hhgincering Frachm M&anics Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 991-1006, 1991 0013.7944/91$3.

00
+ 0.00
printedin GreatBritain. Pcrgamorlpressplc.

NU~E~CAL CHA~~E~ZATION OF THE

NONLINEAR FRACTURE PROCESS IN CONCRETE
V. S. CIOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE
I%partment of Civil R&neering, University of Mists-~ol~bia, Cohnnbia, MO 65211, U.S.A.

Ahatraet-The growth and development of the fracture process zone in ptin concrete has been
investigated. A fictitious crack model based noniterative numerical scheme is developed to study
the fracture characteristics of specimens of different sires and geometries. Results from n~erical
studies on four different geometrically similar speoimen sizes and two different specimen geometries
are reported and discussed. The finite element program developed accommodates linear as well as
nonlinear softening laws for the fracture process zone in concrete. It is observed that the process
zone reaches a steady state length which is specimen size as well as specimen geometry dependent.
As long as the process zone is allowed to develop to its steady state length, the energy absorbed
in the process zone appears to be sire and geometry independent. Results from tests on three-point
bending specimens and compact tension specimens reported in the literatme have been compared
with the numerical solutions obtained in this investigation. Specimen size and geometry dependence
generally observed in these fracture experiments have been duplicated. The numerical model also
successfully reproduces many of the other experimentally observed characteristics in the fracture
of plain concrete.

INTRODUCTION
MICROCRACKING, slow crack growth, softening behavior and the presence of a large-sized process
zone ahead of the traction-free cracks are all independent characteristics inherent to the
composition of concrete. These characteristics, resultant in part from its heterogeneity, play a
significant role in its nonlinear behavior. The extent of the influence of these localized aspects of
nonlinearities have been observed to be influenced by the sire and geometry of the speci-
men/structure. Small-sized test specimens and many test geometries typically used in laboratory
studies impede the unrestrained growth of the inelastic fracture process. Results from these tests
as a consequence inherently also include the effects of specimen size and test geometry. Earlier
studies[l3] have documented this problem and recent investigations[4-1 l] like the present one are
aimed at better understanding the influence of specimen size and test cotiguration on the fracture
characteristics recorded.
While there is general agreement on the fact that softening behavior observed in the fracture
of concrete is associated with localization of damage, the debate is inconclusive on whether this
behavior represents true material response or includes the manifestations of the specimen’s
structural response. Attempts to delineate the material response from the structural response,
though useful for its fundamental and academic significance, are not really necessary for practical
applications of fracture mechanics to concrete structures as long as one realizes that the typical
laboratory material response reported implicitly may also include some aspects of structural
response. Since in all practical concrete structures these two levels of response are intertwined, it
is sufficient to understand structural aspects of the material response (such as specimen size and
specimen geometry dependence of its fracture characteristics) while applying fracture mechanics
concepts to concrete structures. The numerical model developed in this paper is an effort in
d~~enting structural aspects of such material response without attempting to separate the two
levels of response. The finite element model is ideally suited for such sweeping parametric studies
involving numerous specimen sizes and geometries, and different material properties.

PROBLEM FO~A~ON AND SOLUTION TECHNIQUES

The numerical formulation reported here is similar to that used in an earlier preliminary study
reported by the authors[9]. This development of the finite element model is tailored towards
inv~~gating the nonlinear fracture of concrete and the influence of specimen size and geometry
on the initiation, growth and stability of cracks. Variations of this type of formulation have also

EFbi 4w-s
992 V. S. GOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

been used by Carpinteri et a1.[7j for studying the flexural behavior of precracked specimens and
by Du et aZ.[8]in a hybrid experimental-numerical procedure to analyse the fracture process zone.
The method relies on the fact that all of the structure except for the fracture process zone is
elastic. In addition, the use of the fictitious crack model (FCM[12, 131) reduces the inelastic zone
ahead of the traction-free crack into a discrete crack capable of supporting some traction. The
nonlinearities in the fracture process zone are, as a result, treated as a traction boundary. These
simplifications allow for the use of the superposition principle in obtaining the solution to the
nonlinear problem without the need to iterate as in some of the earlier solutions using FCM with
the finite element method[l2]. The method can only be used for problems where the crack path
is known a priori. The type of formulation described here is additionally simplified where the
structure/specimen is symmetric about the crack path. It can, however, be used in general with
additional modifications for cases where the structure/specimen is not symmetric about the crack
path.
. Finite element solutions are obtained independently for the external load(s) as well as for unit
loads applied one at a time along the crack path in the fracture process zone. Specimen self-weight
can also be incorporated in this analysis, if desired, as described later. This approach is the
numerical equivalent to the Green function approach which Li and Liang[lrl] have used for
studying the concrete fracture problem. Weighted multipliers a,, ~1,)CQ,. . . , cc,can be used in the
superposition of the FEM solutions to satisfy overall equilibrium, compatibility and stress-crack
width relations in the fracture process zone as described later. The approach results in the solution
of a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations to determine the multipliers c(,,, a,, a2 , . . . , a,,
depending upon whether linear or nonlinear stress-crack width relations are assumed for the
fracture process zone.
Mode I fracture in two different geometries is investigated in this study. Figure 1 shows details
of the specimen geometry used. Four different geometrically similar sizes were studied. Table 1
shows the sizes of the specimens used for the three-point bending and compact tension geometries.
Typical finite element discretizations used are illustrated in Fig. 2a and b for the two geometries
studied. Preliminary numerical studies indicated no significant mesh size dependence for the meshes
used (a range of 1: 8 mesh size variations were investigated). Results reported here are based on
identical element sizes for all the specimen sizes and geometries.
Four-noded isoparametric quadrilateral plane stress elements were used throughout the
investigation. Transition triangle elements were generated by collapsing the quadrilateral elements.
The finite element program was automated so that obtaining several solutions needed for each
increment of loading (crack advance), superposition, solution of the system of algebraic equations
and post-processing computations were all accomplished in one run. Crack advance was controlled
incrementally, releasing one node at a time along the crack path. This ensured post-peak stability
akin to a crack mouth opening displacement controlled experiment. This is unlike some other
numerical schemes where loading of the specimen is accomplished through load increments or

H
c
1

L T I Thickness of lhe beam

W P
T I S~cinwn thicknes8

Fig. 1. Specimen geometries. (a) Three-point bending. (b) Compact tension.

 Nonlinear fracture in concrete 993

P/2
I

Spdmmn: Sk0 4
S05-a
454Dmgrenotfla8dm

3paelmon: Ska 4
364 Elmmlts
C46tkl(~OfhWdOWl

Fig. 2. Typical finite element mesh used for the numerical investigation. (a) Three-point bending.
(b) Compact tension.

displacement increments. While the load incrementing process will invariably lose stability at the
peak load for materials exhibiting softening, it is possible for some geometries in the displacemint
controlled scheme of loading to retain post-peak stability for such materials. The displacement
controlled numerical scheme of loading may itself, however, exhibit a snapback phenomenon and

Table 1. Details of specimens used for the parametric study

Lt dt Tt et
Sizes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. Mm) in. (mm)
Three-point bending
size1 12 (305) E (25) 0.50 (13)
Sii2 18 (457) (38) 0.75 (19)
(52)
Size 43 24
48 (1220)
(610) 12.0
6:0 (102) ::: i:;;
Bt Ht Tt clot
sii in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Compact tension
size 1 (114) 0.250
Sii2 1: (171) 0.375 (9.5)
Size3 16 (52)
Size4 32 (102)
tSee Fig. 1 for definitions of the geometric parameters.
994 V. S. GOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 (run)
1.0

d
r 03

& 0.6

0
4 0.4

9
c 0.2
4
0.0
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003
CRACK WIDTH, co(in)

Fig. 3. Different softening laws used.

lose stability for some geometries, as illustrated later. The crack length controlled loading scheme,
on the other hand, always guarantees post-peak stability.
Two commonly used forms of post-peak stress-crack width relations were used for the
fictitious crack (fracture process zone). Linear softening[l3] (with several different critical crack
widths CO,)and exponential softening[ 151(with two different sets of empirical parameters describing
exponential softening k, A) were investigated (Fig. 3). The numerical formulations developed for
the linear and nonlinear softening problems are described here.

Linear softening
The pseudo crack tip moves one element down the crack during every increment of loading.
Each increment of loading is accomplished as noted earlier when the stress at the pseudo crack
tip reaches the tensile strength of the material, f,. Thus, through superposition (Fig. 4)

f, = %~rl(O) + f W,(O) (1)

I=1
where ol,, aI, a2, . . . , a, are the unknown load multipliers for the unit external load(s) and for unit
load applied at node i within the fracture process zone respectively, a,(x) and a,(x) are stress
normals to the crack path at a location x due to external load(s) and due to unit load applied at
node i within the process zone respectively, x is a moving coordinate system with the origin at the
tip of the fictitious crack and increasing in the direction opposite to the direction of crack
propagation, and n is the number of nodes between the fictitious crack tip and the traction-free
crack tip (Fig. 4). Figure 4 illustrates the superposition scheme for a compact tension specimen
where the initial crack length is two elements long and the fictitious crack is three elements long.
The crack width at any location can generally be obtained using superposition as

4x)= cro~cltx)
+f W4(X)- (2)
i-1

+ Q3

Fig. 4. Illustration of the superposition principle used.

The linear softening law[13] to be satisfiad at each of the n nodes along the crack path is
w(x)
a(x)=&
(1--&-
c >
where o, is the critical crack width (~dth at which a ‘~fictitio~” or traction sup~~g
(3)

crack
becomes a traction-free “real” crack). The load multipliers a, can be related to the stresses in the
fracture process zone C, through work-equivalence. However, given the small element size along
the crack path and linear displacements within each element a good approximation is achieved
simply by using
ai = tLa, (41
where t and L are the thickness and length respectively along the crack path of the element at node
i. Equation (3) can hence be written in terms of the load multipliers as

where Q = tLJ;.
Equation (5) is in fact a set of n equations which are exactly satisfied along the crack path.
Multiplying eq. (5) by CD,and incorporating eq. (1) along with it yields

[Qua ~~~~+~~~ ; j 1;; ‘Iii:-Qua. (6)

lotions (6) is a set of (n + 1) equations to solve for (n + 1) unknown as. A total of n + 1 finite
element solutions are needed to construct the coefficient matrix (Fig. 4). If any of the ai values
become negative, a new solution is obtained by imposing those a to be zero. This is because of
the constraint that all the as as per the formulation should be greater than or equal to zero.

~o~~jnear softening
Equations (1), (2) and (4), the general mechanism of crack advance as well as other aspects
of the numerical formulation described in the linear softening case, are all valid for the case of
nonlinear softening. The nonlinear softening law[lS] to be satisfied at each of the n nodes is
a(x) =xemktixr (7)
where k and rZare empirical constants. The solution to the set of load multipliers is obtained
iteratively:

where cry”+‘)is the value of the load multiplier u, at the (m + 1)th iteration. Equation (8) is solved
until ]a$?“+
‘1-afm)] Q&, for i = 0 to n. a, is the tolerance limit for the load multipliers. Since the
nonlinear softening law is a monotonically decreasing function, the solution obtained for eq. (Is)
996 V. S. GOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

is unique. The solution for the load multipliers converges rapidly and there is no special effort
necessary (unlike that used for the solution using the linear softening law) to ensure that tl, 2 0 for
all i.

Self-weight considerations
The type of formulation described earlier makes efficient use of the fictitious crack model,
predetermined crack path, and symmetry across the crack path in both the loading as well as the
geometry. As a result, self-weight considerations can only be readily incorporated where the loading
due to self-weight is symmetric about the crack path. For the three-point bending geometry tested
in the most popular configuration (vertical loading, Fig. la), the self-weight is symmetric about
the crack path. On the other hand, for the compact tension geometry tested in the popularly used
configuration (vertical loads, Fig. lb), the self-weight is not symmetric about the crack path.
Self-weight can hence, for the compact tension geometry, be incorporated only if such a specimen
were tested in a configuration where the loads are applied horizontally (notch is vertical). In this
investigation the influence of self-weight on the fracture characteristics of a three-point bending
specimen has been studied. Self-weight is treated as external loading with a load multiplier of 1.0
in the superposition scheme. Nodal loads for the self-weight solution are determined from the
element sizes assuming all nodes of the element share the loads due to the self-weight equally.

DATA USED FOR THE PARAMETRIC STUDIES

Iniluence of specimen size, specimen geometry and material properties on the fracture
characteristics of concrete were among the parameters studied in this investigation. Details of the
specimen sizes and specimen geometries used are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1. As indicated
earlier, two different types of post-cracking stress-crack width laws were studied. Prior to cracking,
concrete response was assumed to be perfectly elastic (up to its tensile strength,f;). The modulus
of elasticity, E, and the Poisson’s ratio assumed for all of the parametric studies were 4.5 x lo6 psi
(31.03 GPa) and 0.18 respectively. For the cases where a linear softening law was assumed for the
post-cracking response of concrete, the influence of the concrete tensile strength,f,, and the critical
crack width, oE, were studied. Tensile strengths of 400, 500 and 600 psi (2.76,3.45 and 4.14 MPa
respectively) were used. Critical crack widths of 0.001, 0.002, 0.003 and 0.004 in. (25.4,50.8,76.2
and 101.6 pm respectively) were used.
Two sets of empirical constants were used for the nonlinear softening law (Fig. 3).
k = 0.001544 (for o in p in) and 3, = 1.Ol, as suggested by Gopalaratnam and Shah[lS], and
k = 0.006 and 1 = 0.7, which provides a larger post-cracking toughness, were used. Results
obtained from the numerical model are presented and discussed in the following section.

RESULTS FROM THE NUMERICAL STUDY

Linear softening
Plots of the load-crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD, P-S) and the load deflection
(P-A) for the four geometrically similar sizes (Table 1) of three-point bending specimens obtained
from the numerical model are presented in Fig. 5a and b respectively. Stable crack growth was
obtained for all the specimens even in the post-peak regime using a “controlled advance of the crack
tip” based numerical procedure. This is somewhat similar to a CMOD controlled experiment.
Similar P-4 plots were also obtained for the geometrically similar compact tension specimens. As
experimentally demonstrated earlier by several investigators[3, 161 it can be observed from Fig. 5
that the P-6 response is inherently more stable than the P-A response in the post-peak regime.
The post-peak P-A regime for the large beams becomes very steep and may indeed exhibit snap
back behavior for sizes larger than the Size 4 reported. Similar observations have been made by
Carpinteri[6]. The ratio of the secant stiffness at peak load to the initial tangent stiffness is higher
for the larger beams, suggesting lower prepeak nonlinear activity resulting in a more brittle
response. This observation is in line with the size effect law proposed by Bazant[4]. Flexural
strengths increase with decreasing specimen sizes-a reciprocal relationship that is now well
 Nonlinear fracture in concrete 997

20 40 60 60 100

- size2

- ske4

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

CRACK MOUTH OPENING DlSPlACEMENT,G (In)

(a)

0
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006

DEFLECTION, A (in)

(W

Fig. 5. Load-CMOD (a) and load-deflection (b) plots for geometrically similar three-point bending
specimens.

documented both from experimental fracture studies[l-3,5] as well as a size effect law proposed
based on dimensional analysis and similitude[4, 171. Very small specimens have been observed to
essentially obey a size independent strength limit based criterion whereas very large specimens
approximately follow the law of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM).
A plot of the load-CMOD response for a Size 4 three-point bending specimen is presented
in Fig. 6 for three different initial crack lengths. The trends obtained for degradation of initial
stiffness, decrease in peak loads and increase in corresponding CMODs with large initial flaws have
all been observed in fracture tests. It is relevant to note here that the numerical procedure (using
linear softening) does not distinguish between specimens with different initial crack lengths as long
as the current crack lengths are the same (common post-peak response for identical crack lengths).
The plot can also be used to illustrate the relative brittleness of specimens with small initial flaws.
Similar observations of brittleness have been reported by Carpinteri[6] and Bazant[l7].
Figure 7 shows a plot of the process zone length, I,, versus the effective crack length, a, for
the four different geometrically similar three-point bending specimens (Fig. 7a) and the four
different geometrically similar compact tension specimens (Fig. 7b). The process zone appears to
grow steadily until a steady state length, (1,),, is reached. The size of the process zone appears to
decrease on further crack growth, apparently because of the influence of the free boundary and
the compressive stress field ahead of the process zone. Specimen sizes are also illustrated at the top
of Fig. 7a and b. The plateau of the steady state growth is, as a result, smaller for the smaller beams
than for the larger beams (Fig. 7). (Z,),, based on the earlier limited study, was speculated to be
specimen size independent[9]. Small variations in the size of (l,), in the earlier study were attributed
 V. S. GOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

0 20 40 60 60 loo Cm)

aPoinl bending speciman:ske4

--I- hI0.S -15
- %=l.Q
v 00 -2.4
- 10

O.WO 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

CRACK MOUTH OPENING DISPLACEMENT, 6 (In)

Fig. 6. Load-CMOD plots for specimens with different initial crack lengths.

to characteristics of the numerical process of crack advance. However, it appears from this more
systematic study that (Z,), is size dependent. For the range of specimen sizes tested in the parametric
study and associated material properties assumed, (Z,), varied between 1.25 and 2.25 in.
(32-57 mm) for the three-point bending specimens and between 1.5 and 2.5 in. (3g-64 mm) for the
compact tension specimens.

mm)

50

-/ %Poinl batding
40

20

D
i i 6
EFFECTIVE CRACK LENGTH, a (in)
(8)

0 100 200 300 400mm)

0 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16

EFFECTIVE CRACK LENGTH, I (In)

00

Fig. 7. Development of the prcceas zone for different specimen sizes. (a) Three-point bending.
(b) Compact tension.
 Nonlinear fracture in comrete 959

Among the material parameters studied were the tensile strengthf, and critical crack width
q. Everything else being the samefc values were varied from 400 to 600 psi (2.7M.14 MPa) in
100 psi (0.69 MPa) increments. Similarly, all else being the same, w, values of 0.001, 0.002, 0.003
and 0.004 in. (25.4, 50.8, 76.2 and 101.6 pm) were investigated. The Gf definition used here is
identical to that proposed by Hillerborg and is obtained as the area under the (r-0 curve. For the
range of ft and o, used in the parametric study, Gr values ranged from 0.2 to 1.2 lb./in.
(35-210 N/m). Plots of the steady state process zone size, (f,),, normalized with respect to the
Hillerborg defined material characteristic length Z, (Zd,= G&/f: or o,E/2f,) versus the critical crac4c
width, CD,,are shown in Fig. 8. For the range ofx and CD,normally reported in the literature, Fig. 8a
shows that the steady state process zone size, while being relatively insensitive to the tensile
strength,f,, of the material, is significantly influenced by the critical crack width, CD,(or as a result
Gr=AoC/2 for the linear softening assumed). The numerical investigation also indicates that the
process zone does not attain its steady state value when the specimen attains the peak load. Several

,
OJ-
-m

0.‘ -

0.4 -
WMtlWl:OW4
- 4-a*
O.Z-
- 4-~Qopl
- 4--Joopr
0.07 , . , . , . ,
0200 0.00, 0.002 0.000 o.w4 0

CmncAl. CRICK wlml$ 00 IIn)

@I

- adz.1
- ah92
- ahea

_._,. , . I I - ’

&a 0.k
- slu,

E- on01 o.ooa
cwncacaacammH.=o~h~
Roes a004 O.OW O.Wl

cnllcu. CRACK wwlw ww

0iC.l C

Id)

2’ 0, 30 w W tw ‘W M
y+ n . ’ . ’ . ’ . ‘I
0.0. . )--
* i .
0.0 .

0.4 -
- ok*a
O.Z- I, -~QQpl --
- sb.
whlwwhlg
OB,
O#CO 000) OBW OiW

cnrmALcMacIypTn PO(h)

Fig. 8. Steady state process zone size and pracess zone size at peak load as tiuenced by material
parameters (a. b), specimen sizes (c, d) and specimen geometry (e, f).

EFM 0,6-c
1ooo V. S. GQPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

investigators have hypothesized while developing their analytical models that the process zone
grows to its steady state size at the same time that the specimen sustains the peak load. From this
parametric study it appears that the process zone size at the peak load(I is between 65 and
75% of its steady state length (I,), for a wide range of numerical properties (Fig. 8b), for different
specimen sizes (Fig. 8d) and two different specimen geometries (Fig. 8f). The other hypothesis often
made is that the process zone remains attached to the original notch until it attains its steady state
size. Only then do the process zone and the tip of the traction-free crack move, and move together.
This mechanism of process zone growth was observed to be true for all of the cases investigated
in this study.
Figure 8c demonstrates the size-dependent nature of the steady state process zone size for a
range of material characteristics. The steady state process zone size was also observed to be
specimen geometry dependent (Fig. 8e), Size 2 of the compact tension specimens and Size 4 of the
three-point bending specimens, both of which have comparable untracked ligament sizes (approxi-
mately 10 in., 254mm), are used for studying geometry dependence. Figure 8e illustrates the
specimen geometry dependence of the process zone size. Since the steady state process zone size
is normalized with respect to the material characteristic length (I,,) in Fig. 8e, it appears as if the
specimen geometry dependence diminishes at large critical crack widths. This is not so when (Z,),
values are compared by themselves at any 0,.
Nonlinear softening
The nonlinear softening law used is of the form specified in eq. (7). Unlike the linear softening
law, no critical crack width can be defined. As a result the process zone size is well defined only
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (run)
!3wo

Linear m, - 0.001’

ism

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

CRACK MOUTH OPENING DI~~c~E~, 6 W

(a)

0 0
0.000 0.001 0.002 O.OW 0.004 0.005 O.oMI

DEFl.ECllDN,A((mn)
@I
Kg. 9. Comparison of the Ioad-CMOD (a) and k~~Wek!ction (b) responses using linear and nonlinear
sf&ning hws.
 Nonlinear fracture in conc&c 1001

if stress in the softening zone below prescribed limits is neglected. If this limit is chosen such that
associated limiting crack widths are comparable to those used in the linear softening law, then all
the discussions presented for the growth and attainment of steady state size of the process zone
(Fig. 8) are also generally valid for the solutions using the nonlinear softening law. Figure 9 presents
a comparison of the P-6 and P-A responses obtained using the linear softening law with those
obtained using the nonlinear softening law for the three-point bending specimens. The CD,,k and
I values used for this comparison are presented in the inset to the figure. These softening laws were
illustrated earlier in Fig. 3. From Fig. 3 it can be observed that the nonlinear law which is used
(k = 0.001544, 1 = 1.01) for Fig. 9 exhibits smaller traction capacity than the linear law
(CU,= 0.001 in., 25.4 pm) for small crack widths (o < 0.0055 in., 139.7 pm), while it exhibits larger
traction capacity than the linear law for crack widths in excess of 0.0055 in. Since at peak loads
in Fig. 9 the crack widths obtained are typically small, the load carrying capacity presented using
the linear softening law is slightly higher than that predicted using the nonlinear softening law.
However, beyond peak loads, the use of the nonlinear softening law leads to prediction of a tougher
material response (more energy absorbed). The differences in the P-A response (Fig. 9b) due to
the use of linear and nonlinear softening laws are more than those obtained for the P-6 response
(Fig. 9a). The nonlinear softening law used for Fig. 9 also provides a more stable P-A response
than that obtained with the linear softening law.

Energy absorption
Energy absorbed in the process zone, G, can be computed during growth of the process zone
from the stress and crack width solutions obtained for the crack line. For conditions of stable crack

3-Point kndhlg
f, =soopi
(00 - 0.001’

0.0 & . , . , I - I - I -

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

CRACK EXTENSION, M (in)

(0)

-40
+ Size 1 .
Conpad lendon
- Sk2
I, =5oopsl - 20
@ .0.001’ - Sk.3
-o- slze4 .

0 6 10 15
CRACK EXTENSION, 61 (III)

Fig. 10. Energy absorption versus crack extension for different sixes of three-point bending (a) and
compact tension (b) specimens.
1002 V. S. GOPALARATNAM and B. S. YE

growth this equals the energy released due to crack growth (AU/Au) between two loading
increments. During the preliminary investigation both approaches to compute energy absorption
were used. Results from these approaches were identical. Since the energy absorbed in the process
zone was computationally less intensive than computing the strain energy release rate, this
approach was used in all subsequent studies. Figure 10 shows plots of G versus crack extension
for the four different sizes of three-point bending (Fig. 1Oa) and compact tension specimens
(Fig. lob). The smaller specimens, which attain steady state process zone lengths more rapidly than
the larger specimens, also absorb more energy at identical crack extensions than the larger
specimens. Energy absorption increases almost linearly with crack extension until asymptotic values
G, of approximately 0.3 lb./in. (52.56 Nm) are reached V; = 500 psi (3.45 MPa) and o, = 0.001 in.
(25.4 mm) used giving Gr= 0.25 lb./in. (43.8 N/m)]. G, values appear to be approximately 20%
higher typically than the Gr values obtained from the area under the tensile softening curve
(Gr=J;o,/2 for the linear softening law). Figure 11 shows plots of the ratio G,/G; obtained for a
wide range of material parameters (Fig. 1la) and specimen sizes (Fig. 1lb). It appears from Figs
10 and llb that the steady state energy absorption (G,) capacity is independent of specimen
geometry and specimen size.
Specimen self-weight
As discussed earlier, the self-weight has been effectively treated as external load with a load
multiplier of 1.0 in the superposition scheme. Concrete weight density assumed for the study was

6
‘.
Q 0 20 40 60 00
1. 100
1. 120
1 wo
. 2.0 I. I. I.

3-PolntkfKling 3qecbnm:Sm4
1.3-
e : - 1,=4OOpsl
p 1.2- - f,=3oOpl
f,~sOOpl

B 03-

z **
4 0.4-

o.o-. I I I
;5
P 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

CRITICAL CRACK WIDTH, UC (in)

(N

b 0.0
1 s&a1

Y a4
-
I
am2
a&3
% I - Sk@4
3 ! I
9 0.0O.WO 0.001
I 0.002
1 0.003
1 0.004
1 0.005

4
CRITICAL CRACK WtDm, 0)~ (in)
@l
Fig. 11. Normalized energy abmxption at steady state crack growth aa functions of material parameters
(a) and spahen size (b).
 Nonlinear fracture in concrete 1003

150 lb./ft3 (23.6 kN/m3). Plots of the P-d and P-A responses with and without self-weight
considerations are illustrated in Fig. 12 for Size 4 three-point bending specimens. Similar plots
obtained for the other three sixes indicated that self-weight considerations affected the larger sire
more than they did the smaller ones. This is similar to observations from experimental ‘results
reported by Hillerborfil], Hilsdorf and Brameshuber[2] and Jenq and Shah[3].

COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

Results from the numerical model using several softening responses are compared with test
results reported by Jenq and Shah[3] for three different sixes of three-point bending specimens and
test results reported by Ratanalert and Wecharatana[l8] for three different sixes of compact tension
specimens. Figure 13 shows comparisons of the experimental and numerical load-CMOD
responses (a-c) and load-deflection responses (d-f) for the three sixes tested by Jenq and Shah[3].
The values ofS, and ECused for the two small sizes (Fig. 13a, b, c, d, e) were the same as reported
by Jenq and Shah. When these values of EC and $t were used for the largest specimen the initial
slope of the load-CMOD or load-deflection itself did not match numerical predictions. For the
largest of the three specimen sixes, as a result, the EC value was computed from the experimental
initial tangent modulus using LEFM concepts. The value of 5.55 x 106psi (38.28 GPa) was
obtained as opposed to the reported EC value of 3.95 x 10”psi (27.24 GPa). The ft value was
computed assuming commonly used empirical formulae relating EC, f f and ft (EC= 332’.5fi,
f, = 6&). It appears from Fig. 13 that all the forms of the softening laws used (two nonlinear
and two linear) essentially predict the overall pre-peak response quite well. Strength, corresponding

0 1 2 3 4
CRACK MOUTH OPENINQ DISPLACEMENT, 8 (in)
(a)

0 1 2 3 4 5
DEFLECTK)N, A (lni
08

Fig. 12. Three-point bending response with and without including specimen self-weight in the analysis.
1084 V. S. C3OPALARATNAk4 and B. S. YE

?
!!i
0 0
O.WO 0.065 on00 O#y ODOI 0.010

a4MKmlmDPamNDO(I*LICEYEIII,6M

(0)

*f
0 w tw 180 600 nwo
. ___ 0 w 100 150 wo
100
t!z
wo
*a
400
1.5
500

500 i.0

100 0.5

0 OA
OAOb O.mZ w 0.005 Om5 omo
VA@9

0 W 100 IW WA

a002

Fig. 13. Comparison of model predicted load_CMOD (a-c) and load-deflection (d-f) responses with
experimental data from Jenq and Shah[3] for three different sizes of three-point bending specimens.

deflection and CMOD predictions are within 10% in most instances. The post-peak response is
significantly influenced by the tensile softening law assumed for the process zone. The experimental
post-peak load-C!MOD response is less steep than the experimental post-peak load-deflection
response and is best matched using the nonlinear softening law with empirical constants k = 0.006
and I = 0.7.
Similar comparisons for the compact tension specimen have also been carried out
with experimental results from Ratanalert and Wecharatana[l8]. Table 2 presents a summary
comparison of the peak loads obtained using one linear and one nonlinear softening law with those
reported by Ratanalert and Wecharatana. The CMOD corresponding to the peak load is
underpredicted by approximately 50% by both the softening models. Similar underprediction
has been reported by the authors themselves while evahrating several existing fracture models[l8].
Also, if one were to compute the elastic modulus of the material using the initial stif&ss
(experimental) and LEFM, these values appear to be unrealistically low. Perhaps the experimental
CTOD results reported include other extraneous deformations not associated with the material
response.
 Nonlinear fracture in concrete 1005

Table 2. Comparison of experimental peak loads with those

predicted by the numerical model
Linear% Nonlinearg
cu,= 0.003 in. k=0.006
Expe$)ental f, = 4OOpsi a = 0.70
sixest (lb.) %error (lb.) %error
Size A 385 434 +12.7 361 -6.2
SizeB 745 772 +3.6 646 - 13.3
sixec 931 956 +2.7 804 -13.6
tcompact tension specimen .iaes used in the
experiment[ll]. Size A, 7.5in. x 6.Oin. x 2.Oin. x 3.75in.
(B x H x T x %, see Fig. 1). Size B, lO.Oin. x 6.0in. x
2.0 in. x 3.75 in. Size C, 12.0 in. x 6.0 in. x 2.0 in. x 3.75 in.
$Linear stress-crack width law [eq. (3)], exponential
stress-crack width law [eq. (711.
$1 in. = 25.4 mm, 1000 psi = 6.90 MPa.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The numerical formulation used here offers a simple noniterative alternative to study the
growth and development of the fracture process zone. Load-deformation characteristics as well as
energy absorption history can be generated for stable fracture using an incremental “crack tip
advance” algorithm.
2. The process zone appears to reach a steady state length that is both specimen size and test
configuration dependent. At peak loads the process zone size was observed to be approximately
70% of its steady size for the range of material parameters, specimen sizes and specimen geometries
investigated. On further crack growth the process zone size diminished gradually due to a
combination of edge effects and compressive stress fields that restrain its free growth.
3. The macroscopic softening response of the specimen predicted was observed to be
significantly infhtenced by the softening law assumed for the fracture process zone. Softening laws
with larger energy absorption capacities yielded a more ductile macroscopic response (shallower
softening).
4. Energy absorption in the process zone increased with the growth of the process zone size
until it attained an asymptotic steady state value G,. G, was observed to be independent of both
specimen size and specimen geometry and was approximately 20% higher than G, (area under the
Q-W curve) for the range of material parameters, specimen sizes and specimen geometries
investigated.
5. Self-weight influences for the sizes of three-point bending specimens investigated were
relatively small. However, the larger specimens had a greater influence due to self-weight
considerations than the smaller specimens.

AcRnowledgemenrs-The junior author (B.S.Y.) would like to acknowledge the support received as a Graduate Research
Assistant from the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia.

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(Received 10 November 1990)