at the

Sorbonne in Paris in 1900. There, the young German
stonehenge mathematician David Hilbert lectured his fellow and set out
what he saw as the 23 greatest unsolved mathematical
problems of the day.
stonehenge Image source: http://greenacademy.re.kr/archives/5366
Completely new mathematical concepts were developed by Hilbert who also

formulated several theorems. His approach signalled the shift to the modern
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axiomatic method in math. Meanwhile, Austrian Kurt Gödel proved the
unthinkable – that there could be solutions to mathematical problems which
were true but which could never be proved.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.computerhope.com/history/1978.htm
stonehenge
Mathematics was greatly used by Alan Turing in breaking the German
enigma code. His work led to the development of computers and the first
considerations of concepts like artificial intelligence.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.kidpaw.com/famous-people/john-keill-pid80462
The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton was establoshed. It
attempted to replicate the collegiate atmosphere of the old
European universities in rural New Jersey. It became a refuge to
many of the brightest European mathematicians, including
Hermann Weyl, John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel and Albert
Einstein.
Image source: https://2020.iosdevlog.com/2020/03/12/Shannon/
stonehenge
The most important woman in the history of mathematics, the German
Emmy Noether lived in this period. Her work changed the face of
abstract algebra and her theorem on the connection between
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symmetry and conservation laws was key in the development of
quantum mechanics and other aspects of modern physics.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/mathematics/emmy-noether-and-
the-mathematics-to-understand-relativity/
stonehengeJohn von Neumann pioneered the game theory. His design model 18
for a stored-program digital computer that uses a processing unit
and a separate storage structure to hold both instructions and data
stonehenge is still followed in most electronic computer architecture even
today. Claude Shannon, considered the father of information
theory, together with von Neumann and Alan Turing kick-started
Modern axiomatic foundations of probability theory was laid down by Soviet

mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov in the 1930s.
Image source: https://allaboutcfd-tomersblog.com/2017/09/02/lets-les-iii/
André Weil , another refugee from the war in Europe, worked on some of the
greatest achievements of modern mathematics. He formulated theorems which
connected number theory, algebra, geometry and topology. He was also
responsible for setting up a group of French mathematicians who, under the pen
name Nicolas Bourbaki, wrote many influential books on the mathematics of the
20th Century.
Image source: https://www.economist.com/obituary/1998/08/20/andre-weil
In the 1950s Alexander Grothendieck created a powerful new language which

allowed new solutions in number theory, geometry, and even in fundamental
physics. In 1970s and 1980s Mandelbrot studied complex dynamics and sets. He
coined the term fractal, and became known as the father of fractal geometry.
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Exp(Z3)_zoom.jmb.jpg
Jewish mathematician Paul Cohen rocked the mathematical world in the

1960s, when he proved that Cantor‘s continuum hypothesis about the
stonehenge
possible sizes of infinite sets (one of Hilbert’s original 23 problems) could be
both true and not true, and that there were effectively two completely
separate but valid mathematical worlds, one in which the continuum
hypothesis was true and one where it was not.
stonehenge
Image source: https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Cohen/
In 1970, the young Russian Yuri Matiyasevich finally proved that Hilbert’s
tenth problem was impossible, i.e. that there is no general method for
stonehenge
determining when polynomial equations have a solution in whole
numbers. To arrive at his proof, Matiyasevich refered to the work of the
American mathematician Julia Robinson. This is a great s bhow of
internationalism at the height of the Cold War.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.pinterest.ph/BaseCampMath/scientists-and-mathematicians/
stonehenge
Because of the advent of the electronic computer, complex dynamics and

chaos theory was developed. Edward Lorenz was the pioneer of Chaos
stonehenge
Theory. In 1976 Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken showed a proof of the
four colour theorem, the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.
The four colour conjecture was first proposed in 1852 by Francis Guthrie.
Appel and Haken’s solution required some 1,200 hours of computer time to
examine around 1,500 configurations.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.upi.com/blog/2013/04/30/Mathematician-Kenneth-Appel-dies-
at-80/2261367349696/
stonehenge
Origami became recognized as a serious mathematical
method, in some cases more powerful
than Euclidean geometry.
stonehenge
Andrew Wiles finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem for all numbers in 1995,
about 350 years after Fermat posed the problem. Wiles' proof was a joint effort
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of several steps involving many mathematicians over several years and the
proof itself was 100 pagesI
19
American economist and mathematician John Nash did some

important work in game theory, differential geometry and
partial differential equations. It opened insights into
understanding chance and events in daily life, market
economics, computing, artificial intelligence, accounting and
military theory. His life and battle against paranoid
schizophrenia has recently been popularized by the
Hollywood movie “A Beautiful Mind”,
Image source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Nash
In 1970, the Englishman John Horton Conway established

the rules for the so-called “Game of Life”, an early example
of a “cellular automaton” in which patterns of cells evolve
and grow in a grid, which became extremely popular
among computer scientists.
Image source: http://pi.math.cornell.edu/~lipa/mec/lesson6.html
Mathematics-based recreational puzzles became

extremely popular among the general public, including
Rubik’s Cube (1974) and Sudoku (1980), both of which
developed into full-blown crazes. These puzzles
stonehenge
generated attention from serious mathematicians
interested in exploring the theoretical limits and
underpinnings of the games.
stonehenge
Image source: https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-chance-of-solving-the-Rubiks-Cube-by-
randomly-twisting-the-sides
With the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, free computer

softwares were used to discover the 13 largest Mersenne primes
stonehenge
. The 45th and largest Mersenne prime number was discovered
in 2009- it contains nearly 13 million digits! The search also
continues forhttps://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-ring-deep-shafts-found-near-
ever more accurate computer approximations for
the irrationalstonehenge
number π, with the current record standing at
over 5 trillion decimal places!
Image source: https://www.xorlogics.com/2019/05/27/the-internet-of-things-and-big-data-
management/
The P versus NP problem, introduced in 1971 by the

American-Canadian Stephen Cook, is a major
unsolved problem in computer science and complexity
theory. It is one of the Clay Mathematics Institute’s
stonehenge
million dollar Millennium Prize problems. The problem
asks whether every problem whose solution can be
efficiently checked by a computer can also be
stonehenge
efficiently solved by a computer.
In 2013, the Chinese-born American mathematician, Yitang

Zhang, worked in the area of number theory and provided a
proof of the first finite bound on gaps between prime
numbers.
stonehenge
20
stonehenge
Timeline of the Development of Mathematics
Date Name Nationality Major Achievements

35,000 BCE African First notched tally bones
Earliest documented counting
3,100 BCE Sumerian
and measuring system
Earliest fully-developed base 10
2,700 BCE Egyptian
number system in use
Multiplication tables, geometrical
2,600 BCE Sumerian
exercises and division problems
Earliest papyri showing
2,000 – 1,800
Egyptian numeration system and basic
BCE
arithmetic
1,800 – 1,600 Clay tablets dealing with
Babylonian
BCE fractions, algebra and equations
Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual
1,650 BCE Egyptian in arithmetic, geometry, unit
fractions, etc)
First decimal numeration system
1,200 BCE Chinese
with place value concept
Early Vedic mantras invoke
1,200 – 900
Indian powers of ten from a hundred all
BCE
the way up to a trillion
“Sulba Sutra” lists several
Pythagorean triples and simplified
800 – 400 BCE Indian Pythagorean theorem for the
sides of a square and a rectangle,
quite accurate approximate to √2
Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic
650 BCE Chinese square” in which each row,
column and diagonal sums to 15
Early developments in geometry,
624 – 546 BCE Thales Greek including work on similar and right
triangles
Expansion of geometry, rigorous
approach building from first
570 – 495 BCE Pythagoras Greek
principles, square and triangular
numbers, Pythagoras’ theorem
Discovered potential existence of
500 BCE Hippasus Greek irrational numbers while trying to
calculate the value of √2
Describes a series of paradoxes
490 – 430 BCE Zeno of Elea Greek concerning infinity and
infinitesimals
21
First systematic compilation of

Hippocrates of
470 – 410 BCE Greek geometrical knowledge, Lune of
Chios
Hippocrates
Developments in geometry and
460 – 370 BCE Democritus Greek
fractions, volume of a cone
Platonic solids, statement of the
Three Classical Problems,
influential teacher and
428 – 348 BCE Plato Greek
popularizer of mathematics,
insistence on rigorous proof and
logical methods
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek Method for rigorously proving
statements about areas and
volumes by successive
approximations
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek Development and
standardization of logic (although
not then considered part of
mathematics) and deductive
reasoning
300 BCE Euclid Greek Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of
axioms and postulates, many
formulas, proofs and theorems
including Euclid’s Theorem on
infinitude of primes
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek Formulas for areas of regular
shapes, “method of exhaustion”
for approximating areas and
value of π, comparison of infinities
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek “Sieve of Eratosthenes” method
for identifying prime numbers
262 – 190 BCE Apollonius of Greek Work on geometry, especially on
Perga cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)
200 BCE Chinese “Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art”, including
guide to how to solve equations
using sophisticated matrix-based
methods
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek Develop first detailed
trigonometry tables
36 BCE Mayan Pre-classic Mayans developed
the concept of zero by at least
this time
22
10 – 70 CE Heron (or Hero) of Greek Heron’s Formula for finding the

Alexandria area of a triangle from its side
lengths, Heron’s Method for
iteratively computing a square
root
90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian Develop even more detailed
trigonometry tables
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese First definitive statement of
Chinese Remainder Theorem
200 CE Indian Refined and perfected decimal
place value number system
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find
rational solutions to equations with
several unknowns
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
unevaluated, calculated value of
π correct to five decimal places,
early forms of integral and
differential calculus
400 CE Indian “Surya Siddhanta” contains roots
of modern trigonometry, including
first real use of sines, cosines,
inverse sines, tangents and
secants

Method for rigorously proving
statements about areas and
410 – 355 BCE Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek
volumes by successive
approximations
Development and standardization
of logic (although not then
384 – 322 BCE Aristotle Greek
considered part of mathematics)
and deductive reasoning
Definitive statement of classical
(Euclidean) geometry, use of
axioms and postulates, many
300 BCE Euclid Greek
formulas, proofs and theorems
including Euclid’s Theorem on
infinitude of primes
Formulas for areas of regular
287 – 212 BCE Archimedes Greek
shapes, “method of exhaustion”
23
for approximating areas and

value of π, comparison of infinities
“Sieve of Eratosthenes” method
276 – 195 BCE Eratosthenes Greek
for identifying prime numbers
Work on geometry, especially on
Apollonius of
262 – 190 BCE Greek cones and conic sections (ellipse,
Perga
parabola, hyperbola)
“Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art”, including
200 BCE Chinese guide to how to solve equations
using sophisticated matrix-based
methods
Develop first detailed
190 – 120 BCE Hipparchus Greek
trigonometry tables
Pre-classic Mayans developed the
36 BCE Mayan concept of zero by at least this
time
Heron’s Formula for finding the
area of a triangle from its side
Heron (or Hero) of
10 – 70 CE Greek lengths, Heron’s Method for
Alexandria
iteratively computing a square
root
Develop even more detailed
90 – 168 CE Ptolemy Greek/Egyptian
trigonometry tables
First definitive statement of
200 CE Sun Tzu Chinese
Chinese Remainder Theorem
Refined and perfected decimal
200 CE Indian
place value number system
Diophantine Analysis of complex
algebraic problems, to find
200 – 284 CE Diophantus Greek
rational solutions to equations with
several unknowns
Solved linear equations using a
matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots
220 – 280 CE Liu Hui Chinese unevaluated, calculated value of
π correct to five decimal places,
early forms of integral and
differential calculus
“Surya Siddhanta” contains roots
of modern trigonometry, including
400 CE Indian first real use of sines, cosines,
inverse sines, tangents and
secants
24

Definitions of trigonometric
functions, complete and
accurate sine and versine tables,
solutions to simultaneous
476 – 550 CE Aryabhata Indian
quadratic equations, accurate
approximation forπ(and
recognition thatπis an irrational
number)
Basic mathematical rules for
dealing with zero (+, – and x),
negative numbers, negative roots
598 – 668 CE Brahmagupta Indian
of quadratic equations, solution of
quadratic equations with two
unknowns
First to write numbers in Hindu-
Arabic decimal system with a
600 – 680 CE Bhaskara I Indian circle for zero, remarkably
accurate approximation of the
sine function
Advocacy of the Hindu numerals
1 – 9 and 0 in Islamic world,
foundations of modern algebra,
Muhammad Al-
780 – 850 CE Persian including algebraic methods of
Khwarizmi
“reduction” and “balancing”,
solution of polynomial equations
up to second degree
Continued Archimedes’
908 – 946 CE Ibrahim ibn Sinan Arabic investigations of areas and
volumes, tangents to a circle
First use of proof by mathematical
Muhammad Al-
953 – 1029 CE Persian induction, including to prove the
Karaji
binomial theorem
Derived a formula for the sum of
fourth powers using a readily
Ibn al-Haytham generalizable method, “Alhazen’s
966 – 1059 CE Persian/Arabic
(Alhazen) problem”, established beginnings
of link between algebra and
geometry
Generalized Indian methods for
extracting square and cube roots
1048 – 1131 Omar Khayyam Persian to include fourth, fifth and higher
roots, noted existence of different
sorts of cubic equations
Established that dividing by zero
1114 – 1185 Bhaskara II Indian
yields infinity, found solutions to
25
quadratic, cubic and quartic

equations (including negative
and irrational solutions) and to
second order Diophantine
equations, introduced some
preliminary concepts of calculus
Fibonacci Sequence of numbers,
advocacy of the use of the Hindu-
Leonardo of Pisa Arabic numeral system in Europe,
1170 – 1250 Italian
(Fibonacci) Fibonacci’s identity (product of
two sums of two squares is itself a
sum of two squares)
Developed field of spherical
1201 – 1274 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Persian trigonometry, formulated law of
sines for plane triangles
Solutions to quadratic, cubic and
higher power equations using a
1202 – 1261 Qin Jiushao Chinese
method of repeated
approximations
Culmination of Chinese “magic”
squares, circles and triangles,
1238 – 1298 Yang Hui Chinese Yang Hui’s Triangle (earlier version
of Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients)
Applied theory of conic sections
to solve optical problems,
Kamal al-Din al-
1267 – 1319 Persian explored amicable numbers,
Farisi
factorization and combinatorial
methods
Use of infinite series of fractions to
give an exact formula for π, sine
1350 – 1425 Madhava Indian formula and other trigonometric
functions, important step towards
development of calculus
System of rectangular
coordinates, such as for a time-
1323 – 1382 Nicole Oresme French speed-distance graph, first to use
fractional exponents, also worked
on infinite series
Influential book on arithmetic,
geometry and book-keeping, also
1446 – 1517 Luca Pacioli Italian
introduced standard symbols for
plus and minus
Niccolo Fontana Formula for solving all types of
1499 – 1557 Italian
Tartaglia cubic equations, involving first real
26
use of complex numbers

(combinations of real and
imaginary numbers), Tartaglia’s
Triangle (earlier version of Pascal’s
Triangle)
Published solution of cubic and
quartic equations (by Tartaglia
Gerolamo
1501 – 1576 Italian and Ferrari), acknowledged
Cardano
existence of imaginary numbers
(based on √−1)
Devised formula for solution of
1522 – 1565 Lodovico Ferrari Italian
quartic equations
Invention of natural logarithms,
popularized the use of the
1550 – 1617 John Napier British
decimal point, Napier’s Bones tool
for lattice multiplication
Clearing house for mathematical
thought during 17th Century,
1588 – 1648 Marin Mersenne French Mersenne primes (prime numbers
that are one less than a power of
2)
Early development of projective
1591 – 1661 Girard Desargues French geometry and “point at infinity”,
perspective theorem
Development of Cartesian
coordinates and analytic
geometry (synthesis of geometry
1596 – 1650 Rene Descartes French
and algebra), also credited with
the first use of superscripts for
powers or exponents

“Method of indivisibles” paved
Bonaventura
1598 – 1647 Italian way for the later development of
Cavalieri
infinitesimal calculus
Discovered many new numbers
patterns and theorems (including
Little Theorem, Two-Square
1601 – 1665 Pierre de Fermat French Thereom and Last Theorem),
greatly extending knowlege of
number theory, also contributed to
probability theory
Contributed towards development
1616 – 1703 John Wallis British of calculus, originated idea of
number line, introduced symbol ∞
27
for infinity, developed standard

notation for powers
Pioneer (with Fermat) of
1623 – 1662 Blaise Pascal French probability theory, Pascal’s
Triangle of binomial coefficients
Development of infinitesimal
calculus (differentiation and
integration), laid ground work for
1643 – 1727 Isaac Newton British
almost all of classical mechanics,
generalized binomial theorem,
infinite power series
Independently developed
infinitesimal calculus (his calculus
notation is still used), also practical
1646 – 1716 Gottfried Leibniz German calculating machine using binary
system (forerunner of the
computer), solved linear equations
using a matrix
Helped to consolidate infinitesimal
calculus, developed a technique
for solving separable differential
equations, added a theory of
1654 – 1705 Jacob Bernoulli Swiss
permutations and combinations to
probability theory, Bernoulli
Numbers sequence,
transcendental curves
Further developed infinitesimal
calculus, including the “calculus of
1667 – 1748 Johann Bernoulli Swiss variation”, functions for curve of
fastest descent (brachistochrone)
and catenary curve
De Moivre’s formula, development
of analytic geometry, first
Abraham de
1667 – 1754 French statement of the formula for the
Moivre
normal distribution curve,
probability theory
Christian Goldbach Conjecture, Goldbach-
1690 – 1764 German
Goldbach Euler Theorem on perfect powers
Made important contributions in
almost all fields and found
unexpected links between
different fields, proved numerous
1707 – 1783 Leonhard Euler Swiss
theorems, pioneered new
methods, standardized
mathematical notation and wrote
many influential textbooks
28

Rigorous proof thatπis irrational,
introduced hyperbolic functions
1728 – 1777 Johann Lambert Swiss into trigonometry, made
conjectures on non-Euclidean
space and hyperbolic triangles
Comprehensive treatment of
classical and celestial mechanics,
Joseph Louis calculus of variations, Lagrange’s
1736 – 1813 Italian/French
Lagrange theorem of finite groups, four-
square theorem, mean value
theorem
Inventor of descriptive geometry,
1746 – 1818 Gaspard Monge French
orthographic projection
Celestial mechanics translated
geometric study of classical
Pierre-Simon mechanics to one based on
1749 – 1827 French
Laplace calculus, Bayesian interpretation
of probability, belief in scientific
determinism
Abstract algebra, mathematical
analysis, least squares method for
Adrien-Marie
1752 – 1833 French curve-fitting and linear regression,
Legendre
quadratic reciprocity law, prime
number theorem, elliptic functions
Studied periodic functions and
infinite sums in which the terms are
1768 – 1830 Joseph Fourier French
trigonometric functions (Fourier
series)
Pattern in occurrence of prime
numbers, construction of
heptadecagon, Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra, exposition of
Carl Friedrich complex numbers, least squares
1777 – 1825 German
Gauss approximation method, Gaussian
distribution, Gaussian function,
Gaussian error curve, non-
Euclidean geometry, Gaussian
curvature
Early pioneer of mathematical
analysis, reformulated and proved
Augustin-Louis theorems of calculus in a rigorous
1789 – 1857 French
Cauchy manner, Cauchy’s theorem (a
fundamental theorem of group
theory)
29
Möbius strip (a two-dimensional

surface with only one side),
August Ferdinand Möbius configuration, Möbius
1790 – 1868 German
Mobius transformations, Möbius transform
(number theory), Möbius function,
Möbius inversion formula
Inventor of symbolic algebra (early
1791 – 1858 George Peacock British attempt to place algebra on a
strictly logical basis)
Designed a “difference engine”
that could automatically perform
computations based on
1791 – 1871 Charles Babbage British
instructions stored on cards or
tape, forerunner of programmable
computer.

Developed theory of hyperbolic
Nikolai
1792 – 1856 Russian geometry and curved spaces
Lobachevsky
independently of Bolyai
Proved impossibility of solving
quintic equations, group theory,
1802 – 1829 Niels Henrik Abel Norwegian
abelian groups, abelian
categories, abelian variety
Explored hyperbolic geometry
1802 – 1860 Janos Bolyai Hungarian and curved spaces independently
of Lobachevsky
Important contributions to analysis,
theory of periodic and elliptic
1804 – 1851 Carl Jacobi German
functions, determinants and
matrices
Theory of quaternions (first
1805 – 1865 William Hamilton Irish example of a non-commutative
algebra)
Proved that there is no general
algebraic method for solving
polynomial equations of degree
1811 – 1832 Evariste Galois French greater than four, laid groundwork
for abstract algebra, Galois
theory, group theory, ring theory,
etc.
Devised Boolean algebra (using
operators AND, OR and NOT),
1815 – 1864 George Boole British
starting point of modern
mathematical logic, led to the
30
development of computer
science
Discovered a continuous function
with no derivative, advancements
in calculus of variations,
1815 – 1897 Karl Weierstrass German reformulated calculus in a more
rigorous fashion, pioneer in
development of mathematical
analysis
Pioneer of modern group theory,
matrix algebra, theory of higher
singularities, theory of invariants,
1821 – 1895 Arthur Cayley British
higher dimensional geometry,
extended Hamilton’s quaternions
to create octonions
Non-Euclidean elliptic geometry,
Riemann surfaces, Riemannian
geometry (differential geometry in
1826 – 1866 Bernhard Riemann German
multiple dimensions), complex
manifold theory, zeta function,
Riemann Hypothesis
Defined some important concepts
of set theory such as similar sets
1831 – 1916 Richard Dedekind German and infinite sets, proposed
Dedekind cut (now a standard
definition of the real numbers)
Introduced Venn diagrams into set
1834 – 1923 John Venn British theory (now a ubiquitous tool in
probability, logic and statistics)

Applied algebra to geometric
theory of differential equations,
1842 – 1899 Marius Sophus Lie Norwegian
continuous symmetry, Lie groups
of transformations
Creator of set theory, rigorous
treatment of the notion of infinity
and transfinite numbers, Cantor’s
1845 – 1918 Georg Cantor German
theorem (which implies the
existence of an “infinity of
infinities”)
One of the founders of modern
logic, first rigorous treatment of the
1848 – 1925 Gottlob Frege German ideas of functions and variables in
logic, major contributor to study of
the foundations of mathematics
31
Klein bottle (a one-sided closed

surface in four-dimensional
space), Erlangen Program to
1849 – 1925 Felix Klein German classify geometries by their
underlying symmetry groups, work
on group theory and function
theory
Partial solution to “three body
problem”, foundations of modern
1854 – 1912 Henri Poincare French chaos theory, extended theory of
mathematical topology, Poincaré
conjecture
Peano axioms for natural numbers,
developer of mathematical logic
1858 – 1932 Giuseppe Peano Italian and set theory notation,
contributed to modern method of
mathematical induction
Co-wrote “Principia
Alfred North
1861 – 1947 British Mathematica” (attempt to
Whitehead
ground mathematics on logic)
23 “Hilbert problems”, finiteness
theorem, “Entscheidungsproblem“
(decision problem), Hilbert space,
1862 – 1943 David Hilbert German
developed modern axiomatic
approach to mathematics,
formalism
Geometry of numbers
(geometrical method in multi-
Hermann
1864 – 1909 German dimensional space for solving
Minkowski
number theory problems),
Minkowski space-time
Russell’s paradox, co-wrote
“Principia Mathematica” (attempt
1872 – 1970 Bertrand Russell British
to ground mathematics on logic),
theory of types
Progress toward solving Riemann
hypothesis (proved infinitely many
zeroes on the critical line),
1877 – 1947 G.H. Hardy British
encouraged new tradition of pure
mathematics in Britain, taxicab
numbers
Pioneer in field of complex
analytic dynamics, investigated
1878 – 1929 Pierre Fatou French iterative and recursive processes
32

Proved several theorems marking
breakthroughs in topology
1881 – 1966 L.E.J. Brouwer Dutch (including fixed point theorem and
topological invariance of
dimension)
Proved over 3,000 theorems,
identities and equations, including
Srinivasa on highly composite numbers,
1887 – 1920 Indian
Ramanujan partition function and its
asymptotics, and mock theta
functions
Developed complex dynamics,
1893 – 1978 Gaston Julia French
Julia set formula
Pioneer of game theory, design
John von model for modern computer
1903 – 1957 Hungarian/American
Neumann architecture, work in quantum
and nuclear physics
Incompleteness theorems (there
can be solutions to mathematical
1906 – 1978 Kurt Godel Austria problems which are true but which
can never be proved), Gödel
numbering, logic and set theory
Theorems allowed connections
between algebraic geometry and
number theory, Weil conjectures
1906 – 1998 Andre Weil French (partial proof of Riemann
hypothesis for local zeta
functions), founding member of
influential Bourbaki group
Breaking of the German enigma
code, Turing machine (logical
1912 – 1954 Alan Turing British
forerunner of computer), Turing
test of artificial intelligence
Set and solved many problems in
combinatorics, graph theory,
1913 – 1996 Paul Erdos Hungarian number theory, classical analysis,
approximation theory, set theory
and probability theory
Pioneer in modern chaos theory,
Lorenz attractor, fractals, Lorenz
1917 – 2008 Edward Lorenz American
oscillator, coined term “butterfly
effect”
Work on decision problems and
1919 – 1985 Julia Robinson American Hilbert’s tenth problem, Robinson
hypothesis
33
Mandelbrot set fractal, computer

1924 – 2010 Benoit Mandelbrot French plottings of Mandelbrot and Julia
sets
Mathematical structuralist,
revolutionary advances in
Alexander algebraic geometry, theory of
1928 – 2014 French
Grothendieck schemes, contributions to
algebraic topology, number
theory, category theory, etc.
Work in game theory, differential
geometry and partial differential
equations, provided insight into
1928 – 2015 John Nash American
complex systems in daily life such
as economics, computing and
military

Proved that continuum hypothesis
could be both true and not true
1934 – 2007 Paul Cohen American
(i.e. independent from Zermelo-
Fraenkel set theory)
Important contributions to game
theory, group theory, number
theory, geometry and (especially)
John Horton
1937 - British recreational mathematics,
Conway
notably with the invention of the
cellular automaton called the
“Game of Life”
Final proof that Hilbert’s tenth
problem is impossible (there is no
1947 - Yuri Matiyasevich Russian general method for determining
whether Diophantine equations
have a solution)
Finally proved Fermat’s Last
Theorem for all numbers (by
1953 - Andrew Wiles British proving the Taniyama-Shimura
conjecture for semistable elliptic
curves)
Finally proved Poincaré
Conjecture (by proving Thurston’s
geometrization conjecture),
1966 - Grigori Perelman Russian
contributions to Riemannian
geometry and geometric
topology
Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/mathematicians.html
34
Why is math important in education? Why do we have to study a lot of math from
elementary to college and even beyond?
The special role of mathematics in education is a consequence of its universal

applicability. The results of mathematics are both significant and useful; the best
results are also elegant and deep. Mathematics teaches us distinctive modes of
thought which are both versatile and powerful, including modeling, abstraction,
optimization, logical analysis, inference from data, and use of symbols. In short,
experience with mathematical modes of thought builds mathematical power--a
capacity of mind of increasing value in this technological age that enables us to
read critically, to identify fallacies, to detect bias, to assess risk, and to suggest
alternatives. With mathematical skills that you have, you are empowered to
understand the world in a deeper, sounder, and more meaningful way.
Please click the link below for further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx6ZNEWydCU
Where do we use mathematics?
We use math in technology, engineering, media, medicine and health,

finance and business, and in almost every aspect of our life. Modern technology
depends on basic research to advance, and research uses math, particularly
statistics, to make meaningful conclusions from the data obtained. That includes
the invention of advanced medical devices, computers, machines, etc. In
engineering, math is used to design and develop new components or products,
maintain operating components, model real-life situations for testing and learning
purposes, as well as build and maintain structures. Math is a core component of
every engineering field, which would explain why engineering students had to
deal with many maths. Mathematical concepts and themes can also be found
anywhere in the media. The range of ways that math is related to the media is
quite broad, including the shape of a camera lens, proportion scale for movie
sets, and the use of convincing nature of numbers used in advertising. In business,
ownership and management require more than the skill to create a product or
talent at providing a service. Understanding basic business math is necessary for
profitable operations and accurate record keeping. Math is also an essential
concept of fashion designing. From taking measurements, estimating the quantity
and quality of clothes, choosing the color theme, estimating the cost and profit,
producing cloth according to the customers' needs and tastes, math is followed
at every stage.
You might say these applications are all in the industry. How about in our
daily life? When are we ever going to use math in real life?
35
We all use math in everyday applications, whether we're aware of it or

not. If you look hard enough, you'll see math emerge from some of the most
unlikely places. Math is in the grocery store. Grocery shopping requires a broad
range of math knowledge from multiplication to estimation and percentages.
Math is in the kitchen. When baking or cooking, following a recipe can sometimes
be tricky because measurement of ingredients and conversions are necessary.
Recipes are like mathematical algorithms or step-by-step sets of operations to be
performed. When you travel, math also comes along for the ride- from estimating
the amount of fuel you’ll need to reading maps. Math also helps you save money.
Most experts agree that without strong math skills, people tend to invest, save, or
spend money based on their emotions. You rarely hear math majors falling into
investment scams. You also use math when you exercise, train, and watch your
diet. We set our routine according to our workout schedule, count the number of
repetitions while exercising, count the number of calories we need, etc. The
bottom line is: math is everywhere, operating in real-life ways all around us. It is
the universal language of our environment, helping mankind explain and create.
Please click the following links for a further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXwStduNw14
A. Patterns in Nature and the World
Many of us misinterpret mathematics as the study Did you know?

of numbers and that only those who are excellent
with numbers can be called mathematicians. But it
is not really numbers that matter to a
mathematician; rather, it is what they represent. The
mathematician’s true purpose is to study, discover,
or create patterns. While a scientist studies an actual
object, being, or phenomenon, the mathematician
provides him/ her patterns, structures, and The wings of a butterfly often sport
relationships involved in whatever the scientist patches of color and stripes that
can imitate eyes or warn of toxins
studies. and therefore deter predators.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/211174958764866/
Patterns provide clear insight into
understanding the natural world. While we know that animals and plants are far
from thinking beings, they do have certain habits and characteristics that exist in
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/21
patterns. Scientists and biologists believe that understanding these behavioral
1174958764866/
patterns will provide us a clearer understanding of all living things.
 What does the word pattern mean?
36
A pattern is considered as any kind of regularity that can be recognized by

the mind. These could be mathematical or non-mathematical patterns. Learning
how to recognize these patterns would be valuable to you as you gain
mathematical maturity and become a problem solver.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/1829656074039318/ https://in.pinterest.com/pin/180003316332146469/
https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/:National_Aquatics_ https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/476959416760516186/
Center_Construction(cropped).jpg
We think of patterns as something that just repeats again and again

throughout space in an identical way, sort of like a wallpaper pattern. But many
patterns that we see in nature aren’t quite like that. We sense that there is
something regular or at least not random about them, but that doesn’t mean that
all the elements are identical. One familiar example of that would be the zebra’s
stripes. Everyone can recognize the zebra’s stripes as a pattern, but no stripe is like
any other stripe on its skin. However, the pattern is still so striking, beautiful, and
remarkable. That’s the beauty of natural patterns, and it makes us wonder: How
does nature without any kind of blueprint or design put together patterns like this?
If we look around us, we will see different kinds of pattern. Some are natural,
some are man- made, some give us a scientific image, some have artistic vibe,
and some are intangible like software patterns. Like math, patterns can be seen
all around us. It’s just about everywhere! In this part of the module, we will focus
only on the patterns that we see in nature.
Patterns in Nature
“But in my opinion, all things in nature occur mathematically.”
- Rene Descartes
37
Patterns in nature are the visible regularities of form found in the natural
world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled
mathematically.
 What are the different natural patterns?
Natural Patterns include:

1. Symmetries
2. Fractals or Trees
3. Spirals
4. Chaos, meanders
5. Waves, dunes
6. Bubbles, Foam
7. Tessellations
8. Cracks
9. Spots, stripes
 Look at your face in the mirror. Imagine a vertical line going through
the middle of your face. What can you say about the left and right
sides of your face? Now imagine a butterfly with wings wide spread
and an imaginary vertical line going through the center of its body.
What can you say about the left and right sides of the butterfly’s
body?
 What kind of pattern do the questions above show you?
This pattern is called symmetry.
1. Symmetry. Figures can have two distinct types of symmetry: reflection (mirror or
bilateral) symmetry and rotation (radial) n- fold symmetry, which we informally
differentiate below.
 A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that can be “folded over”
so that one- half of the figure matches the other half perfectly. The “fold
line” is called the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.
 A figure has rotation symmetry if there is a point around which the figure
can be rotated, less than a full turn, so that the image matches the original
figure perfectly.
38
A tiger has reflection symmetry. A starfish has rotation symmetry. A snowflake has rotation
symmetry.
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/
2. Fractals or Trees. From the word fraction, or part of a whole, fractals are self-
similar, iterated mathematical constructs where shrinking and moving are
applied many times. In a fractal, you will observe that as new shapes are
constructed, they are similar to each of the previous shapes, that is, the basic
components of a fractal are similar to the whole. This means that you can
zoom into forever and find exactly the same shapes.
Leaf of cow parsley Angelica flowerhead, a sphere made of

spheres (self-similar)
http://the-history-girls.blogspot.com/2017/09/wyspes-kexis-and-cokenay-in-medieval.html
39
Fractal spirals: Romanesco broccoli Trees: dendritic copper crystals Trees: Lichtenberg figure:
(microscope) high voltage
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/423690277417649466/
https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/4x4-captured-lightning-lichtenberg-1792192892
3. Spirals. Spirals are the patterns that we see in many plants and some animals,
notably molluscs. To get a better picture, we will pay attention to a particular
kind, the nautilus shell. In a nautilus, each chamber of its shell is an
approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged
in a logarithmic spiral. We can say that growth spiral can be seen as a special
case of self-similarity.
Spiral aloe Spiralling shell Spiralling shell

40
4. Chaos, meanders. In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly)

sensitive to initial conditions. Meanders on the other hand are sinuous bends in
rivers or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around
bends.
Chaos: shell of gastropod mollusk Meanders: sinuous snake crawling Meanders: symmetrical brain
coral
5. Waves, dunes. Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. While
dunes are created when winds blow over large bodies of sand. Dunes may
form a range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars,
domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or seif ('sword') shapes.
Waves: breaking wave in a ship's Dunes: barchan crescent sand dune Wind ripples with dislocations
wake
6. Bubbles, foam. A soap bubble forms a sphere. Two bubbles together form a
more complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these
surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges
slightly into the larger one. A foam is a mass of bubbles. Mathematical
models of bubbles and foams are considered as collections of surfaces
which minimize are under volume constraints.
41
Foam of soap bubbles: four edges meet Equal spheres (gas bubbles) in a
at each vertex surface foam
 Have you heard of a tessellation?

 What is a tessellation?
7. Tessellations. Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat
surface. Among animals, bony fish and reptiles like the pangolin, are protected
by overlapping scales or osteoderms. These form more or less exactly repeating
units, though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size.
Arrays: honeycomb is a natural tessellation Bismuth hopper crystal illustrating the stair
step crystalhabit.
42
Tilings: overlapping scales of common roach Tessellated pavement: a rock formation on

the Tasman Peninsula
8. Cracks. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When
an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its
breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions. Conversely, when
an inelastic material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress
in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right
angles can create new cracks. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether
the material is elastic or not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark,
cracks form to relieve stress as usual, but they do not grow long as their growth
is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibers. Since each species of tree has
its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern
of splitting in its bark
Drying inelastic mud Drying elastic mud Palm trunk
43
9. Spots, stripes. One function of animal patterns is camouflage; another function

is signaling. These patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they
have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned
animal will survive to reproduce. Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish
and zebras are striped. But while these evolutionary and functional arguments
explain why these animals need their patterns, they do not explain how the
patterns are formed.
Dirce beauty butterfly, Breeding pattern of cuttlefish, Sepia

officinalis
Nature uses only the longest threads to weave her patterns, so that each small
piece of her fabric reveals the organization of the entire tapestry.
- - Richard P. Feynman
in The Character of Physical
Law
Please click the following links for a further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQElzjCsl9o
44
B. Numerical and Logical Patterns
Humans have always used observations of patterns to help mankind survive

with a better understanding of the world we live in. Some of these patterns
seemed to have only recreational value when first discovered, but later on, they
have been shown to be valuable tools in describing important aspects of life like
weather systems, economic behaviors, biological interactions, and other.
NUMERICAL PATTERNS
Sometimes, when we first study a math lesson, like mathematical logic, we
do not realize that it has a deep application in our lives. But understanding
patterns helps us improve our mental skills. In order to recognize patterns, we need
to have an understanding of critical thinking and logic, which are clearly
important skills to develop. But do not worry, researchers have found that the skill
of recognizing and understanding patterns can be learned relatively quickly. But
like learning other forms of math or any other subject and skill, you will really need
to exert effort with practicing it for the long term. Remember, with practice comes
skill.
Practice Tests: Find the next number in each of the following:
1. 3 10 13 23 36 ______
2. 2 4 4 16 16 ______
3. 3 9 6 15 9 ______
4. ¼ ½ 1 2 4 ______
5. 729 243 81 27 9 ______
6. 1 3 4 7 11 ______
7. 2 4 7 11 16 ______
8. 6 11 21 41 81 ______
9. 2 3 5 9 17 ______
10. 1 4 9 16 25 ______
45
LOGICAL PATTERNS
The three figures or symbols in each problem set below are related to each
other in a certain way.
Practice Tests: Draw the next shape in each of the following picture patterns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1
1 1
1 3 1
1 5 5 1
5. 1 7 13 7 1
1 9 25 25 9 1
? ? ? ? ? ? ?
46
Learning check
Activity: Answer the Logical Pattern (Abstract Reasoning Problems)
For item numbers 1 through 10, which figure completes the series?
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
47
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
48
10.)
For items number 11 through 14, which figure is the odd one out?
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
49
For item numbers 15 through 16, which figure completes the series?
15.)
16.)
For items number 17 through 18, which belongs in neither group? x

17.)
50
18.)
19.) Which one completes the series?
20.) Which is the odd one out?
51
C. Figurative Number Patterns, Sequences and Series
FIGURATIVE NUMBER PATTERNS
Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated and

intrigued mathematicians are those that were derived from the arrangement of
points representing numbers into a series of geometrical figures. These numbers
are known as figurate or figurative numbers which appeared in 15th-century
arithmetic books and were probably known to the ancient Chinese but were of
special interest to the ancient Greek mathematicians. To them, everything could
be explained by numbers, and numbers have specific characteristics and
personalities. Among other properties of numbers, they say that numbers had
“shapes.” That’s why figurative numbers are sometimes called polygonal
numbers because they are points, or dots, arranged to form various regular shape
polygons, such as a triangle or a pentagon.
Examples:
Consider the triangular figures below.
Show how these triangular numbers are formed
The first four triangular numbers based on the number of dots are 1, 3, 6,
and 10.
What is the next triangular number? Can you draw it? Answer: 15
Try this.
1. Use dots to form the first four square figures, and write their
corresponding
square numbers.
2. Based on the four square numbers on item #1, what is the next square
number?
52
NUMBER SEQUENCE
A pattern of numbers arranged in a particular order is called a sequence,

and the individual numbers in the sequence are called terms of the sequence.
For example, the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, … , form a number sequence. An
ellipsis, the three periods after the 4, is read “and so on”. Following are several
examples of number sequences.
Sequence Name
2, 4, 6, 8, … the even counting numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, … the odd counting numbers
1, 4, 9, 16, …. the square counting numbers
1, 3, 32 , 33 the powers of three
1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … the Fibonacci sequence
Practice exercise 1. Describe the following pattern by answering the questions

that follow:
1+0∙9= 1
2 + 1 ∙ 9 = 11
3 + 12 ∙ 9 = 111
4 + 123 ∙ 9 = 1,111
5 + 1234 ∙ 9 = 11,111
Does the pattern continue? Why or why not? (Try continuing the pattern
until you can make a generalization. Verify your answer in this activity
when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about this lesson.)
Practice exercise 2. Observe the following square array.
Do you see any pattern?

(Draw the next square array and complete the table that follows.)
53
Squares on a side 1 2 3 4 5 6 … n
Shaded squares (SS) 1 …
Unshaded squares (US) 0 …
Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture
about this lesson.)
Practice exercise 3. Following is a pattern of circular shapes:
If you make this pattern until you have 10 shaded circles in a row, how
many unshaded circles and how many shaded circles will you need?
Your answer: Number of unshaded circles: _________
Number of shaded circles: __________
(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture
about this lesson.)
Practice exercise 4. Observe the following pattern:
1 + 3 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42
a. Based on the pattern, can you find the following sum without actually
adding each term? 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 35
b. State the generalization that you can make (about the sum of
consecutive odd numbers starting from 1) based on this pattern.
(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture
about this lesson.)
54
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
A sequence is an ordered collection of objects. Some special sequences

can be classified by the way their terms are found. In the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, …,
each term after the first can be found by adding 2 to the preceding term. This
type of sequence, in which successive terms differ by the same number, is
called an arithmetic sequence. Using variables, an arithmetic sequence has
the form a, a + d, a + 2d, ….
Here "a" is the initial term (sometimes it is denoted by a1 ) and "d" is the
amount by which successive terms differ. The number "d" is called the
common difference of the sequence. The value of d may be positive or
negative. If the arithmetic sequence is decreasing, the value of d is negative.
If the arithmetic sequence is increasing, the value of d is positive.
In the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, …, each term after the first can be found by
multiplying the preceding term by 3. This is an example of a geometric
sequence. By using variables, a geometric sequence has the form
a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , …
The number “r" by which each successive term is multiplied is called the
common ratio of the sequence.
The table on the next page displays the terms for general arithmetic and
geometric sequences.
General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence

Term 1 2 3 4 … n
Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d
Geometic sequence a ar ar 2 ar 3 … ar n−1
This table tells us that to find the general formula for any arithmetic
sequence, you will need to find first the values of a and d. Again, remember that
a stands for the first term of the sequence, and d stands for the common
difference in the sequence.
55
Example: Find the general formula for the following arithmetic sequence.
5, 9, 13, 17, …
Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of an arithmetic
sequence is:
an = a + (n − 1)d
We need the values of a and d that we will plug into this formula. So let’s
start working on it. The first term in the sequence is 5, so the value of a is equal to
5. The common difference between the terms of the sequence is 4 because the
“gap” between the terms is 4. So the value of d is 4. (A systematic way of getting
the common difference in an arithmetic sequence is to subtract the first term from
the second term. Then verify if you have the correct value by subtracting the
second term from the third term, or in general, subtract the nth term from the
(n+1)th term.) So plugging these values a=5 and d= 4 to the format above, we
have:
an = 5 + (n − 1)4
Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because

we are just looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence.
Furthermore, this formula can be rewritten in its other form like:
an = 5 + 4n − 4 (after distribution property)

or an = 4n + 1 (after combining like terms)
So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = 4n + 1. But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do
that by applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For
example, let us check if we will get 13 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (13 is
the third term in the given sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)
a3 = 4(3) + 1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = 12 + 1
a3 = 13 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 13.)
Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we
can now confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this
sequence is an = 4n + 1.
56
This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So
suppose we want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will
just replace n in the formula by 20. Let’s do that.
a20 = 4(20) + 1
a20 = 80 + 1
a20 = 81. (You can try looking for any term of the sequence using the formula.)
What you have solved is an arithmetic formula in linear form that’s why the
expression involved is of first degree: an= an + b. First degree expression means
that the highest exponent of the unknown is 1.
Sometimes you will be asked to find the first term of a sequence, given other
information like the common difference and the value of the nth term. In that
case, you will need to manipulate the formula to give you the desired value.
To find the first term, given d and a value for any term, use: 𝐚 = 𝐚𝐧 − (𝐧 − 𝟏)𝐝
In the same way, if you want to find the value of d, and you are given other
information like the first term and the value of the nth term of a sequence, then
you will just need to manipulate the formula to give you the desired value. To find
the common difference, given the first term and a value for any term, use:
𝐚𝐧 − 𝐚
𝐝=
𝐧−𝟏
Still, some problems would require a different formula. That’s when you use
your creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original formula and derive
an appropriate expression to solve the problem.
At this point, we will solve a similar problem, but we will no longer describe
the step- by-step solution.
Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence:
20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 14, …
then find a12 .
Solution: You can see below a diagram of differences between successive

terms. This shows you that the common difference of this sequence is -2. You will
see later in the lesson why we labeled this “first difference”.
57
Sequence 20 18 16 14 12 14
First Difference -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
Hence, 𝐚 = 𝟐𝟎, and 𝐝 = −𝟐
General Rule: an = a + (n − 1)d

an = 20 + (n − 1)(−2)
an = 20 − 2n + 2
an = −2n + 22
(Checking if the formula really works is left for you to do.)
Solving for a12 : a12 = −2(12) + 22

a12 = −2
Let us now discuss the quadratic form of an arithmetic sequence. Its general
format is
an = an2 + bn + c
where c=the zeroth (0th ) term
a+b=first entry in the level of first difference
2a= first entry in the level of second difference
Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, …
Solution: Since in the formula we will need a zeroth term, let us see how it is
derived.
First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term, going left.
Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 5 12 21 32 45
start here and
First Difference 7 9 11 13 go left
58
Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the
“second difference”, again, start working from the right going left.

Sequence 5 12 21 32 45
First Difference 7 9 11 13
Second Difference 2 2 2 start here an go left
At this point, we have found the common difference on “second level”;

that makes it easy for us to remember because our sequence is quadratic or
second degree. Now, let us introduce the zeroth term in the sequence by working
backwards in the figure. This time, we start from the bottom and we shall use red
broken lines to indicate that they are derived from introducing a zeroth term.
Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 0 5 12 21 32 45
First Difference 5 7 9 11 13
Second Difference 2 2 2 2
start here and go up
It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be
subtracted from the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct
zeroth term. Remembering that in our formula, 2a stands for the first entry in the
level of second difference; a+b stands for the first entry in the level of first
difference; and c stands for the zeroth (0th ) term,
we now have the following equations.
𝟐𝐚 = 𝟐 𝐚+𝐛=𝟓 and 𝐜=𝟎
We now proceed to solving for a and b so that we can already plug the
values to the format of the general formula.
59
Solving for a, we have 2a = 2

𝐚 = 𝟏 (after dividing both sides of equation by 2)
Solving for b, we have a+b=5
1 + b = 5 (after substituting the derived value of a above)
b = 4 (after transposing 1 to the right side of the
equation)
Therefore, 𝐚 = 𝟏, 𝐛 = 𝟒, and 𝐜 = 𝟎. And plugging these into the format of the

formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟐 + 𝐛𝐧 + 𝐜, we will have
𝐚𝐧 = 𝟏𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 + 𝟎
or 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 (after simplifying)
To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct,
let us check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a4 . In our
sequence, a4 is 32. Let’s check if our formula will yield 32 if we replace n by 4.
a4 = (4)2 + 4(4)
a4 = 32 (Correct!)
This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the
sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧.
So, suppose we are asked to find the 11th term of this sequence. We will just
need to replace n in the formula by 11. That is,
𝐚𝟏𝟏 = (𝟏𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟒(𝟏𝟏)

𝐚𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 the 11th term of the sequence
Now, for the cubic form of an arithmetic sequence, we have the format
an = an3 + bn2 + cn + d
where d= zeroth term
6a= the first entry in the third difference
6a+2b= the first entry in the second difference
a+b+c= the first entry in the first difference
60
Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence 10, 15, 36, 76, 138,
...
Solution: Solving cubic sequences is just like extending the solution in a quadratic
sequence. First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term,
going left.

Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here and
First Difference 5 21 40 62 go left
Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the
“second difference”, again, start working from the right going left.
Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here and
Second Difference 16 19 22 go left
Still, the differences are not the same so we extend the process of finding the
difference between terms.

Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
Second Difference 16 19 22
start here and
Third Difference 3 3 go left
At this point, we have found the common difference on “third level”; that makes
it easy for us to remember because our sequence is cubic or third degree. Now,
let us introduce the zeroth term in the sequence by working backwards in the
figure. This time, we start from the bottom and we shall use red broken lines to
indicate that they are derived from introducing a zeroth term.
61
Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 18 10 15 36 76 138
First Difference -8 5 21 40 62
Second Difference 13 16 19 22
Third Difference 3 3 3
start here and go up
It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be subtracted
from the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct zeroth term.
Remembering that in our formula a+b+c corresponds to the first entry in the first
difference; 6a+2b corresponds to the first entry in the second difference; 6a
corresponds to the first entry in the third difference; and d corresponds to the
zeroth (0th ) term, we now have the following equations.
𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = −𝟖 6𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛 = 𝟏𝟑 𝟔𝐚 = 𝟑 and
𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖
We now proceed to solving for a, b, and c so that we can already plug
the values into the format of the general formula.
Solving for a, we have 6a = 3
𝟏
𝐚 = 𝟐 (after dividing both sides of the equation by 6)
Solving for b, we have 6a + 2b = 13

1
6 (2) + 2b = 13 (after substituting the derived value of a
above)
2b = 13 − 3 (after simplifying and transposing)
2b = 10
𝐛=𝟓
Solving for c, we have a + b + c = −8

1
+ 5 + c = −8
2
11
c = −8 − 2
𝟐𝟕
𝐜=− 𝟐
62
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
Therefore, 𝐚 = 𝟐, 𝐛 = 𝟓, 𝐜 = − , and 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐
And plugging these values into the format of the formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟑 + 𝐛𝐧𝟐 + 𝐜𝐧 + 𝐝, we will have
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝐧 = 𝟐 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct,
let us check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a3 . In our
sequence, a3 is 36. Let’s check if our formula will yield 36 if we replace n by 3.
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟑 = 𝟐 (𝟑)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟑)𝟐 − (𝟑) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
a3 = 36 (Correct!)
This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the
sequence
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
10, 15, 36, 76, 138, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝟐 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐
So suppose we are asked to find the 8th term of this sequence. We will just
need to replace n in the formula by 8. That is,
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟖 = 𝟐 (𝟖)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟖)𝟐 − (𝟖) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
𝐚𝟖 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 the 8th term of the sequence
That’s it! It's time for you to practice your newly learned skill.
63
Learning check
Activity:
1. Write the general rule for the nth term of sequence 9, 6, 3, 0, -3, -6, …
Then find its 25th term.
2. Write the general rule for the nth term of this quadratic number
sequence
– 3, 8, 23, 42, 65, … Then find the a24 .
3. Write the general rule for the nth term of the sequence 4, 14, 40, 88,
164, … Then find its 31st term.
4. The twelfth term of a sequence is 94 and the common difference
between terms is 8. Find the first term and write the first 5 terms of the
sequence.
5. Find the common difference in a sequence where the first term is 12
and a15 = −86. Then enumerate the first 5 terms of the sequence.
6. Write the general formula of a sequence with two given terms, a5 =
19 and a18 = 110. Then list down the first 5 terms of the sequence.
Geometric Sequence
At this point, we shall discuss the geometric sequence- a kind of number

sequence where each term after the first can be found by multiplying the
preceding term by a common number. This common number, denoted by “r" , is
called the common ratio of the sequence.
The table below, which we also saw in the previous lesson, shows us the formula
for finding the nth term of a geometric sequence.
General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence

Term 1 2 3 4 … n
Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d
64
This table tells us that to find the general formula for any geometric
sequence, you will need to find first the values of a and r. Again, remember that
a stands for the first term of the sequence, and r stands for the common ratio in
the sequence.
Let us try this example on a geometric sequence with common ratio r, r ≠ 1.
Example 1:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
1, - 2, 4, - 8, 16, ___, ___, ___, … , ___
Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of a geometric
sequence is:
an = ar n−1
We need the values of a and r that we shall plug into this formula. So let’s
start working on it. The first term in the sequence is 1, so the value of a is equal to
1. The common ratio of the terms of the sequence is -2 because the “common
number” that we can multiply to any preceding term to get the next term is -2. (A
systematic way of getting the common ratio in a geometric sequence is to divide
the second term by the first term. Then verify if you have the correct value by
dividing the third term by the second term, or in general, divide the (n+1)th term
by nth term.)
The diagram below should help you to better understand what I am saying.
(Check out the computation for r in the box.)
Sequence 1 -2 4 -8 16
−2
𝑟1 = = −2
1
4 Common ratio (r) -2 -2 -2 -2
𝑟2 = = −2
−2
8
𝑟3 = − = −2 (When you multiply 1 by -2, you get -2; when you multiply -2
4
by -2,𝑟4 = 16 = −2
−8
you get 4; when you multiply 4 by -2, you get -8, and so on.)
So a = 1 and r = −2. Plugging these values to the format above, we have:
an = 1(−2)n−1
65
Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because we are
just looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence. Furthermore,
this formula can be rewritten in its simplified form like:
an = (−2)n−1 (justified by the identity property for multiplication)
So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = (−2)n−1. But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do
that by applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For
example, let us check if we will get 4 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (4 is the
third (3rd) term in the given sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)
Checking: a3 = (−2)3−1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = (−2)2
a3 = 4 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 4.)
Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we can
now confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = (−2)n−1
This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So
suppose we want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will
just replace n in the formula by 20. Let’s do that.
a20 = (−2)20−1
an = (−2)19
a20 = −524,288 You can try looking for any term of the sequence
using the formula.)
Going back to the problem, the terms that must be in the blank are -32, 64, and -
128, respectively.
Note: The common ratio of this sequence is a negative, which resulted in an

alternating sequence. An alternating sequence will have numbers that alternate
or switch back and forth between positive and negative signs. Notice that when
the exponent is even, you get a positive power (answer); and when the exponent
is odd, you get a negative power (answer).
66
Example 2.
List down the first five terms of a geometric sequence if the first term is 8 and
1
the common ratio is 2. Also, find the value of a13 .
Solution: Let us write down the given values first and see if we can directly
proceed to substituting them into the formula format.
1
a = 8; r = 2
Our formula requires just these two values so we can proceed directly to
substitution. That is,
1 n−1
an = (8) (2)
1 1
Unlike in example 1, here we cannot multiply 8 and 2 just yet because 2 has an
exponent. (Remember PEMDAS?) So our formula can no longer be simplified. Let
us now check if it is correct.
Checking: Try it for a (first term), since there’s no other given terms.
1 1−1
a1 = (8) (2)
1 0
a1 = (8) ( )
2
a1 = (8)(1)
a1 = 8 (Correct!)
We can now generate the next four terms (or any other term, for that matter) of
this sequence. And these are:
1 2−1
a2 = (8) (2) =4
1 3−1
𝑎3 = (8) (2) =2
1 4−1
𝑎4 = (8) (2) =1
1 5−1 1
𝑎5 = (8) (2) =2
67
Of course, you can list down these values without deriving the general formula.
1
All you need to do is to multiple the first term 8 by 2 and do the same thing for
each succeeding term. However, I’m sure you would not want to continue doing
that until you get the 13th term. So deriving the formula is a wise solution.
1 13−1 1
𝑎13 = (8) (2) = 512
1
To answer the problem, the first five terms of the sequence are 8, 4, 2, 1, and 2;
1
and the 13th term is 512.
Practice exercise 1. Analyze the given sequence for its general rule/ formula and
identify the next three terms.
1, 10, 100, 1,000, …
(Verify your answer when your teacher sends the recorded lecture of this lesson.)
Practice exercise 2. Extend the sequence below for three more terms then find an
expression for the nth term. Afterwards, find 𝑎17 .
1, -2, 4, -8, 16, __, __,__,…__
Practice exercise 3. Examine the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …

a. what is the next term?
b. what formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
c. Find the 25th term of the sequence.
The first two examples involved direct substitution to the general formula of a
geometric sequence. But some problems would require a different formula. That’s
when you use your creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original
formula and derive an appropriate expression to solve the problem. Here are
some other formulas derived from the general formula of a geometric sequence
that you might find useful.
𝒂
𝒏
𝒂 = 𝒓𝒏−𝟏 (if you need to find the first term and you are given the
value of nth term and the common ratio)
68
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
𝒓= ( 𝒂𝒏 ) (if you need to find the common ratio and you are given
the value of the first and nth term)
Example 3:
Find𝑎15 of a geometric sequence if the first few terms of the sequence are
21 21
given by −42, 21, − 2 , 4 , …
Solution:
We are given the value of a (first term), which is -42; but we still need to
derive the value of r (common ratio) to be able to plug these into the formula. So
let’s do it!
21 1
𝑟 = −42 = − 2 (divide the second term by the first term)
−21⁄2 1
𝑟= = −2 (verify the value of d by dividing the third term by
21
the second term)
So we now have the values that we need to plug into 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 . These are
1
𝑎 = −42, and 𝑟 = − 2.
1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = −42 (− 2) .
Let us check if the formula is correct by checking if it works for 𝑎3 . (But of course,
you can use other terms in checking.)
1 3−1
Checking: 𝑎3 = −42 (− 2)
1 2
𝑎3 = −42 (− 2)
21
𝑎3 = − (Correct!)
2
Since we have verified that our formula is correct, we can now proceed to finding
𝑎15 .
1 15−1
𝑎15 = −42 (− 2)
1 14
𝑎15 = −42 (− 2)
21
𝑎15 = − 8192
69
Example 4:
Find r given that 𝑎 = 10 and 𝑎20 = 10−18 . Then find the 6th term of the
sequence.
Solution:
This problem is different from the previous three, and obviously it requires a
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
different version of our formula. Here we will need to use 𝒓 = ( 𝒂𝒏 ) because we
need to find the common ratio given the value of the first term and an nth term,
specifically, 𝑎20 . So if we plug the values to our formula, we will have:
𝟏
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟎−𝟏
𝒓=( ) (take time to understand the substitution here)
𝟏𝟎
Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟏
𝟏
(review laws of exponents if you have trouble
𝟏𝟗
𝒓 = (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 )
arriving at this expression)
1
𝑟 = 10 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous
expression to arrive at this value of r)
So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 6th term of
the sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
1 𝑛−1 1
𝑎𝑛 = (10) (10) (Again, we cannot multiply 10 by because of
10
PEMDAS)
Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎20 . (We should get 10−18 to be
able to say tat our formula is correct.)
1 20−1
Checking: 𝑎20 = (10) (10)
1 19
𝑎20 = (10) (10)
1
𝑎20 = (10) (1019 )
10
𝑎20 = 1019
1
𝑎20 = 1018
𝑎20 = 10−18 (Correct!)
70
Since our checking yielded a correct statement, we can now get the value of
the 6th term.
1 6−1
𝑎6 = (10) (10)
1 5
𝑎6 = (10) (10)
1
𝑎6 = 10,000 (or 10−4 )
Example 5:
Find 𝑎 given that 𝑟 = 2 and 𝑎18 = 393,216 . Then find the 8th term of the
sequence.
Solution:
This problem also requires a different version of our formula. Here we will
𝒂𝒏
need to use 𝒂 = 𝒓𝒏−𝟏 because we need to find the first term of the sequence given
the common ratio and an nth term, specifically, 𝑎18 . So if we plug the values to
our formula, we will have:
𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂= (after substituting values appropriately to the
𝟐𝟏𝟖−𝟏
formula)
Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂 = 𝟐𝟏𝟕
𝒂=𝟑 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous

expression to arrive at this value of a)
So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 8 th term of
the sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = (3)(2)𝑛−1 (Again, we cannot multiply 3 by 2 because of
PEMDAS)
Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎18 . (We should get 393,216 to
be able to say that our formula is correct.)
Checking: 𝑎18 = (3)(2)18−1
𝑎18 = (3)(2)17
𝑎18 = 393,216 (Correct!)
71
Since our checking yielded a correct statement, then we can now proceed to
getting the value of the 8th term.
𝑎8 = (3)(2)8−1
𝑎8 = (3)(2)7
𝑎8 = 384
Example 6:
1
Given the terms 𝑎3 = 2 and 𝑎5 = 8 of a geometric sequence, find the exact
value of the term 𝑎15 if the terms of the sequence are all positive.
Solution:
To solve this problem, we first need to get the value of r (common ratio) and
a (first term). But we cannot find the common ratio by getting the quotient of n+1
by n, because we are not given any consecutive terms of the sequence. So, how
do we approach this problem? Remember this part of the table earlier?
Term 1 2 3 4 … n
This table reminds us that each new term is found by multiplying the previous term
by the common ratio r. That means, if we begin from 𝑎3 , we will reach
𝑎5 by multiplying 𝑎3 by r twice (see the table below)
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5
1
Terms ? ? 2 ? 8
1
1 1
Terms ? ? 2 ( )𝑟 ( 𝑟) 𝑟
2 2
From this table, we can see that the equation 𝑎5 = 8 can also be written as 𝑎5 =
1 1
(2 𝑟) 𝑟 or 𝑎5 = 2 𝑟 2. If you cannot remember the properties of equality, let’s just use
logic to make a conclusion from these equations:
1
If 𝑎5 = 8 and 𝑎5 = 2 𝑟 2 then __________.
72
1
Logic dictates us that 8 = 2 𝑟 2 . In fact, this is justified by transitive property of
equality. So, from this equation, we can derive the value of r. Let’s now work on
it:
1
8 = 2 𝑟2
16 = 𝑟 2 (after multiplying both sides by 2 or after cross-
multiplication)
𝑟 2 = 16 (justified by symmetric property of equality)
𝑟 = ±4
At this point, we have to decide which root of the equation to take: the positive
root (4), or the negative root (-4)? From our example earlier where we had a
negative value of r, we learned that if r is negative, the signs of the terms will
alternate between positive and negative. Going back to the problem, it says that
all terms in the sequence are positive, so we will take the positive root (4) as the
correct value of r.
The next step is to find the value of a (first term), and we do that by using
any one of the values that are given. Let’s say we use 𝑎5 .
From the format of the formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , we will have
𝑎5 = 𝑎(4)5−1 (after substituting 5 to n and 4 to r)
8 = 𝑎(4) 4
(because 𝑎5 = 8)
8 = 256𝑎 (because 44 = 256)
256𝑎 = 8 (symmetric property, this is not a significant step here)
1
𝑎 = 32 (after dividing both sides of equation by 256)
So no we have r and a! That means we now have the values that we need in the
formula format. Let’s plug them already!
1
𝑎𝑛 = 32 (4)𝑛−1
Checking: (We will check using 𝑎3 but remember that you can also use 𝑎5 , or any
other term that’s given in the problem.)
1
𝑎3 = (4)3−1
32
1
𝑎3 = 32 (4)2
1
𝑎3 = 2 (Correct!)
We now proceed to find 𝑎15 as required by the problem.

1
𝑎15 = 32 (4)15−1
𝑎15 = 8,388,608
73
Learning check
Solve each problem as detailed as we did in the examples, that is, include
checking and make sure to answer the primary question in each problem.
1. Find the 11th term of a geometric sequence if 𝑎1 = 45 and the common

ratio 𝑟 = 0.2.
2. The first term of a geometric sequence is 3 and the ninth term is 768.
Find the common ratio of the sequence and the value of 𝑎12 .
1 2 4 8
3. Given the geometric sequence, 3 , 9 , 27 , 81, …, determine the formula
for the nth term and find 𝑎10 .
4. The common ratio of a geometric sequence is 4 and its 5th term is 192.
Find the value of the first term and determine the 9th term of the
sequence.
5. In 2017, the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends is 284. It is

estimated that the number of her Facebook friends will increase by 4%
each year.
a. Write a formula for the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends.
(Remember that r can be a fraction/ decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of Facebook friends Kathleen will have in 2021.
(State your final answer in a sentence and round off value if
necessary because there are no “fraction” or “decimal” friends.)
6. A bike shop business starts a new website. Initially, the number of hits is
293 due to the curiosity factor. The business estimates the number of
hits will increase by 2.6% per week.
a. Write a formula for the number of hits. (Remember that r can be a
fraction/ decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of hits in 5 weeks. (State your final answer in a
sentence and round off value if necessary because there are no
“fraction” or “decimal” hits.)
74
ARITHMETIC SERIES AND GEOMETRIC SERIES

After learning about arithmetic and geometric sequences, we now study
arithmetic and geometric series. But what are they?
An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence, while

a geometric series is the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence.
SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SERIES

If 𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are terms in an arithmetic sequence with common difference
d, then the sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following formula:
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 2
where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the arithmetic sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the arithmetic sequence
If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = .
2
3 5
Example: Find the sum of the first 35 terms of the arithmetic sequence , 2, , 3,
2 2
7 37
, … if 𝑎35 = .
2 2
Solution: In the formula, we need the values of 𝑛, 𝑎, and 𝑎𝑛 . The number of terms
3
𝑛 involved in this sequence is 35, the first term 𝑎 is 2, and the value of the nth term
37
𝑎𝑛 (in this case, the 35th term) is . It looks like we have everything that we need!
2
So, now we can directly substitute these values to the formula for finding the sum
of an arithmetic series.
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 2
3 37
35( + )
2 2
𝑆35 = 2
𝑆35 = 350
3 5 7
So, the sum of the first 35 terms in the sequence 2 , 2, , 3, , …, is 350.
2 2
75
Did you know that there's a famous (although apocryphal) story about the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss and the arithmetic series? The story goes
something like this:
When Gauss was just 9 years old, he was enrolled in a math class with
regular students. Because he was already a genius, even at this young age, he
would get bored in his class and would always play around even when class is
going on. This disrupts the class and gets him into trouble. One day his teacher
wanted to punish him for fooling around once more and told him: “If you’re so
smart, why don't you go sit in the corner and add up all the integers from 1 to
100?” That’s 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100 ! Remember, there were no
calculators in those days! But Gauss went and sat in the corner, and yet he didn't
pick up his pencil. The teacher confronted and challenged him: “Carl! Why aren't
you working? Did you figure it out already?” Gauss responded with, “Yes – it's
5,050.” The teacher couldn't believe how Gauss managed to answer correctly
and so quickly!
So how did Gauss find the answer so fast? The answer is simple, really – it's
all about pattern recognition. Let's look at the problem more closely.
Gauss was tasked to get the sum of:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100
Upon looking at the list, Gauss recognized that if he took the sum of two
extreme values, like 1 and 100, he would get 101. If he did the same thing with 2
and 99, he would also get 101, and if he continued until the two middlemost pair
50 and 51, he would also get 101! This was how Gauss saw the problem:
76
So Gauss noticed that the sums of each pair of numbers in the series were all the
same valuen(101). And since he had 50 such pairs, he multiplied 101 by 50 and
obtained 5050. This is the sum of the integers from 1 to 100.
Gauss was able to quickly solve the problem and establish a relationship that we
still use today when working with arithmetic series.
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = Gauss had 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑛 too (1 and 100), and his was 50.
2 2
Gauss grew up to become a famous mathematician who contributed to

many mathematics and science fields and is named one of the greatest
mathematicians of all times, along with Archimedes and Newton.
Example 2: Find the sum of integers from 1 to 85.
Solution: List down the given. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎85 = 85; and 𝑛 = 85

Substitute these values to the formula.
85(1 + 85)
𝑆85 = 2
𝑆85 = 3,655 the sum of integers from 1 to 8
Example 3: Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯
Solution: Here, we do not know the value of 𝑎𝑛 (which is 𝑎45 ), so we still need
to work on it. Remember the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑? We will need that again.
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
Either we input that to the arithmetic series formula and have 𝑆𝑛 = or
2
just solve for 𝑎𝑛 first and input the derived value to the arithmetic series formula.
For this time, we will do the second one, that is, we will solve for the value 𝑎𝑛
separately. I hope you still remember how to get 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic
sequence formula.
𝑎45 = 1 + (45 − 1)3 substitute 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic sequence formula

𝑎45 = 133 this will be our 𝑎𝑛 in the arithmetic series formula
From the given series, these are the values that we will need for the arithmetic
series formula. 𝑛 = 45; 𝑎 = 1; 𝑎45 = 133
45(1 +133)
𝑆45 = 2
𝑆45 = 3,015 sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯
77
Example 4: Find 1 (4 + 7𝑛).

∑38
Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4+7n where n is from 1
to 38”. This problem used the symbol called “summation notation” and it is a
compact way of writing the arithmetic series 11 + 18 + 25 + 32 + ⋯ + 270 .
(Wait, what?) These terms in the series are found by substituting 1, 2, 3, 4, and 38,
respectively to the expression 4+7n. We can say that 4+7n is the formula for the
nth term of the series. (See below.)
𝑎 = 4 + 7(1) = 11 𝑎2 = 4 + 7(2) = 18 𝑎3 = 4 + 7(3) = 25
𝑎4 = 4 + 7(4) = 32 𝑎38 = 4 + 7(38) = 270
The numbers 1 and 38 in the summation notation above are called lower limit and
upper limits. These tell us that we have to add the terms of the arithmetic
sequence given by the formula 4 + 7𝑛 starting from the first (1st) term up to the
thirty- eighth (38th) term.
Now that we understand the new symbol and what the problem really is, we can
proceed to solving for what we are really asked: the sum of the series. The values
that we will need for the formula are 𝑎 = 11, 𝑛 = 38 , and 𝑎𝑛 = 270. Let’s now
substitute these to the arithmetic formula.
38(11+270)
𝑆38 = 2
𝑆38 = 5,339 the value of ∑38
1 (4 + 7𝑛)
Example 5: Find 12(4n − 5).

∑30
Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4n - 5 where n is from 12

to 30”. Notice that the lower limit is not 1, so we cannot say that there are 30 terms
involved in our series. You might say, we can just subtract the lower limit 12 from
the upper limit 30 to get the actual number of terms involved. That’s 30-12=18.
However, if we count the number of terms from 𝑎12 to 𝑎30 , there are actually 19!
So, we have to be careful with tricky problems like this. The technique here is to
subtract the upper and lower limits but add 1 to the difference to ensure that the
lower limit is included in the counting of terms. Here the number of terms involved
is given by 30 − 12 + 1 = 19, so our 𝑛 is 19. Let us now solve for the other values that
we will need for the arithmetic series formula.
78
Solving for the first term 𝑎12 : 𝑎12 = 4(12) − 5 = 43
Solving for the last term 𝑎30 : 𝑎30 = 4(30) − 5 = 115
Substituting these to the arithmetic series formula, we will have:

19 (43+115)
𝑆19 = 2
𝑆19 = 1,501 the value of ∑30
12(4𝑛 − 5)
SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SERIES
If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 form a geometric sequence with common ratio 𝑟 ≠ 1, then

the sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following:
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 𝑛
where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the geometric sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the geometric sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the geometric sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the geometric sequence
𝑟 = the common ratio in the geometric sequence
If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula
𝑎−𝑟(𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 )
for the nth term of a geometric sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = , which can
1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
be simplified to 𝑆𝑛 = .
1−𝑟
Example 1: Find the sum of the first 25 terms of a geometric sequence that begins
with 𝑎 = 1 and has common ratio 𝑟 = 2.
Solution: We list down the values we can gather from the problem.
𝑎 = 1; 𝑟 = 2; 𝑛 = 25
Since we do not yet know the value of 𝑎25 (which we will replace to 𝑎𝑛 in the
geometric series formula), we can solve for it first using the formula for finding the
nth term of a geometric sequence or we can just use the simplified form of our
second formula:
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
1 (1 − 225 )
𝑆25 = 1−2
79
𝑠25 = 33,554,431 the sum of the first 25 terms of the sequence
Example 2: Evaluate 𝑆8 for the geometric sequence 250, 100, 40, 16, …
Solution: This problem asks us to get the sum of the first 8 terms of the given
2
sequence. From the problem, we can gather that 𝑛 = 8, 𝑎 = 250, and 𝑟 = 5 . (I
hope you still remember how to get these values.)
28
250 (1 − )
5
𝑆8 = 2 substitute the values to the geometric series formula
1−
5
𝑆8 = 416.3936 the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence
26 1
Example 3: Find 𝑎𝑛 if 𝑆4 = 27 and 𝑟 = 3.
Solution: Again, we will use the second formula for geometric series, this time
not to find 𝑆𝑛 but to find the first term 𝑎, which we will need in our final solution
later.
1 4
26 𝑎 (1 − ( ) )
plug in values to the formula
3
= 1
27 1−
3
1
26 𝑎 (1 − )
= 2
81
perform innermost operations
27
3
52 80
= 81 𝑎 cross multiply and simplify
81
13
𝑎 = 20 the first term in the sequence
To solve for 𝑎𝑛 , we substitute 𝑎 and 𝑟 to the format of the formula for finding
the nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 .
13 1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = ( ) the formula for the nth term of the sequence
20 3
80
Example 4: Evaluate ∑10

1 3(−2)
𝑛−1
.
This problem is read: “Find the summation of three times -2 raised to n minus 1,
where n is from 1 to 10”. The notation tells us to get the sum of the first 10 terms of
the series whose nth term is given by 3(−2)𝑛−1. From this, we can gather that the
first term of the series is 3 and the common ratio is -2. (Try to explain to yourself
why.) For better understanding, let’s solve for a few terms of the sequence.
𝑎 = 3(−2)1−1 = 3 𝑎2 = 3(−2)2−1 = −6 𝑎3 = 3(−2)3−1 = 12
𝑎4 = 3(−2)4−1 = −24 𝑎10 = 3(−2)10−1 = −1,536
Of the above terms, only 𝑎 and 𝑎10 are necessary to derive because we will need
them in our formula. But if we will use the second formula again, we don’t need
them. Let’s have two solutions and decide for yourself which one you find easier.
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Using formula 1: 𝑆𝑛 = Using formula 2: 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
3 −[(−2)(−1536)] 3[1−(−2)10 ]
𝑆10 = 𝑆10 =
1−(−2) 1−(−2)
3 −(3072) 3(−1023)
𝑆10 = 𝑆𝑛 =
3 3
𝑆10 = −1,023 𝑆𝑛 = −1,023
Example 5: Find the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
81
Solution: The Pascal’s triangle shown here is up to the 8th row only. But if we can
find a pattern from this, we will be saved from having to write and complete the
triangle. Well, of course we have to try to find a pattern because we don’t want
to add all these numbers one by one, right? Let’s look at the following figure.
If we look at the sum of the terms in each row, we see that they form a pattern,
specifically, a geometric sequence!
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
This is a geometric sequence whose first term 𝑎 is 1, and whose common ratio 𝑟 is
2. So easily, and without completing Pascal’s triangle, we can continue the
pattern and get the 10th term of the sequence or just solve directly for the 10th
term by using the formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎10 = 1(2)10−1
𝑎10 = 512
If you choose to continue the pattern, you can just continue multiplying each
previous term by 2 until you reach the 10th term. But this is not practical if you are
asked to look for higher terms, like 20th, 28th, etc. So, I suggest you practice what
we did above. Anyway, the geometric sequence formed by the sum of the terms
in each row of the Pascal’s triangle is:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, …
82
Since these numbers form a geometric sequence, we can use the formula for the
sum of a geometric series to solve our problem.
1 − 2(512)
𝑆10 = 1−(2)
−1023
𝑆10 = −1
𝑆10 = 1,023 the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row
Learning check
Solve the following problems as comprehensively as we did in our

examples. (Caution! If the kind of sequence or series is not mentioned in the
problem, you have to identify first whether it is arithmetic or geometric to
avoid using incorrect formula.)
1. Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
2. Find the sum of the series 1 + 3.5 + 6 + 8.5 + ⋯ + 101.
3. Find the sum of the geometric series 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯ if there are 12

terms in the series.
4. Find 𝑆10 for the sequence 8, −4, 2, −1, ….
5. Find the sum of the first 24 terms of the sequence 4, −3, −10, …
6. A grocery store displays their canned sardines in towers of eighteen

rows, with each row having one less can than the row below it. If the
bottom row has twenty‐eight cans, how many cans are in the display?
83
D. The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio
The discussion of number sequences would not be complete without

mentioning a sequence known as the Fibonacci sequence. It is named after
Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci, and one of the best-known
mathematicians of Medieval Europe.
Before we continue studying this famous number sequence, let us first grasp
its inventor, Fibonacci.
Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci)
Leonardo was born in Pisa, Italy, around 1170. He

is considered one of the most distinguished
mathematicians of the Middle Ages. His father,
Guglielmo del Bonacci, was a wealthy Pisan merchant
who took Leonardo with him when he traveled
because he wanted his son to become a merchant,
too.
https://www.storyofmathematics.c
om/medieval_fibonacci.html
Leonardo was sent by his father to study mathematics with an Arab master
(teacher), who guided him in learning calculation techniques, especially those
concerning Hindu- Arabic numbers, which was not yet introduced in Europe at
that time. (We learned about this in our lesson about the history of mathematics.)
Fibonacci’s education started in Bejaia and also continued in Egypt, Syria,

and Greece, places he visited with his father along the trade routes, before
returning permanently to Pisa. For the next 25 years, Fibonacci dedicated himself
to writing mathematical manuscripts. When he began writing, he referred to
himself as Fibonacci, which roughly means “son of Bonacci”- the name by which
he is known today.
In addition to the famous sequence bearing his name, Fibonacci is also

credited with introducing the Hindu- Arabic number system in Europe. His 1202
book, Liber Abacci (Book of the Abacus), explained the use of this number system
and emphasized the importance of the number zero.
Leonardo’s reputation as a mathematician became so great that Emperor

Federico II asked an audience while in Pisa in 1225. After 1228, not much is known
84
of Leonardo’s life, except that he was awarded the title of “Discretus et sapiens
magister Leonardo Bigollo” in recognition of the great progress he made to
mathematics. Fibonacci died sometime after 1240, presumably in Pisa.
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
The Fibonacci sequence was introduced by Fibonacci in his book Liber

Abacci, when he posed an original problem that he investigated. It was about
how fast rabbits could breed in ideal circumstances. The problem was stated like
this:
Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one
male, one female, are put in a field. After a
month, these rabbits have produced no
offspring, but they have grown fertile, so they
are able to mate. At the end of the second
month, the female rabbit gave birth to
another pair of rabbits, conveniently, a male
and a female again. Every month thereafter,
the pair of rabbits produces another pair of rabbits, and the offspring reproduce
in exactly the same manner. Suppose that none of the rabbits dies, how many
pairs will there be in one year?
The solution to this problem led to the development of the sequence that
bears its inventor’s name: the Fibonacci sequence. The first few terms of the
Fibonacci sequence are:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …
85
In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1. The sum of
these two terms is the third term. The sum of the second and third terms is the
fourth term, and so on. Following is the formal definition of the Fibonacci numbers.
THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS
𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.
Where 𝐹1 = the first term in the Fibonacci sequence

𝐹2 = the second term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝐹𝑛 = the nth term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝑛 = the number of terms in the Fibonacci sequence
Example: Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and
eighth Fibonacci numbers.
Solution: This method of getting a term in the Fibonacci sequence is practical only
for relatively small terms because you have to know the two preceding
terms to get the new term. Formulas like this is called a recursive formula.
Unless you memorize every term in the sequence, this method requires
that you list down the Fibonacci sequence from the first term, going
forward. Anyway, suppose we remember that the 5th and 6th terms in
the Fibonacci sequence are 5 and 8, respectively, then our 𝐹7 will be
given by
𝐹7 = 𝐹6 + 𝐹5
𝐹7 = 8 + 5
𝐹7 = 13
From this, our 𝐹8 will be given by
𝐹8 = 𝐹7 + 𝐹6
𝐹8 = 13 + 8
𝐹7 = 21
Again, this formula is practical only if you are required to find early terms in
the Fibonacci sequence. But what if we were asked to find the 20th term? Or the
30th term? Fortunately, we have the following formula.
86
Binet’s Formula
The Binet’s formula for finding the nth Fibonacci number is given by:
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹𝑛 = [( ) −( ) ]
√5 2 2
where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms in the sequence
1+√5
(The ratio is called the golden ratio, which we shall discuss later.)
2
The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 is that
you can determine the nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding
Fibonacci numbers. You have to master the use of a scientific calculator, though.
Example: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th, and 40th
Fibonacci numbers.
Solution: Most calculators will let you evaluate this directly, just make sure that
you use appropriate symbols to input values correctly. For example, in calculating
𝐹20 , this was what I have pressed in my scientific calculator. (Go from left to right,
down left to right.)
( 1 𝑎 𝑏⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧
2 0 - ( ( 1 - √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 2 0 ) =
20 20
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹20 = [( ) −( ) ] = 6,765
√5 2 2
30 30
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹30 = [( ) −( ) ] = 832,040
√5 2 2
40 40
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹40 = [( ) −( ) ] = 102,334,155
√5 2 2
Binet’s Formula Simplified
Although Binet’s formula saved us from rewriting the Fibonacci sequence
from the beginning each time we try to get a Fibonacci number, we recognize
that the formula is quite cumbersome. Fortunately, yet again, it can be simplified!
The Binet’s formula when simplified is given by:
87
𝑛
1 1+√5
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ]
√5 2
where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 = an abbreviation for “the nearest integer to”
This is a lighter formula but unlike the original Binet’s formula where you get only
integers, here it is possible that you will get a decimal. In that case, just round your
calculator results to the nearest integer. (That’s where 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 comes.) In cases
where you get an integer, you don’t have to round off because it's exactly the
“𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡”.
Example: Use the simplified form of Binet’s formula to find the 16th, 21st, and 32nd
Fibonacci numbers.
Solution:
To get 𝐹16 , here are the keys to press in your scientific calculator. “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡′ is not found
in any calculator, it just tells you to round your results to the nearest integer.
( 1 𝑎 𝑏⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 1 6 =
Your result must be 987.0002026. Round this result to the nearest integer, 987.
Therefore, 𝐹16 = 987. In the following notation, notice that “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡” was no longer
written in the final answer. That is because we have already rounded the answer
to the nearest integer 987.
16
1 1 + √5
𝐹16 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 987.0002 = 987
√5 2
21
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹21 : 𝐹21 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 10,945.99998 = 10,946
√5 2
32
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹32 : 𝐹32 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 2,178,309 = 2,178,309
√5 2
In the last example, we still write 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 although the result is an integer, but we also
remove it in the final answer.
88
The Fibonacci Sequence in Nature
The Fibonacci sequence and the related topic of the golden ratio appear in
many places in nature and play an important role in geometry, art, and music.
 The Fibonacci sequence can be seen in the seed arrangement of many

species of plants. For instance, when the flowering head of the sunflower
matures to seed, the seeds’ spiral arrangements become clearly visible. If
you count the clockwise and counterclockwise spirals that reach the outer
edge of the sunflowers’ seeds, you'll usually find that it gives you 89 steeply
curving to the right, 55 curving more shallowly to the left, and 34 again
shallowly to the right. These numbers are consecutive terms of the
Fibonacci sequence. The largest known specimen to be examined had
spiral counts of 144 right, 89 left, and 55 right, which are also consecutive
terms of the Fibonacci sequence. (Read: ScienceMag.org Sunflowers Show
Complex Fibonacci Sequences)
89
 The Fibonacci sequence can be seen on petal counts of various flowers.
90
 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen on the structure of pinecones:

The tablike or scalelike structures that make up the main body of the
pinecone form a set of spirals that start from the cone’s attachment to the
branch.
A count on the steep spiral will reveal a Fibonacci number, and a count on the
gradual one will reveal the adjacent smaller Fibonacci number, or if not, the next
smaller Fibonacci number. One investigation of 4,290 pinecones from 10 species
of pine trees found in California revealed that only 74 cones, or merely 1.7%,
deviated from this Fibonacci pattern.
Read:
https://www.m-a.org.uk/resources/Presidential-Address-2018-TomRoper.pdf
91
 The structure of pineapples also shows Fibonacci sequence. Pineapple

scales are roughly hexagonal in shape, which means that three distinct
sets of spirals can be counted. Generally, the number of pineapple scales
in each spiral are Fibonacci numbers. (Read:
https://craftofcoding.wordpress.com/2020/05/28/fibonacci-and-
pineapples/)
https://craftofcoding.files.wordpress.co
 It’s also interesting to learn that the number of ancestors of a male bee
follows the Fibonacci sequence. Did you know that in a bee family, a
female bee can either be a queen or a worker? If the female bee is fertile,
she is a queen. If the female bee is infertile, she is a worker. When a queen
bee mates with a male bee, the offspring is always a female bee (either a
worker or a future queen). But a queen bee can also produce an offspring
even without mating with a male bee, in which case, the offspring is always
a male bee. In essence, then, female bees have two parents, whereas
male bees only have one parent. We can see the Fibonacci sequence as
we move back through the male bees’ generations. Here is an illustration
of a family tree for a male bee.
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 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way (some) tree branches
form or split. A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates
two growth points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while the
other one lies dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of
the new stems.
https://fractalfoundation.org/OFCA/weezs
Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Number (𝝓, 𝒑𝒉𝒊)

In 1753, while studying the Fibonacci sequence, Robert Simson, a
mathematician at the University of Glasgow, noticed that when he took the ratio
of any term to the term that immediately preceded it, the value he obtained
remained in the vicinity of one specific number. To illustrate this, let’s look at the
table on the following page.
Fibonacci Numbers Ratio
1
1, 1 =1
1
2
1, 2 =2
1
3
2, 3 = 1.5
2
5
3, 5 ≈ 1.667
3
8
5, 8 = 1.6
5
13
8, 13 = 1.625
8
21
13, 21 ≈ 1.615
13
34
21, 34 ≈ 1.619
21
55
34, 55 ≈ 1.618
34
89
55, 89 ≈ 1.618
55
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Simson proved that the ratio of the (n+1) term to the nth term as n gets
√5+1
larger and larger is the irrational number , which begins 1.61803… But this
2
number was already well known to mathematicians at that time as the golden
number!
There are evidences that the ancient Greeks, in about the sixth century
B.C., sought unifying principles of beauty and perfection, which they believed
could be described by using mathematics. In their study of beauty, the Greeks
√5+1
used the term golden ratio, and its value was . Also, many years ahead of
2
Simon, Bavarian astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler wrote that for
him, the golden number symbolized the Creator’s intention “to create like from
like”.
The Golden Ratio and the Golden (Divine) Proportion
A C B
When this line segment is divided at a point C such that the ratio of the
whole, segment AB, to the larger part, segment AC, is equal to the ratio of the
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
larger part, segment AC, to the smaller part, segment CB, each ratio and is
𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐵
√5+1
referred to as a golden ratio, and each equal to the golden number, . (You
2
may need to trace each segment mentioned in the statement for better
understanding.)
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
The proportion these ratios form, = 𝐶𝐵, is called the golden proportion.
𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 √5+1
That is, = 𝐶𝐵 = ≈ 1.618.
𝐴𝐶 2
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The Golden Ratio

Did you
In mathematics and the arts, two
quantities are in a golden ratio if their ratio is the
same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the
two quantities. If you only examine the dimension
of things around us like the screen of your cell
phones, tablets, computers, or television, notice
that the quotient of its length and width is close
Supermodel Bella Hadid has been declared
to 1.61803… This is because, some artists,
the most beautiful woman in the world after
architects, and manufacturers believe that she passed a science test that determines
rectangles whose areas are close to the golden what constitutes the 'perfect face'. The 23-
year-old was found to be 94.35% 'accurate'
ratio are pleasing to look at. to the Golden Ratio of Beauty Phi - a
measure of physical perfection.
During the ancient times, Greeks set their
https://www.cnn.ph/entertainment/2019/10/18/Be
obra maestro to this proportion to make their lla-Hadid-science-face.html
artworks visually pleasing to others.
The golden ratio is often symbolized by the Greek letter phi (). It is the
1+√5
number  = 1.61803… and the irrational number . It is sometimes called the
2
“divine proportion” because of its frequency in the natural world. But in medieval
times, people referred to the golden proportion as the divine proportion,
reflecting their belief in its relationship to the will of God.
Examples of objects with divine proportions are faces of both human and
non-human. The mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the
distance between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can
be seen from the side, and even the eye and ear itself.
https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio+in+human+body&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMtICf
6pnmAhWSHqYKHUUSBTEQ_AUoAXoECA8QAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgrc=WjEHAg17IOFxqM:
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According to Dr. Stefan Markuort’s theory, you can see how beautiful a
face is if its characteristics are arranged according to the golden ratio – a ratio
equal to 1.618 : 1. The golden ratio is the basis that most people use in determining
what they perceive to be beautiful. However, this is done on a subconscious level
by some people who are inclined to arts such as artists or architects who
purposefully designed the object to reflect mathematical proportions. Here are
some other examples showing the divine proportion in nature:
https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKE
wjKsODe8JnmAhXdxosBHd83C4QQ_AUoAXoECBEQAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgdii=tt
yCeJxYVCL93M:&imgrc=i-BdKeN4Ae41XM:
The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, built

about 2600 B.C., is the earliest known
example of use of the golden ratio in
architecture. The ratio of any of its sides
of the square base (775.75 ft) to its
altitude (481.4 ft) is about 1.611. Do you
think the Pyramid of Giza is sturdy
because its measurements follow the
golden ratio? Some do, some don’t.
Read: https://www.goldennumber.net/great-pyramid-giza-complex-golden-ratio/ and

https://www.fastcompany.com/3044877/the-golden-ratio-designs-biggest-myth
In the 19th century, German physicist and psychologist Gustav Fechner tried
to determine which dimensions were most pleasing to the eye. Fechner, along
with psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, found that most people do unconsciously favor
the golden dimensions when purchasing greeting cards, mirrors, and other
rectangular objects. This discovery has been widely used by commercial
96
manufacturers in their packaging and labeling designs, by retailers in their store

displays, and in other areas of business and advertising. Another research (Slavka
T. Nikolic, et. al.) in 2011 verified that the golden ratio generally affects consumer
preferences. (We shall not show pictures of products using the golden ratio
packaging or presentation because it is not ethical in module- writing.)
In the twentieth century, architect Le Corbusier developed a scale of

proportions for the human body that he called the Modulor. It was intended to
develop a scale which could improve both the appearance and function of
architecture by solely using human proportions, the double unit, the Fibonacci
numbers, and the golden ratio. In the Modulor, you can see the golden sections
that form (approximately) golden proportions like the measurement from the
navel (1130) to the floor and the top of the head to the navel is the golden ratio
1130
(1829-1130=699), that’s = 1.617. Look at the Modulor below, then use the red
699
and black rectangles and the given measurements to discover what else in the
human body tend to follow the golden ratio.
97
You Do the Math!
The Golden Ratio and the Human Body

1. Find someone at home who can help you get the measurement (in
inches) of the following:
a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus.
b. Distance from your navel to the top of your head.
c. Distance from the ground to your knees.
d. Distance from your wrist to your elbow.
e. Length of your hand.
2. Calculate the following ratios:

a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus__
Distance from your navel to the top of your head
b. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus_ __

Distance from the ground to your knees
c. Distance from your wrist to your elbow __

Length of your hand
Can you see anything special about these ratios?
The face of both human and

nonhuman also abounds with examples of
the Golden Ratio. The mouth and nose are
positioned at the golden sections of the
distance between the eyes and the bottom
of the chin. Similar proportions can be seen
from the side and even the eye and ear
itself. Animal bodies also exhibit similar
tendencies, including dolphins (the eye,
fins, and tail all fall at Golden sections).
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In the field of reproductive science, a gynaecologist at the University

Hospital Leuven in Belgium, studied the measurements of the uterus. Dr. Jasper
Veguts, said that doctors can tell whether a uterus looks normal and healthy
based on its relative dimensions- dimensions that approximate the golden ratio.
To come up to this conclusion, he had measured the uteruses of 5,000 women
using ultrasound and drawn up a table of the average ratio of a uterus’s length
to its width for different age bands. The data showed that this ratio is about 2 at
birth, and then it steadily decreases through a woman’s life to 1.46 when she is in
old age. Dr. Verguts was thrilled to discover that when women are at their most
fertile, between the ages of 16 and 20, the ratio of length to width of a uterus is
1.6- a very good approximation to the golden ratio. (Read: The Guardian’s
Golden Ratio Discovered in Uterus.) Furthermore, it is known that the DNA
molecule measures 34 angstroms long by 21 angstroms wide for each full cycle
of its double helix spiral, that’s another golden ratio. It has been said that the more
closely our proportions adhere to the golden number phi, the more “attractive”
those traits are perceived. It’s quite possible that, from an evo- psych perspective,
we are primed to like physical forms that adhere to the golden ratio- a potential
indicator of reproductive fitness and health.
THE GOLDEN RATIO AND GOLDEN RECTANGLE
From the golden proportion, the golden rectangle can be formed.

A C B
a a
a b
Note that when a square is cut off one end of a golden rectangle (see
previous figure), the rectangle has the same properties as the original golden
rectangle (creating “like from like” as Johannes Kepler had written) and is,
therefore, itself a golden rectangle.
99
Furthermore, the curve derived from a succession of diminishing golden

rectangles (see the four figures above) is the same as the spiral curve of the
chambered nautilus. The same curve appears on the horns of rams and some
animals, in sunflowers and other flower heads, pinecones and pineapples, and
others.
In forums over the internet, people ask why a spiral design seems ever
present in our natural world and the universe? As of now, we don’t know why, but
nothing in nature happens without reason. All of these patterns have an important
reason to exist and they also happen to be beautiful to watch. In the case of the
flower’s spiral arrangement of petals, it is believed is nature’s design so that new
leaves don't block the sun from older leaves or so that the maximum amount of
rain or dew gets directed down to the roots. For the sunflower’s seed
arrangement, the reason seems to be that this arrangement forms an optimal
packing of the seeds so that, no matter how large the seed head, they are
uniformly packed at any stage, all the seeds being the same size, no crowding in
the center and not too sparse at the edges. The same happens in many seed
and flower heads in nature.
The Golden Ratio, Golden Rectangle, and Fibonacci Numbers in Art
The Ancient Greek civilization used the golden rectangle in art and
architecture. The main measurements of many buildings of antiquity, including
the Parthenon in Athens, are governed by golden ratios and golden rectangles.
Greek statues, vases, urns, and other works of art also exhibit characteristics of the
golden ratio. It is for Phidas, considered the greatest of Greek sculptors, that the
golden ratio was named “phi.” The golden proportion can be found abundantly
in his work.
100
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, designed by Phidas
https://i.pinimg.com/236x/33/00/0
9/33000
https://i.pinimg.com/236x/33/00/09/33000
101
The golden rectangle can also be seen in the following artworks.
La Parade de Cirque (1887 George Seurat)
Fibonacci Garden (1995 Caryl Fallert)

In the music field, the Golden ratio is also
evident.
On the piano keyboard, an octave on a keyboard

has 13 keys: 8 white keys and 5 black keys.
Additionally, the black keys are in one group of 2 and
one group of 3.
In one study, researchers found out that the

musical interval considered by many to be the most
pleasing to the ear are the major sixth and minor sixth,
5 8
whose ratio of vibration reduces to and ,
3 5
respectively. That’s the golden ratio again!
Patterns that can be expressed mathematically in terms of Fibonacci

relationships have been found in Gregorian chants and works of many
composers, including Bach, Beethoven, and Bartok.
(https://faculty.ncc.edu/Portals/254/APS09_0508.ppt)
A number of studies have tried to explain why the Fibonacci sequence and
related items are linked to so many real- life situations. It appears that the
Fibonacci numbers are part of a natural harmony that is pleasing to both the eyes
and the ear.
102
Learning check
Activity:
Bee Genealogy: In the study of Biology, one learns that a male bee
has only one parent, his mother. A female bee has both father and
mother. Complete the picture of the family tree of a male bee,
where δ (Mars) represents male and Ꝗ (Venus) represents female up
to 8th generation. Do you notice any relationship between Fibonacci
numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . and
1. The number of ancestors in each generation?
2. The number of male ancestors in each generation?
3. The number of female ancestors in each generation?
4. Without drawing up to 21st generation, how many ancestors
does a male bee have, and how many of these (ancestors) are
male bees?
Learning check
Activity:
1. Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence, with F1 = 1, F2 =

1, F3 = 2, and so on, find:
a. F18
b. F29
c. If F22 = 17,711 and F24 = 46,368, what is F23?
103
E. Isometry
This part of the module will discuss about isometry, which is a kind of
transformation. Mathematical transformation is a process that manipulates a
polygon or other two-dimensional object on a plane or coordinate system.
Formally, it is defined as a one- to- one correspondence between points in the
plane such that each point P is associated with a unique point P’, called the
image of P. Basically, it involves taking a preimage and transforming it in some
way to produce an image. A preimage or inverse image is the two-dimensional
shape before any transformation, while the image is the figure after
transformation. Each point in the preimage corresponds to another point in the
image.
There are two different categories of transformations:
1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the
preimage.
2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape
of the preimage.
Although our lesson will cover only the rigid transformation, we shall mention a
little bit of non- rigid transformation for the sake of identification.
The following figures show the four types of transformations.
1. Translation- which involves “sliding” the object from one position to another.
The preimage is the light orange triangle.

Notice the three parallel arrows that show the
direction of “sliding” or “shifting” to get the
image, which is the dark orange triangle.
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geom
etry/imag
104
3. Reflection- which involves “flipping” the object over a line called the line of
reflection.
The preimage is the light orange

triangle. Notice the three parallel arrows that
show how the preimage is “flipped” to create
a reflection, the image (dark orange triangle).
The line of reflection here is the orange vertical
line which is equidistant from corresponding
points between the preimage and the image.
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geo
metry/imag
4. Rotation- which involves “turning” the object about a point called the
center of rotation.
The preimage is the light orange

triangle. Notice the arrow that shows the
direction of rotation (counterclockwise)
employed in the preimage to get the
image, the dark orange triangle. The object
is rotated to a certain degree about the
center of rotation.
etry/imag
5. Dilation- which involves a resizing of the object. It could result in an increase

in size (enlargement) or a decrease in size (reduction).
Here, the preimage (light orange

triangle) is dilated (specifically, enlarged) to
create the image (dark orange triangle).
etry/imag 1
105
Among these four types of transformation, translation, reflection and

rotations are called rigid motion or isometric transformations because the image
is the same size and shape as the original object (preimage). This implies that the
original object and the image are congruent. The word isometry comes from the
words “iso”, meaning “same”, and “metry” meaning “measure” so it’s easy to
remember that isometry is a kind of transformation that preserves the size and
shape of a geometric figure.
Dilation is not an isometric transformation because the size of the image is

not the same as the original object (preimage). This implies that the original object
and the image are only similar, not congruent. Similar objects have the same
shape but different size.
Properties of Isometries
1. Isometries map lines to lines, segments to segments, rays to rays, angles to
angles, and polygons to polygons.
2. Isometries preserve angle measure.
3. Isometries map triangles to congruent triangles.
4. Isometries preserve parallelism.
At this point, we will discuss the three kinds of isometry and give you
examples in each.
Translation. This is a transformation that acts like a “slide” or “shift”. Here,

orientation is preserved. In a translation, points in the original figure move an
identical (constant) distance along parallel paths to the image of the figure. The
arrow, called a translation vector, shows distance and direction. The length of the
translation vector from the starting location to tip represents the distance, while
the direction that the arrow is pointing represents the direction the object is to be
translated. (See sample figure below.)
https://mammothmemory.net/images/user/ba
106
What do we have to remember about translation?

 It is a rigid transformation of the plane that moves every point of a pre-
image a constant distance in a specified direction.
 When working in the plane this is usually represented by an arrow, the arrow
provides both distance and direction of the translation.
 When working in the coordinate plane, a translation vector (V or 𝑣⃗) is used
to describe the fixed distance and the given direction often denoted by <
𝒉, 𝒌 >. The h-value describes the effect on the x-coordinates (right or left)
and the k-value describes the effect on the y-coordinates (up or down).
 After a translation, the pre-image and the image are identical.
What are the properties of translation?

1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (things that were parallel are still parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
Coordinate plane rules for translation:

(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌) where h and k are the horizontal and vertical shifts.
Note: If movement is to the left, then h is negative. If movement is downward,

then k is negative.
Example 1: Given the vector< −2, 9 > written in component form, convert it to
coordinate plane rule.
Solution: < −2, 9 > converted to coordinate plane rule is (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 9)
Example 2: Translate the given triangle ABC three units to the right and two units
down. (Write the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle to clearly see the
change in the coordinates after translation.)
107
Solution: The problem tells us to slide the figure

3 units to the right and 2 units down. That
means we have 3 units horizontal translation
(parallel to the x- axis) and 2 units vertical
translation (parallel to the y- axis). In symbols,
the vector is written < 3, −2 > . To get the
coordinates of the image, we can apply the
coordinate plane rules for translation:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 ± ℎ, 𝑦 ± 𝑘)
where h and k are the horizontal and vertical
shifts. So, we have: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 3, 𝑦 − 2). This means that we will add 3 to the x-
coordinate and subtract 2 from the y- coordinate of each point in the preimage
to get the corresponding image. But since three points can already determine a
triangle, we only need three points to get the picture of the image. And for
convenience, we will of course, pick the vertices.
𝐴(−3, 2) → (−3 + 3, 2 − 2)
→ (0,0) the image of A is (0, 0)
𝐵(−2, 4) → (−2 + 3, 4 − 2)
→ (1, 2) the image of B is (1, 2)
𝐶(−1, 1) → (−1 + 3, 1 − 2)
→ (2, −1) the image of C is (2, −1)
We can now plot these points on the same Cartesian plane to show the new
location of the triangle after translation.
Note: The image of a point is denoted

by ‘ and is read “prime”
Notice that the shape and size of the

triangle are preserved.
108
Example 3: Given the figure, determine the translation vector that would translate
the preimage to the image. (The direction of the arrow should tell you that the
preimage is the pink triangle and the image is the blue triangle.)
Solution: Begin by naming the coordinates of

some points on the preimage (conveniently,
the vertices), and their corresponding points on
the image. The graph below shows these
points.
Through the second graph, we can

systematically write the correspondence
of points between the preimage and the
image.
𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′(−2, −8)
𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶′(7, −4)
Then, we go back to the coordinate plane rule(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌)s. We want to

know what values of h and k will satisfy the translation. Basically, we want to know
the values of h and k that will satisfy the following equations:
−6 + ℎ = −2 1 + 𝑘 = −8
−2 + ℎ = 2 7 + 𝑘 = −2
3+ℎ=7 5 + 𝑘 = −4
Solving for h using any of the three equations involving h, we get ℎ = 4. And solving
for k using any of the three equations involving k, we get 𝑘 = −9. So, the translation
vector is < 4, −9 >. You can check if our answer is correct by checking if each
pair/ corresponding point satisfies (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 9).
Checking: 𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′ (−6 + 4, 1 − 9) = 𝐴′(−2, −8)

𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵 ′ (−2 + 4, 7 − 9) = 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶 ′ (3 + 4, 5 − 9) = 𝐶′(7, −4)
109
Example 4: Triangle PQR is a preimage with its vertices at 𝑃(−5, 0), 𝑄 (5, −2) and
𝑅(0, −3). If the triangle is translated by the vector 𝑣⃗ =< −5, −6 >, what are the
coordinates of the image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′?
Solution: A graph will definitely help you picture out the problem and the solution.
But even without it, we can solve this problem. Just remember that the vector
gives us the values of h and k in the coordinate plane rule for translation. Here,
our h is equal to -5 and our k is equal to -6. Plugging these to the formula, we have:
(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 − 𝟓, 𝒚 − 𝟔)
This formula will make it possible for us to determine the image of the vertices of
the preimage triangle, even without a graph.
𝑷(−𝟓, 𝟎) → 𝑷′(−𝟓 − 𝟓, 𝟎 − 𝟔) = 𝑷′(−𝟏𝟎, −𝟔)
𝑸(𝟓, −𝟐) → 𝑸′(𝟓 − 𝟓, −𝟐 − 𝟔) = 𝑸′ (𝟎, −𝟖)
𝑹(𝟎, − 𝟑) → 𝑹′(𝟎 − 𝟓, −𝟑 − 𝟔) = 𝑹′ (−𝟓, −𝟗)
So, the coordinates of the image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′ are (−10, −6), (0, −8) and (−5, −9).
You can check our answer by sketching the graph of the preimage and image
triangles. Observe if the size, shape, and orientation of the preimage are
preserved after translation. (Graphing is left for you to do.)
Example 5: A translation maps point 𝐴(7, 3) to point 𝐴′(−2, 6) . Determine this

translation vector.
Solution: This is a single point translation, and the coordinate plane rule still applies.
In fact this is an easier version of example 3. Here, we want to find the values of h
and k such that when you add h to 7 you get -2, and when you add k to 3 you
get 6. Easily, we can say that ℎ = −9 and 𝑘 = 3, because:
7 − 9 = −2 and 3 + 3 = 6
So, the translation vector is 𝑣⃗ =< −9, 3 >.
Note: In general, to calculate the exact horizontal shift of a translation from

preimage to image, we subtract the x- coordinate of the preimage from the x-
coordinate of the image. And to calculate the exact vertical shift of a translation
from preimage to image, we subtract the y- coordinate of the preimage from the
y- coordinate of the image.
110
Example 6: The vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 describes the translation of 𝐴(−1, 𝑤) onto

𝐴’(2𝑥 + 1, 4) and 𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) onto 𝐵’(3, 3𝑧). Find the values of w, x, y, and z.
Solution: Remember that the translation vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 can be converted to

coordinate plane rule (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 + 1) . To understand the problem better, let us
systematically write each pair of preimage and image along with the translation
vector.
𝐴(−1, 𝑤) → 𝐴′(−1 + 4, 𝑤 + 1) = 𝐴′ (2𝑥 + 1, 4)
𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) → 𝐵′(8𝑦 − 1 + 4, 1 + 1) = 𝐵′(3, 3𝑧)
So, what we actually need to do is to solve the equations that we can form from
the mappings above. And what are these equations?
Equation 1: −1 + 4 = 2𝑥 + 1 (from the x- coordinate A’)
3 = 2𝑥 + 1 (equation 1 simplified)
Equation 2: 𝑤 + 1 = 4 (from the y- coordinate A’)
Equation 3: 8𝑦 − 1 + 4 = 3 (from the x- coordinate B’)

8𝑦 = 0 (equation 3 simplified)
Equation 4: 1 + 1 = 3𝑧 (from the y- coordinate B’)

2 = 3𝑧 (equation 4 simplified)
Now, let’s look at the boxed equations. These are simple equations and we can
solve them right away!
Solving for x: 2𝑥 + 1 = 3 Solving for w: 𝑤+1=4

2𝑥 = 2 𝑤=3
𝑥=1
Solving for y: 8𝑦 = 0 Solving for z: 3𝑧 = 2

2
𝑦=0 𝑧=
3
So, the coordinates of the points in the preimage are 𝐴(−1, 3) and 𝐵(−1, 1), and
that of the image are 𝐴′(3, 4) and 𝐵 ′ (3, 2). To check, let’s look at their graph.
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Notice that both points of the pre-

image moved a constant distance in
parallel direction.
Rotation. A rotation is a translation that corresponds to turning or rotating a figure

through some degree 𝜃, around a fixed point 𝑂, called the center of rotation.
Rays drawn from the center of rotation to a point on the preimage and its
corresponding image form the angle of rotation. (See figure below.)
What do we have to remember about rotation?

 Rotations do not preserve orientation unless the rotation is 360° or the figure
exhibits rotational symmetry.
 Rotations of 180° are equivalent to a reflection through the origin.
 The rotation with center O and angle with measure 𝑎, denoted 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 , maps
each point P other than O to the point P’ such that the measure of directed
angle ∡𝑃𝑂𝑃′ is a, and 𝑂𝑃′ = 𝑂𝑃. Point O is mapped to itself by 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 . (See
figure on the next page.)
 If the angle of rotation is positive, the rotation is done counterclockwise,

and if the angle of rotation is negative, the rotation is done clockwise.
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What are the properties of rotation?

3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
5. Orientation (lettering order remains the same)
Coordinate plane rules for Rotation

Center of Angle of Preimage Rotated Notation
Rotation Rotation (Point P) (Point P’) (Point P’)
(0,0) 90° (or −270°) (x, y) (-y, x) (x, y) → (-y, x)
(0,0) 180° (or −180°) (x, y) (-x, -y) (x, y) → (-x, -y)
(0,0) 270° (or −90°) (x, y) (y, -x) (x, y) → (y, -x)
Use this table of coordinate plane rules (which we shall call cheat sheet) to guide
you in answering questions like this. All you have to do is verify if the center of
rotation is (0, 0), and then look up the row that contains the angle of rotation
indicated in the problem. Here, we do not indicate whether the rotation is
clockwise or counterclockwise, but a little recall from your Trigonometry class will
remind you that clockwise rotation yields to a negative angle, while
counterclockwise rotation yields to a positive angle. Notice that in the table, the
values corresponding to 90° and −270° are the same. That is because 90° and
−270° are coterminal angles (their initial and terminal sides are the same). The last
column of the table shows us the coordinate plane rules for rotation in different
angles. Our discussion is limited only to rotation through 90°, 180°, and 270°, around
the origin.
Example 1: Find an image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a

counterclockwise rotation:
a. about the origin at 90°
b. about the origin at 180°
c. about the origin at 270°
Solution:
a. The last column for 90° shows us(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥). It means that to get the
coordinates of the image of a point that has undergone this rotation, you
have to take the opposite sign of y and interchange it with x. So we will
have:
(3, 2) → (−2, 3)
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This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 90°, its image will be
located at (−2, 3). Let’s take a look at its graph.
The center of rotation is (0, 0), the

angle of rotation is 90° . If you
draw a line from the preimage to
the center of rotation, and
another line from the image to
the center of rotation, you will see
that these two lines will form an
angle of same amount to the
given angle of rotation (90°) .
Notice that the arrow of rotation
shows counterclockwise direction
because the angle of rotation is
positive.
b. We do the same thing with the second problem, but this time we look at
the last column for the second row (180°) of the table to get the coordinate
plane rule: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). This means that we are going to take the
opposite sign of both coordinates. Applying this to the given point, we will
have:
(3, 2) → (−3, −2)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 180°, its image will
be located at (−3, −2). Let’s take a look at its graph.
114
The center of rotation is (0, 0), the

angle of rotation is 180° . You will
see that the two lines made by
connecting the preimage and
image to the center of rotation
formed an angle of same amount
to the given angle of rotation
(180°) . Notice that the arrow of
rotation shows counterclockwise
direction because the angle of
rotation is positive.
c. We do the same thing with the third problem, but this time we look at the
last column for the third row (270°) of the table to get the coordinate plane
rule: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). This means that we are going to take the opposite sign
of x and interchange it with y. Applying this to the given point, we will have:
(3, 2) → (2, −3)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 270°, its image will
be located at (2, −3). Let’s take a look at its graph.
115
The center of rotation is (0, 0), the angle

of rotation is 270°. If the angle of rotation
had been −90° , you will get the same
graph, but the direction of rotation will
be different.
Example 2: Write the notation to describe the rotation for the point (5, −4). Check
your answer by plotting the preimage and image points.
a. about the origin at −90°
b. clockwise rotation about the origin at 180°
c. clockwise about the origin at 270°
Solutions: Look up the table for the coordinate plane rule for each rotation.
a. For a rotation of −90°, we look up the same row for 270° because they are
coterminal angles. The coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Applying
this to (5, −4) and indicating the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (−4, − 5)
b. For a clockwise rotation of 180°, that means our angle of rotation is −180°,
and we look up the same row for 180° because they are coterminal angles.
The coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). Applying this to (5, −4) and
indicating the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,180 (5, −4) → (−5, 4)
c. For a clockwise rotation of 270°, that means our angle of rotation is −270°,
and we look up the same row for 90° because they are coterminal angles.
The coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥). Applying this to (5, −4) and
indicating the center and angle of rotation, we have:
116
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (4, 5)
Example 3: Describe the rotation in words and in notation.
Solution: Since some coordinates of the preimage and the rotated image are
given, we can just inspect how each pair behaves. Let’s examine them one- by-
one. The statement inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine
each pair of corresponding points.
𝐴(1, 1) → 𝐴′(−1, 1) (It seems that the sign of x was changed.)

𝐵(5, 5) → 𝐵′(−5, 5) (It could also be that the sign of y was
changed and it was interchanged with x.)
𝐶(−2, 4) → 𝐶′(−4, −2) (This one is clearer; it verifies that the sign of
y was indeed changed and it was
interchanged with x.)
Our investigation leads us to conclude that the coordinate plane rule employed
in this rotation is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥), which means that the figure is rotated around
the center through 90°. (See cheat sheet for verification.)
117
Example 4: Write the mapping rule for the counterclockwise rotation of Image A
to Image B.
Solution: Just like in example 3, we can take a few corresponding points for
investigation on how the coordinates behave. But this time, the coordinates are
not given so we still need to name them. For convenience, let’s pick points that
are located at integer points, like A, B, C, and D (although three points are more
than enough).
𝐴(−12, 4) → 𝐴′(4, 12) (It seems that the sign of x is changed and it
is interchanged with y.)
𝐵(−12, 1) → 𝐵′(1, 12) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed
and it is interchanged with y.)
𝐶(−8, 4) → 𝐶′(4, 8) (By now, we are convinced that the sign of
x is changed and it is interchanged with y.)
𝐷(−5, 1) → 𝐴′(1, 5) (This further verifies that that the sign of x is
changed and it is interchanged with y.)
Going back to the cheat sheet, the angle of rotation that gives this
coordinate plane rule (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) is 270°. So the mapping that satisfies this
rotation is:
𝑅0, 270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)
118
Example 5. Write the notation that represents the clockwise rotation of the
preimage A to the rotated image J in the diagram below.
Solution: Another way to answer the question is to take one point on the preimage
and bring it to the center of rotation. Then take one point from the image also,
and bring it to the center of rotation. Finally trace a rotation along these lines to
see or measure the angle. I believe you are already familiar on how 90°, 180°, and
270° look. (See figure below.)
The orange broken line is the line that brings

a point on the preimage to the center of
rotation. The blue broken line is the line that
brings a point on the image to the center of
rotation. The brown arrow shows the
direction and measure of the angle of
rotation. Since it forms a straight angle, we
can conclude that the rotation employed
here is 180°, and thr mapping rule notation
is:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦).
Example 6: Thomas describes a rotation as point J moving from J(-2,6) to J’(6, 2).
Identify and write the notation to describe the rotation for Thomas.
Solution: The sign of x is changed and coordinates were interchanged, so in

symbols, it is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Since the direction of rotation is not indicated, then
there are two possible answers- it is either 270° or −90°. So, we write:
𝑅0,270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) or 𝑅0,−90 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)
119
Reflection. A reflection is a transformation that takes a shape and flips it across a

line (called the line of reflection or axis of symmetry) to create a new shape. A
line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining every point
and its image. (See figure below.)
A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a

line that
can be “folded over” so that one- half of the
figure matches the other half perfectly. The
“fold line” is called the figure’s line (axis) of
symmetry.
In the figure on the left, notice that when we fold the

figure along the line in the middle through B, we are
actually forming a one- to- one correspondence
between the points of the figure. For example, points A
and C correspond to each other, points D and E
correspond to each other, and points along segments ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵
and 𝐶𝐵
̅̅̅̅ correspond. If a point lies on the axis of symmetry
then it corresponds to itself, like the point B here in the
figure.
What do we have to remember about reflection?

 By examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine
the line of reflection. The most common lines of reflection are the x- axis, the
y- axis, the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 , and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥. Sometimes, a figure is also
reflected through a point like the origin (0, 0), in which case, there is no line
of reflection; only point of reflection.
 Reflections do not preserve orientation.
120
What are the properties of reflection?

3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
Coordinate plane rules and notations for Reflection

Over the x- axis: 𝒓𝒙−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙, −𝒚) (change the sign of y)
Over the y- axis: 𝒓𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) (change the sign of x)
Over the line 𝒚 = 𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒚, 𝒙) (interchange x and y)
Over the line 𝒚 = −𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=−𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒚, −𝒙) (change the signs of x and y and
interchange them)
Through the origin (0, 0) 𝒓(𝟎,𝟎) (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, −𝒚) (change the signs of x and y)
Example 1. Determine the line of reflection of the triangle below. The preimage
is the triangle with solid lines.
Solution: Write the coordinates of corresponding vertices of the preimage and

image triangle to clearly see the change in the coordinates after reflection. The
statement inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine each
pair of corresponding points.
𝐴(2, 2) → 𝐴′(−2, 2) (It seems that the sign of x is changed.)
𝐵(4, 4) → 𝐴′(−4, 4) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed.)

𝐶(5, 1) → 𝐴′(−5, 1) (This verifies that the sign of x is changed.)
121
Going back to the coordinate plane rule for reflection, which we shall call cheat
sheet, the kind of reflection that changes the sign of x, (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) after
reflecting an image is reflection over the y- axis. So, our answer is: The line of
reflection is the y- axis.
Example 2: Find the image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a reflection
across the following lines:
a. the x- axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line y=x
d. the line y=-x
e. through the origin (0, 0)
Solution: We just look at our cheat sheet, if we have not memorized it yet. Apply
the rules
a. 𝑟𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟x−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (3, −2)
b. 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, 𝑦) so, 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (−3, 2)
c. 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (3,2) → (2, 3)
d. 𝑟𝑦=−𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=−x (3,2) → (−2, −3)
e. 𝑟(0,0) (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟(0,0) (3,2) → (−3, −2)
Let us look at the graph of these reflections.
122
The last two figures are both graphs of the point (3, 2) reflected through the origin.
The last figure shows us that reflection of figure through the origin is the same as
rotation of figure around the origin through 180°.
Example 3. Reflect Image A in the diagram below across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Solution: First, we have to determine some points in the

triangle, and for convenience, we pick the vertices. Let
us label them with letters PQR and write their
coordinates.
123
In vertex Q, we opted to write the fraction

form or the y- coordinate because we want
to get used to using exact values instead of
decimal approximations (although 3.5 is also
exact).
We, then look back on our cheat sheet and

apply the rule for reflecting figures over the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥, which is:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) (interchange x
and y)
So, we will have the following mappings:

𝑃(1, 2) → 𝑃′(2, 1)
7 7
𝑄 (2, 2) → 𝑄′ (2 , 2)
𝑅(3, 1) → 𝑅′(1, 3)
We now plot these points on the same plane. Let us not forget to show the line of
reflection.
124
Example 4: Write the notation that represents the reflection of the preimage to
the image in the diagram below:
Solution: The line of reflection (red broken
line) is clearly shown to be the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
So we can easily write the notation that
represents this reflection as:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥)
Had there been no indicated line of symmetry, you will need to pick some pairs
of corresponding points on the preimage and image and investigate how each
pair of coordinates behave, just like what we did in example 1.
Example 5: Alvin describes a reflection as point J moving from J(−2,6) to J′(−2,−6).

Write the notation to describe this reflection for Alvin.
Solution: The sign of y is changed, so this must be a reflection over the x- axis, and
the notation is: 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦)
 Bonus Lesson!
Glide Reflection. This is a transformation that is a combination of a translation and
a reflection.
Definition
Suppose that A and B are different points in
the plane and that line l is parallel to
directed line segment 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The combination
of the translation followed by the reflection is
called the glide reflection determined by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵
and glide axis 𝑙. That is, P is first is mapped to
P* by translation. Then P* is mapped to P’ by
reflection. The combination of translation
followed by reflection maps P to P’.
125
Learning check
Activity:
1. Translate the triangle ABC, whose vertices are 𝐴(−3, 2), 𝐵(−2, 4) , and
𝐶(−1, 1), three units to the right and two units down. Show the graph of the
preimage and image with coordinates.
2. Rotate triangle XYZ (-2, -4), (-4, 5), (1, 3) into 90°, 180°, and 270°. Show the
graph of the preimage and image with coordinates. Indicate the angle of
rotation in each graph.
3. Reflect triangle LMN (5, 1), (2, 2), (4, 4) across x-axis, y-axis, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and 𝑦 =
−𝑥. Show the graph of the preimage and image with coordinates.
4. Graph square SQRE with the following

verrtices: 𝑆(1,2), 𝑄(4,1), 𝑅(5,4) and 𝐸(2,5) . Then find the image after the
translation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 3). Graph and label the image.
5. Fill in the blanks with the correct coordinates if the given point will be
rotated through the indicated angle of rotation.
Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4)
2. (4, 2)
3. (2, 0)
4. (-1, 2)
5. (-2, -3)
6. Write the rotation and its corresponding notation that represents the
rotation of the preimage to the image for each diagram below.
126
a. b.
7. Determine the line of reflection to describe the movement of the points in

each of the reflections below.
a. S(1,5)→S′(−1,5)
b. A(3,5)→A′(−3,5)
c. W(−5,−1)→W′(5,−1)
d. C(1,2)→C′(2,1)
e. Q(2,−5)→Q′(2,5)
f. D(2,−5)→D′(5,−2)
g. F(−4,2)→F′(−4,−2)
h. G(1,3)→G′(1,−3)
i. B(−4,−2)→B′(−2,−4)
j. E(3,1)→E′(−3,1)
k. M(4,3)→M′(−3,−4)
127
REFLECTION
What new ideas about mathematics did you learn in this module?
What is it about mathematics that might have changed your thoughts
about it?
What is the most useful about mathematics for humankind?
Learning check
Construct a short – response focusing on only one of the following aspects

of mathematics. (10 points)
i. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

ii. Mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and phenomena in
the world.
iii. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our
own ends.
Rubrics %
Substance
(depth and validity of the 40%
content)
Relevance
30%
(connection to the topic)
Comprehensiveness
20%
(extensiveness of the content)
Clarity
10%
(organization of though)
Total 100%
128
ANSWER KEY
Practice Test (Number Patterns)

1. 59
2. 256
3. 24
4. 8
5. 3
6. 18
7. 22
8. 161
9. 33
10. 36
Practice Tests (Logic Patterns)
1.
c
v
c
2.
3.
129
4.
5. 1 11 41 63 41 11 11
Practice Exercises
1.
2. 25
Learning Check (Arithmetic Sequence)
1. 𝑎𝑛 = 12 − 3𝑛
2. 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 − 10; 𝑎24 = 1262
3. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛3 + 2𝑛2 − 3𝑛 + 4
4. 6, 14, 22, 30, 38, … , 78, … ; 𝑎1 = 6
5. d = -7; 12, 5, -2, -9, -16, …
6. 𝑎𝑛 = 7𝑛 − 16; −9, −2, 5, 12, 19, …
Learning Check (Geometric Sequence)
1 10
1. 45 (5) = 4.608 × 10−6
2. r = 2; 𝑎12 = 3(2)11 = 12,288

1 2 𝑛−1
3. 𝑎𝑛 = 3 (3) ; 𝑎10 = 8.67 × 10−3
3
4. 𝑎1 = 4 ; 𝑎9 = 49,152
5. a. 𝑎𝑛 = 284(1.04)𝑛−1
b. 𝑎5 = 284(1.04)4 = 332.24 = 332
6. a. 𝑎𝑛 = 293(1.026)𝑛−1
b. 𝑎5 = 293(1.026)4 = 324.68 = 325
130
Learning Check (Arithmetic and Geometric Series)
1. 𝑆45 = 2,025
2. 𝑆39 = 1,989
3. 𝑆12 = 265,720
4. 𝑆10 = −16,368
5. 𝑆24 = −1836
6. 𝑆18 = 351
Learning Check (Fibonacci Sequence)
1. F18 = 5778
2. F29 = 1,149,851
3. F24 = 28,657
Learning Check (Fibonacci Sequence)
1. 𝐴(0,0), 𝐵(1,2), 𝐶(2, −1)

2. Rotation
a. At 900 : 𝑋(4, −2), 𝑌(−5, −4), 𝑍(−3,1)
b. At 1800 : 𝑋(2,4), 𝑌(4, −5), 𝑍(−1, −3)
c. At 2700 : 𝑋(−4,2), 𝑌(5,4), 𝑍(3, −1)
3. Reflection
a. At 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 : 𝐿(5, −1), 𝑀(2, −2), 𝑁(4, −4)
b. At 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 : 𝐿(−5,1), 𝑀(−2,2), 𝑁(−4,4)
c. At 𝑦 = 𝑥 : 𝐿(1,5), 𝑀(2,2), 𝑁(4,4)
d. At 𝑦 = −𝑥 : 𝐿(−1, −5), 𝑀(−2, −2), 𝑁(−4, −4)
4. Translated Image: 𝑆(−1,5), 𝑄(2,4), 𝑅(3,7), 𝐸(0,8)
131
5.
Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4) (−4,1) (−1, −4) (4, −1) (1,4)
2. (4, 2) (−2,4) (−4, −2) (2, −4) (4,2)
3. (2, 0) (0,2) (−2,0) (0, −2) (0,2)
4. (-1, 2) (−2, −1) (1, −2) (2,1) (−1,2)
5. (-2, -3) (3, −2) (2,3) (−3,2) (−2, −3)
6. Rotation
a. At 2700: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦 = −𝑥)
b. At 2700: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦 = −𝑥)
7.
a. y – axis
b. y – axis
c. y – axis
d. y = x
e. x – axis
f. y=–x
g. x – axis
h. x – axis
i. y – axis
j. y=–x
132
REFERENCES
1. Aufmann, R. er.al. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions.

Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed.
McGraw Hill, Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City:
Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the
Modern World. Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern
World. C & E Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. http://ian-stewart-numerele-naturii.pdf
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and
Scientists. 7th Ed. Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc
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 Mathematics in Our World

The Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics in the Modern World

In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical

1. Summarize the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;

2. Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

3. Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

4. Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-

5. Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.

Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)

Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical

The story of mathematics is considerably as old as humanity itself. Since

Mathematics was used for counting and tallying.

Geometric designs were used in artifacts, not as

Mathematics proper was developed when

Image source: http://www.hiddenfact.com/human.htm

The use of 60 and 360 in the circle measurements

Image source: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/06/vast-

Sumerian/ Babylonian Mathematics

Mathematics was used for developing agriculture

Starting as early as the 4th millennium BC, large

Image source: https://www.livingwiththemoon.com/tag/babylonian-calendar/

The Sumerian and Babylonian Number System:

The Babylonians used geometric shapes in their buildings

Image source: https://scientificgems.wordpress.com/2017/08/27/the-

Pythagorean triangles were already discussed as early

Image source: https://www.sutori.com/the-history-of-fractions

Measurements were based on body parts and a

The Ancient Egyptian Number System: Base 10

The Rhind Papyrus existed around 1650 BC. It is a kind of

A notation for fractions was developed in order to

In about 450 BC, the ancient numeral system

The guidelines for the abstract development of geometry

One of the best known mathematical theorems was

The Three Geometrical Problems were

The idea of infinity was contested by the

Alexandria in Egypt became a great center of

Euclid- was the great chronicler of the mathematics of the

Menelaus- author of the book "Sphaerica”, which delat

In the 3rd century BC, Apollonius of Perga became

The first recorded female mathematician, Hypatia,

By the middle of the first century, Roman

As early as 2000 BC, Mayans have known the

Image source: https://medium.com/@genekogan/from-deep-learning-down-

In the 2nd millennium BC the Chinese numbering

Numbers and mathematical patterns were fascinating to the ancient

In the 13th Century, Chinese mathematician Yang Hui

A textbook called “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the

Before 1000 BC, Indians already had Vedic math.

In the 4th century BC, Buddha was already enumerati g numbers up

As early as the 3rd or 2nd century, Indian mathematicians were

In 400 CE, a text called Surya Siddhanta by unkown authors was

In the 8th century, mathematics was raised to the form of an art in

The House of Wisdom was set up in Baghdad around 810, where

In the 9th century, outstanding Persian mathematician,

Muhammad Al Karaji was the first to use the

The use of decimals instead of fractions was introduced by the10th

Image source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/ibn-al-haytham-33305.php

Medieval European Mathematics

From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European mathematics was limited

In the 12th century, the great expansion of trade and commerce

Image source: https://onartandaesthetics.com/2015/11/06/light-in-medieval-manuscripts/