HANDLING OF

PERISHABLE
COMMODITIES
➢How can you best maintain the quality and safety
of your produce as it travels from the field to the
table?
➢How can produce be stored so that it does not
need to be sold immediately?
➢High-quality, disease-free produce with a good
shelf life is a result of sound production practices,
proper handling during pre-harvest and post-
harvest handling and storage.
Fresh fruits, vegetables are living tissues subject to
change after harvest. Some changes are
continuous
desirable, mostly - from the consumer's standpoint and
few changes are undesirable.
changes in fresh produce cannot be
Postharvest
stopped, but they can be slowed within certain limits.
Senescence is the final stage in the development of plant
organs during which a series of irreversible events leads to
breakdown and death of the plant cells.
Quality is defined as "any of the features
that make something what it is" or „the
degree of excellence or superiority”.
The word quality is used in various ways
in reference to fresh fruits and vegetables
such as market quality, edible quality,
dessert quality, shipping quality,
nutritional quality, internal quality, and
visual quality.
Fresh fruits and vegetables play a very significant role in
human nutrition, especially as sources of vitamins (vitamin C,
vitamin A, vitamin B6, thiamin, niacin), minerals, and dietary
fiber. They also contain many phytochemicals (such as
antioxidant phenolic compounds and carotenoids) that have been
associated with reduced risk of some forms of cancer, heart
disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases.
They are also contribute as energy sources.
Postharvest losses in nutritional quality, particularly vitamin
C content, can be substantial and are enhanced by physical
damage, extended storage, higher temperature, low relative
humidity, and chilling injury of chilling-sensitive commodities.
Grade standards are developed to identify the degrees of quality in a
given commodity which aid in establishing its usability and value.
Such standards are important tools in the marketing of fresh fruits and
vegetables because they:
(1) provide a common language for trading among growers, handlers, processors,
and receivers at terminal markets;
(2) assist producers and handlers in preparing fresh horticultural commodities for
market and labeling goods appropriately;
(3) provide a basis for making incentive payment for better quality;
(4) serve as the basis for market reporting (prices and supplies quoted if they are
based on products of comparable quality); and
(5) help settle damage claims and disputes between buyers and sellers.
Over the past few years, food safety has become and continues to be the
number one concern of the fresh produce industry.
➢ To Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and
Vegetables is based on the following principles:
1) Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce is favored over
reliance on corrective actions once contamination has occurred;
2) In order to minimize microbial food safety hazards in
fresh produce, growers, packers, or shippers should use good
agricultural and management practices in those areas over which they
have control;
3)Fresh produce can become microbiologically contaminated at any point
along the farm-to-table food chain. The major source of microbial
contamination with fresh produce is associated with human or animal
feces;
4)Whenever water comes in contact with produce, its quality dictates the
potential for contamination. The potential of microbial contamination
from water used with fresh fruits and vegetables must be minimized;
5)The use of animal manure or municipal biosolid wastes as fertilizers
should be closely managed in order to minimize the potential for
microbial contamination of fresh produce; a
6)Worker hygiene and sanitation practices during production, harvest,
sorting, packing, and transport play a critical role in minimizing the
potential for microbial contamination of fresh produce.
Production practices have a tremendous effect on the quality
of fruits and vegetables at harvest and on postharvest quality
and shelf life.
In addition, environmental factors such as soil type,
temperature, frost, and rainy weather at harvest can have an
adverse effect on storage life and quality.
Management practices can also affect postharvest quality.
Produce that has been stressed by too much or too little water,
high rates of nitrogen, or mechanical injury (scrapes, bruises,
abrasions) is particularly susceptible to postharvest diseases
Where harvesting and handling operations are not carried out
with sufficient care and attention, damage can be done to the
crop that may have consequences during subsequent marketing
and storage operations. These include:
1. shortening of the potential storage life due to increased
respiration or ethylene biosynthesis
2. increased levels or microorganism infection through
damaged areas
3. Increases in some physiological disorders.
4. Decreased market value
Post harvest factors that need to be considered
in handling of perishable commodities
1. Harvest Methods
2. Preparation for market and processing
3. Packinghouse Facilities
4. Packinghouse Operations
5. Cooling and Cold Storage Facilities
6. Ripening Facility
7. Transportation
✓Fresh vegetables, fruits, and flowers are still harvested by hand.
Only humans have the unique combination of eyes, brain, and
hands that permits the rapid harvest of delicate and perishable
crops with minimal loss and bruising.
✓Harvesters can also be trained to select only those fruits or
vegetables of the correct maturity, thus greatly reducing the
amount of material that must be removed on the grading line in
the packing shed.
✓In fact, some crops can be harvested directly into shipping
containers without further sizing or grading.
Mechanical harvesters are usually sophisticated and
have a very high unit cost.
They may require a smaller but more skilled labor
force. Savings may be realized because the harvest
can be accomplished in less time.
Crops are often damaged, or poorer grade, and more
susceptible to decay when mechanically harvested.
Mechanically harvested commodities often are fit
only for processing.
1. Cuts
➢These are self-explanatory, where the crop has come into contact
with a sharp object that can penetrate its surface.
➢They can be inflicted where knives are used during harvesting or
in opening boxes of packed fruits or vegetables. They have also
been observed in badly made nailed wooded field boxes or
inappropriately stapled fibre board cartons. It is also important
that harvesters should have short fingernails.
2. Scuffing
 This occurs when fruits or vegetables are caused to move across a hard, usually
rough, surface so that the cuticle and layers of cells are scraped away by
abrasion.
3. Compression bruising
 Where the downward force on the crop is above a threshold level it can be
bruised. This damage may also be a function of time, especially where the
pressure is close to the threshold value.
 It may be as a result of overfilling boxes and then stacking the boxes so that the
crop in the lower boxes supports the weight. It is also commonly found in the
lower layers of potatoes and onions in bulk stores.
 In any species of crop there may be differences between cultivars in their
susceptibility to compression damage. It may also be related to their moisture
content: the higher their moisture content: the more they are susceptible, which
may be related to preharvest cultural effects.
4. Impact bruising
This results either from the crop being dropped or from something hitting
it. The damage might be obvious on the surface of the crop or it might be
internal.
5. Vibration bruising
This occurs when crops are being transported, especially in lorries. It is
common where the crop is packed loosely in the lorry or even in boxes and
is largely the result of the crop moving and impacting on each other or the
walls of the lorry or box.
It can result in an increase in the respiration rate of the crop in addition to
surface bruising. To minimize the effect, the crop needs to be packed tightly
to reduce its movement.
Post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables
➢Post harvest handling is the name given to all processes
through which fruits and vegetables are delivered from
the time of harvest to the consumer. These includes:
1. Pre-cooling 8. Waxing
2. Curing 9. Control of ripening process
3. Degreening 10.Prepackaging in plastic films
4. Washing and drying 11.Palletization
5. Sorting and grading 12.Transportation
6. De-infestation 13.Storage
7. Postharvest treatment 14.Irradiation
A ripening facility may be needed for initiating ripening of some
commodities such as mature-green tomatoes, bananas, avocados,
mangos, and some muskmelons.
Such a facility may include several rooms equipped with systems
for temperature and relative humidity control as well as
for ethylene introduction and uniform distribution within the
room.
The optimum temperature range for ripening is 15° to 25°C;
the higher the temperature, the faster the ripening. The
optimum relative humidity range is 90 to 95 percent.
 Summary
Maintaining the cold chain for perishables
 What is Storage?

►Storage is the art and science of keeping

the quality of agricultural materials and
preventing them from deterioration for
specific period of time, beyond their
normal shelf life.
Perishable nature of agric. & bio-materials
Provision of food materials all year round
Pilling/ provision for large scale processing
Preservation of viability for multiplication
Prevention of original varieties from extinction (Germ Bank)
Preservation of nutritional quality
Weapon for national stability
Price control and regulation
Optimization of farmers’ gain / financial empowerment of farmers
Opportunity for export market, etc
 Classifications of Storage
Classification of storage types can be based on the following factors:
1.Duration of Storage-Short Term Storage, Medium Term Storage, Long Term Storage
➢ Short Term Storage- Stored products in short term storage mostly do not last beyond six
months
✓ Highly perishable products (such as egg, meat, fish and dairy products) are naturally stored for
short term.
✓ High loss of quality is associated with highly perishable crops in this storage except controlled
systems are used
➢ Medium Term Storage- Medium term storage involves keeping the quality of stored products
without appreciable deteriorations for up to 12 months.
✓ The quality of such stored products may not be guaranteed after 18 months
➢ Long Term Storage-Long term storage can guarantee the quality of stored products beyond 5
years.
✓ Germ banks and some storage systems are known to preserve viability and proximate
characteristics of stored materials for decades
 Classifications of Storage
2. Size or Scale of Storage- Small Scale Storage, Medium Scale Storage & Large Scale Storage
➢ Small Scale Storage- Small scale storage systems have capacity for up to 1 ton, but not beyond
✓ They are mostly used at domestic and peasant levels
✓ They are associated with peasant farmers with small farm holdings

➢ Medium Scale Storage- Medium scale storage can accommodate up to 100 tons of stored
products
✓ Most of such storage systems are in the capacity range of 2 – 50 tons, with very few having
capacity beyond 50 tons
✓ Some are used in breweries for temporary storage of spent grains

➢ Large Scale Storage-Large scale storage can accommodated stored material in 100s and1000s
of tons
✓ It is used either for temporary or permanent storage of very large quantity of various products
✓ It has a very high initial cost but eventually reduces overall unit cost of production
 Classifications of Storage
3. Principle of Storage - Physical Storage, Chemical Storage & Biological Storage
➢ Physical Storage - Physical storage utilizes physical principles to achieve storage and
preservation the quality of stored products.
✓ The physical environment (in terms of moisture content, temperature and relative humidity)
within the storage system is mostly controlled or manipulated to retard the activities of agents of
deterioration or prevent deterioration. E.g. cold storage or controlled environment
➢ Chemical Storage - Chemical storage utilizes chemicals to stop or retard the activities of agents
of deterioration
✓ The use of chemicals such as wax, actellic, or phosphosene dust or tablet to prevent respiration or
insect infestation in stored produce are examples
✓ Some chemicals are however poisonous and their uses must be highly monitored, e.g. phosphosene
➢ Biological Storage - Biological storage utilizes biological agents, especially micro
organism, to stop or retard the activities of agents of deterioration or enhance the shelf life of
stored products
✓ This is a very good area of the application of bio-technology in agriculture
Factors affecting Crop Storage
The major physical, chemical & biological factors affecting the storage of bio-materials include:
1. Micro organisms- Major microorganisms are Fungi, Bacterial & Yeast.
The activities of micro organism result in:
 Color degradation
 Off flavor
 Moisture upgrading, wet spot & moldiness
 Loss of viability, etc
2. Insects, mite and pests- they attack both the stored material and wooden components of the
storage structure
3. Rodents- Rodents are mammals that parasite on stored materials and attack storage
structures. They eat germs of grains and waste the remaining parts. They are vectors. They
also contaminate stored materials with their faeces, urine and carcasses
4. Environmental factors-Temperature, Relative humidity & Equilibrium moisture content
Traditional storage structures include:
 Rhombus
 Crib
 Barn
 Shelf
 Pit/ Underground Storage
 Plastic Containers
 Guard
 Fruit & Vegetable Storage

Proper marketing of perishable commodities such as fruits

and vegetables often requires some storage to balance day-
to-day fluctuations between harvest and sale or for long-term
storage to extend marketing beyond the end of harvest
season.
Storage of fresh fruits and vegetables prolongs their
usefulness and in some cases, improves their quality; it also
controls a market glut.
The principal goal of storage is to control the rate of
transpiration, respiration, disease, and insect infestation and
to preserve the commodity in its most usable form for the
consumer.
Storage life can be prolonged by
➢harvesting at proper maturity (Figure 1),
➢control of postharvest diseases,
➢regulation of atmosphere, chemical treatments,
➢irradiation, refrigeration,
➢controlled and modified atmospheres, and
➢by several other treatments.
The main goals of fruit and vegetable storage are to
1. slow the biological activity of fruits and vegetables without
chilling injury;
2. slow the growth of microorganisms,
3. reduce transpiration losses.
A. PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE
Since all fruits and vegetables are living tissues, the
tendency after harvest is to continue respiration.
Thus, proper and adequate storage conditions must
be maintained, otherwise the following undesirable
processes may occur in certain vegetables:
1. Sprouting—potatoes, onions, ginger, garlic
2. Elongation—asparagus, carrots, beets,
3. Rooting—due to increased humidity which may
result in rapid decay, shrivelling, and exhaustion of
food reserves
4. Greening—exposure of potatoes to light during storage may
produce green tissue and synthesis of toxic glycoalkaloids such
as solanine and chaconine
5. Toughening—green beans, sweet corn may toughen due to
prolonged storage at relatively high temperatures

The Following factors need to be considered for success of produce

storage.
1. Temperature
2. Relative humidity
3. Atmospheric composition
4. Light & others
1. Temperature

Temperature in a storage room should normally be maintained at the desired

temperature for commodities being stored.

✓ Delay in cold storage reduces marketability of fruits and vegetables)

❖ Temperatures below the optimum range for a given fruit or a vegetable will cause
freezing or chilling injuries, temperatures above, depending upon produce, will
reduce storage life.

 A wide temperature fluctuation can result in rapid weight and water loss
depending upon maturity of produce.

 The refrigeration temperature within the recommended range is a result of several

important design factors.
Temperature variation within the room is minimized
by incorporating adequate amounts of insulating
material in the walls and by maintaining adequate
levels of air circulation in the room.
When the room is filled, the containers should be
stacked to allow an air passage along at least one side
of each container.
Thermostats are placed at a height of five feet from
the floor for ease in checking locations.
A calibrated thermometer should he used to
periodically check the thermostat.
2. RELATIVE HUMIDITY
For most perishable fresh fruits and vegetables, the relative
humidity should be maintained between 90 to 95%.
The relative humidity below this range will result in a
moisture loss from the produce (Table 1).
Thus the produce will be shrivelled and limp. Relative
humidity if higher than 90% may cause excessive growth
of microorganisms.
Refrigeration equipment must be especially designed to
maintain a higher relative humidity.
The environmental factors of temperature, relative humidity and
vapor pressure deficit are important in the storage life of fruits and
vegetables.
A 5 to 10% loss in weight of produce results in shrivelling, which
makes the produce look stale and unattractive to sell.
 By using high relative humidity during storage, care must be taken
to prevent the growth of surface microorganisms
3. ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
The atmospheric composition in a storage room is controlled by
addition of gases allowing the commodity to produce or consume
gases or by physically or chemically removing undesirable gases
from the storage room.
Gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
ethylene (C2H4), and nitrogen (N2) can be added to a facility from
a bottled supply (or dry ice in the case of CO2) or produced by on-
site generators.
 As the perishable fruits and vegetables undergo respiration, they
consume O2 and release CO2.
This effect can be successfully used to control the desired
concentration of these gases in storage.
High concentration of undesirable gases are removed by scrubbing
devices.
 For example, CO2 can be absorbed in water or lime;
C2H4 and other volatiles can be removed by potassium
permanganate, catalytic oxidation or UV light; and
O2 can be removed by using it in a combustion process or by
a molecular sieve.
In certain cases external concentrations of gases are
desirable and the accumulated gases can be adjusted by
ventilation.
4. LIGHT AND OTHER FACTORS
Exposure of potato tubers to light in grocery stores can
synthesize glycoalkaloids (solanine and chalkonine) which
are toxic to humans.
Likewise, other factors such as herbicides, fungicides,
pesticides and growth regulators may affect the produce and
may have harmful affects on humans.
 B. STORAGE OPERATIONS

The increase of fruit and vegetable production, owing

to large land and high-yielding cultivars requires
sufficient storage space.
Accordingly, storage operations have evolved into
skilled methods of efficiency with a wide range of
variations depending upon the existing facilities,
including nature and the variety and quantity of
produce to be stored.
 Storage operations may be either temporary, short-term or long-
term.
 Temporary storage operations are needed for highly perishable
produce which requires immediate marketing. It may be installed
with or without refrigeration.
 Temporary storage is extremely important for roadside stands,
gardens, markets, railway stations, shipping yards and retail stores.
 The mid-term storage operation is aimed at checking the market
glut without product deterioration.
 This may extend from 1 to 6 weeks depending upon the need, kind,
and maturity of the produce.
Mango, banana, papaya, cabbage, eggplant, tomatoes,
cauliflower and french bean are transferred to short-term
storage rooms, when their quality is still good, and held
there until a reasonable market price is attained.
Fruits and vegetables like apples, oranges, pears, squash,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, carrots, onions, garlic, and
pumpkins require long- term storage.
Its operations are mainly influenced by economic factors.
The produce is stored during their periods of production,
and sold continuously during the rest of the year when
producers and dealers can obtain reasonably high prices.
Storage operations may be classified as either natural or artificial.
The natural storage operation keeps the produce in situ without
any treatment, whereas artificial storage may be further
classified into four types:
i. Mechanical or structural
ii.Controlled atmosphere
iii.Chemical, and
iv.Radiation
• In case of natural storage, the main purpose is to let the fruits or
vegetables mature and ripen on plants as long as possible;
• on the other hand, artificial storage operations attempt to provide
conditions to prolong the produce quality.
1. Natural Storage
➢Vegetables such as potato, sweet potato, and garlic are kept
underground for several months.
➢They are harvested prior to the rainy season for a better
market price.
➢This harvesting does not involve extra expenditure and
building for storage.
2. Artificial Storage
Pits or trenches are dug underground for storing beets,
potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, cabbages, and sweet
potatoes where they are covered with straw and soil until
there is a market demand (Figures 2 and 3).
3. Ventilated Storage
➢Cellars are underground rooms with slanting roofs covered
with sods and soils.
➢The structure may be built into the hillside and covered with
additional soil.
➢Cellars are provided with heaters and dry atmospheres
during winter months.
➢Potatoes, turnips, carrots and beets are stored with high
relative humidity at (1 .7- 4.4°C).
➢Where snow is prevalent, a good cellar will provide
satisfactory storage for hard vegetables and fruits. Above-
ground warehouses may be used to store produce.
➢In cold weather the produce is covered with blankets to protect from
cold temperatures.
➢Ventilation is essential for good storage. Potatoes, onions, garlic
bulbs, crucifer leafy vegetables and fruits are stored successfully.
➢This storage structure has several advantages over other types:
1) special construction is not needed;
2) produce is easily handled;
3) grading, storing, packaging of fruits and-vegetables is facilitated;
4) air may be humidified; and
5) fans can be controlled manually or automatically with a
thermostat.
4.Ice Refrigeration
➢An advance on the above-ground warehouses
was the use of ice as a refrigerant.
➢Lower temperatures obtained enable longer
storage of meat and perishable fruits and
vegetables.
➢Ice can be obtained in winter from frozen Lakes
and ponds and stored in ice houses.
➢The melting of 1 kg of ice absorbs 325 kilojoules.
➢However, removal of melted ice water is a disadvantage.
➢The introduction of a small ice box was a great advance on
the domestic level, and for small-scale commercial storage
of fruits and vegetables.
5) MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
Refrigerated storage makes possible the marketing of
perishable fruits and vegetables beyond their harvest season.
In developed countries, most of the fruits and vegetables are
available year-round to consumers. This is due to the
refrigerated storage.
Most storage facilities use mechanical refrigeration
to control the desired temperature. This system
utilizes the fact that a liquid absorbs heat as it
changes to gas
A common mechanical refrigeration system (Figure
6) uses a refrigerant such as Ammonia or Freon
where vapor can be easily recaptured by a
compressor.
Heat exchange methods of heat transfer play an
important part in the refrigeration of fruits and
vegetables in maintaining the desired temperature in
a refrigerator or a refrigerated warehouse.
The refrigerant (Ammonia or Freon) passes through an
expansion valve where its pressure drops and liquid
evaporates at temperatures low enough to be effective in
removing heat from the storage area.
Heat needed for evaporation comes from the fruits and
vegetables to be cooled.
Heat is transferred to the product in the storage room and is
forced past the evaporator (cooling coils).
The evaporator is located in the storage room.
The gas is re-pressurized by the compressor and then passed
through a condenser where it is cooled to a liquid.
The condenser is located outside the storage area and
rejects heat.
A liquid (Ammonia or Freon) is stored in the receiver and is
metered out as needed to produce an essential or a desired
cooling temperature
 The basic equipment and material for mechanical
refrigeration are as follows:
1. expansion valve,
2. evaporator,
3. compressor.
4. condenser and
5. refrigerant.
Areas to consider regarding the refrigerant are:
✓Cost of refrigerant—Freons are more
expensive than ammonia.
✓Compatibility—ammonia cannot be used with
metals that contain copper.
✓Toxicity—ammonia even at low concentration
can cause injury to fruits and vegetables.
The refrigerant (ammonia or freon) is
➢compressed,
➢cooled by passing through an air- or water-cooled condenser, and
then
➢expanded through an expansion valve into evaporator coils.
• During this evaporation and expansion phase, heat is absorbed from
fruits, vegetables, and the area to be cooled.
• The absorbed heat is returned for eventual elimination in the
condenser.
All modem room-refrigeration systems provide forced-air
circulation.
This system uses prefabricated units containing both
evaporator coils and blowers for air circulation. They provide
excellent storage environment.
Substantial heat must be removed quickly from the produce
in storage;
it is apparent that greater refrigeration capacity and air
velocity must be available.
A success of mechanical- refrigeration storage rooms
depends upon controlled temperature, relative humidity,
and air movement.
A. TEMPERATURE
• Temperature control depends upon a tight, well-insulated structure
and sufficient refrigeration capacity.
• It also depends on the amount and nature of the evaporator-coil
surface, its freedom from condensed ice, and the rate of air flowing
over the coils. These factors control the total efficiency of
refrigeration.
B. RELATIVE HUMIDITY
• Relative humidity is the percentage of saturated water vapor at a
given temperature.
• Relative humidity (%) can be determined from
psychrometric charts or the basis of wet- bulb and dry-bulb
temperatures .
• As the temperature of air increases so does its water-holding
capacity.
• Accordingly, air with 90% RH at (21°C) contains much
more water than air of the same relative humidity at (4°C).
• As the relative humidity of air decreases, so does its vapor
pressure and as vapor pressure decreases, the capacity of the
air for removing water from moist sources increases.
Thus it is important to maintain a high vapor pressure.
If drying is to he avoided, a small vapor pressure
differential between stored produce and storage air
must be obtained.
Effective ways of accomplishing this is by
➢rapid equalization of produce and air temperature,
➢maintenance of high relative humidity in the storage
room air as the produce will tolerate and
➢no more air movement than is required for even
temperature distribution in the refrigerated room.
An efficient system for maintenance of high relative humidity is the
modification in the construction of the storage room.
The jacketed storage room is built so that the cooling air circulates
around the room in a sealed envelope.
This maintains uniform temperature and relative humidity. This
reduces moisture loss by condensation on the cooling system. In
addition, air movement in the room reduces moisture loss from the
produce.
C. AIR MOVEMENT
Air movement must be sufficient enough to remove respiration heat.
It is essential that all parts of the room are subjected to a uniform
flow of air.
This is accomplished by proper placement of blowers
or ducts and stacking of fruits and vegetables to permit
free air flow.
The successful operation of a large refrigeration
system requires an efficient control system.
Microcomputers are presently used to allow precise
controls for large warehouse refrigeration systems.
The defrosting cycle should be set to accomplish the
process automatically.
The capacity of a refrigeration system is based upon adding all the
heat inputs to a storage area. Heat inputs include:
1. Heat conducted through walls, floor, and ceiling.
2. Field and respiration heat of fruits and vegetables.
3. Heat from air filtration.
4. Heat from equipment such as light, fan, forklift, and personnel
moving in and out.
If controlled and modified atmospheres are used in conjunction
with refrigeration, the vapor barrier may serve as a gas bather.
Hence, special precautions must be taken to insure a gas-tight seal.
This operation should be done under the supervision of an
experienced refrigeration engineer.
 6) CONTROLLED AND MODIFIED
ATMOSPHERE STORAGES
The principle of storage under high CO2 and low
O2 appears to have been applied in ancient times.
The earliest use of controlled-modified
atmospheric storage may be attributed to the
Chinese.
Ancient Chinese writings reported that litchi fruits
were transported from northern China to southern
China in sealed clay pots to which fresh leaves and
grass were added.
It may be surprised that during the 2-week journey,
respiration of the fruits, leaves, and grass generated a high-
carbon dioxide—low-oxygen atmosphere in the pots which
retarded ripening of the litchis.
The first scientific observations of the effects of
atmosphere on fruit ripening were made in 1819-20 by
Berard, a Professor of Chemistry at Montpelier Institute in
France.
Several further independent studies of the effects of
controlled atmospheres on fruit ripening were made in the
United States.
Controlled and modified atmosphere storages (MA
and CA) indicate the removal or addition of gases
resulting in an atmosphere composition for fruits and
vegetables and their products that is different that of
air (75% N2, 21% O2 and 0.03% CO2) .
MA and CA differ in the degree of control;
CA is more exact than MA.
In MA gases are not controlled at specific
concentration.
CA: CA when combined with refrigeration,
retards respiration of fruits and vegetables, delay
softening, yellowing spoilage and other
breakdown processes by maintaining an
atmosphere with more CO2 and less O2 than in
normal air.
CA is utilized now on commercial scale, and
more than 50% of the US apples and Palestinian
oranges are stored under CA condition.
Tables 1 and 3 shows the different type of
storage for some fruits and vegetables.
➢Additionally, MA includes the packaging in film bags that requires
a decrease in O2 and increase in CO2 or N2 but without precise
control.
➢Gas storage is another term sometimes used to differentiate
between CA or MA and air storage.
➢However if one gas is only used, in such cases the storage is
named with that gas like CO2 storage, N2 storage…etc.
➢Vacuum storage, hypobaric storage or sub- atmospheric pressure
storage are names for one type of storage which is a type of CA
storage.
➢It refers to the storage of fruits and vegetables under control
atmosphere storage in addition to maintaining a low pressure on
the produce which will result in more extending shelf life by
diffusion of ethylene from the tissues by evacuation.
 Metabolic effect of CA :
✓many studies showed that CA may have the following
effects on the stored fruits and vegetables:
➢Retard respiration,
➢Cause acid accumulation and acetaldehyde
formation,
➢Increase sugars,
➢Decrease alcohol soluble and protein N,
➢Causes pectin changes and
➢Inhibit chlorophyll degradation.
 Adverse and toxic effects of CA:
 controlled atmosphere storage has great advantages
and can have some adverse effects on fruits and
vegetables.
High levels of CO2 and low concentration of O2 (tables 4
and 5) may cause:
➢Decay
➢Internal browning,
➢Breakdown and
➢Accumulation of some organic acids such as succinic
acid of toxic levels (0.001 m).
Physiological effects of high CO2 level:
Higher levels of CO2 during CA storage of fruits and vegetables
may have some effects on
 Ripening,
 Enzyme activity,
 Production of volatile,
 Metabolism of organic acids,
 Breakdown of pectic substances,
 Chlorophyll synthesis and fruit degreening &
 Types and proportions of present sugars.
• Higher levels of CO2 also
➢Alters the climacteric pattern in fruits and
vegetables,
➢Produces off-flavors,
➢Increase the PH and reduce ascorbic acid content,
➢Retards fungal growth,
➢Affects C2H4 production or function and
➢May cause (high level of O2) some physiological
disorders like brown heart and scald.
Humidity and C2H4 control during CA storage:
it is also recommended to control both C2H4 and
humidity during CA storage of fruits and vegetables in
addition to controlling of O2 and CO2 and temperature.
Accumulation of C2H4 will cause degreening and
ripening of fruits and vegetables, so absorption of C2H4
by KMNO4 is advised.
Also in commercial CA storage humidity reaches to saturation in
storage of some fruits and vegetables and this may encourage the
growth of fungi.
As a result it is advised to apply a suitable fungicide to retard the
fungi growth.
7. Storage in polymeric films:
 Great progress has been achieved in the field of
developing a produce package for CA storage.
 These packages are perforated and semipermeable
and aim at:
➢ Reducing moisture loss,
➢ Protect the produce from mechanical damage &
➢ Improve its appearance.
❖ In the produce package, respiration occurs by the
produce and permeation by the package.
❖ In other words the produce takes up O2 and gives
CO2, H2H4 and volatiles while the package
according to its permeability permit the escape of
these gases.
❖ However, the package system should be in such a
way to achieve steady state condition where
equilibrium concentration of O2 and CO2 is
reached.
 Many factors interfere or affect this
steady conditions such as:
➢The Type of Produce, ➢Temperature,
➢Its Weight, ➢O2 and CO2 level needed,
➢Variety, ➢C2H4 concentration,
➢Light,
➢Respiration Rate, ➢Film thickness,
➢Stage Of Maturity, ➢Film permeability and
However, all these factors should be considered in
selecting the proper package for any given fresh
produce.
Due to the complexity of controlling such large
variable, the computer software has been utilized for
such purposes and a good results have been
achieved.
It is also of value to note that packaged apples have
a longer shelf life than control apples with about two
months.
 8. Vacuum storage:
it may be classified to two types:
➢the first include the gas-flush packaging where the air
in the package is replaced by another gas such as CO2 or
N2 and it is used for packaging of salads, fruits juices and
minimally processed fruits and vegetables,
➢the second type is that where all air is removed and a
vacuum is created.
High density polyethylene films are used for
this purpose and this packaging technique is
utilized for minimally processed fruits and
vegetables.
Something to be considered here is to leave
some O2 in the package for normal respiration
and the packaged produce should be stored at
o
5 C or under refrigeration to avoid deterioration.
 9. Sub atmospheric (low pressure or hypobaric) storage:
➢ The storage life of many fruits and vegetables can be extended by reduced pressure
under refrigeration due to low respiration rate and evacuation of C2H4.
➢ However, the hypobaric storage is a form of Controlled Atmosphere storage.
➢ Regarding the principles of hypobaric storage; the produce is placed at a given
temperature in a sealed container and a constant sub atmospheric pressure is
maintained by continuous evacuation;
➢ The produce is ventilated by air saturated with water vapor and containing suitable
fungicides in some cases.
➢ It is of interest to note that at lower pressure storage such as 278 mm hg or less,
microorganism growth retardation is achieved.
It is meant by this term the utilization of ionizing radiation
materials such as cobalt, cesium and uranium is utilized.
Only beta and gamma radiation kinds are utilized in food
preservation;
Beta radiation is used for food pasteurization and in the
case of gamma radiation, it is utilized for food sterilization.
Retardation of sprouting and rooting by radiation are
practiced commercially.
In case of pasteurization a dose of 1 megarad is utilized,
while for sterilization a dose higher than 1mrad is used.
Six
Introduction
 Once fruit is harvested, any natural resistance to the action of spoiling micro-
organisms is lost. Changes in enzymatic systems of the fruit also occur on
harvest which may also accelerate the activity of spoilage organisms.
 Means that are commonly used to prevent spoilage of fruits must include:
 Care to prevent cutting or bruising of the fruit during picking or
handling;
 Refrigeration to minimize growth of micro-organisms and reduce
enzyme activity;
 Packaging or storage to control respiration rate and ripening;
 Use of preservatives to kill micro-organisms on the fruit.
 Food is an extremely perishable commodity and will become unfit for
human consumption unless it is preserved and/or stored under suitable
conditions.
 For example, fish will spoil rapidly once captured and left at ambient
temperatures. However, if it is chilled immediately and stored in ice, it will
have a shelf-life of between 12 and 30 days depending on the species and its
origin.
 All food commodities are sources of a diverse range of microorganisms,
some of which will cause spoilage while others have the ability to cause food-
borne illness.
 Food processing and preservation methods, in combination
with packaging methods, have been developed to minimize
losses and keep food resources safe and wholesome to eat.
105
 A principal economic loss occurring during transportation and/or
storage of produce such as fresh fruit is the degradation which
occurs between the field and the ultimate destination due to the
effect of respiration.
 Methods to reduce such degradation are as follows:
 Refrigerate the produce to reduce the rate of respiration;
 Vacuum cooling;
 Reduce the oxygen content of the environment in which the
produce is kept to a value not above 5% of the atmosphere but
above the value at which anaerobic respiration would begin.
 When the oxygen concentration is reduced within 60 minutes the
deterioration is in practice negligible.
 Technology of fresh fruits and vegetables.
1. Harvest maturity
2. Harvest method
3. Handling systems
4. Pre-cooling
5. Chemicals
6. Coatings
7. Controlled environment transport
107
 Technology of fresh fruits and vegetables.
I. Harvest maturity: This is particularly important with fruit
for export. One recent innovation is the measurement of
resonant frequency of the fruit which should enable the
grading out of over mature and under-mature fruit before
they are packed for export.
II. Harvest method: Considerable research is continuing on
mechanical harvesting of perishable crops with a view to
minimizing damage. In fruit trees, controlling their height
by use of dwarfing rootstocks, pruning and growth
regulating chemicals will lead to easier, cheaper more
accurate harvesting. 108
3. Handling systems: Field packing of various vegetables for export has been carried
out for many years. In the last decade or so this has been applied, in selected cases,
to a few tropical fruit types. Where this system can be practiced it has considerable
economic advantages in saving the cost of building, labour and equipment and can
result in lower levels of damage into crops.
4. Pre-cooling: Little innovation has occurred in crop pre-cooling over the last
decade. However high velocity, high humidity forced air systems have continued to
be developed and refined. These are suitable for all types of produce and are
relatively simple to build and operate and, while not providing the speed of cooling
of a vacuum or hydrocooler, have the flexibility to be used with almost all crops.
5. Chemicals: There is a very strong health lobby whose objective is to reduce the
use of chemicals in agriculture and particularly during the post-harvest period.
Every year sees the prohibition of the use of commonly used post-harvest
chemicals. New ways need to be developed to control post-harvest diseases, pest
and sprouting. 109
6. Coatings: Slowing down the metabolism of fruit and
vegetables by coating them with a material which affects
their gaseous exchange is being tested and used
commercially on a number of products.
7. Controlled environment transport: Recent innovations
in this technique have produced great progress as a result
of the development and miniaturization of equipment to
measure carbon dioxide and oxygen. Several companies
now offer containers where the levels of these two gases
can be controlled very precisely.
110
 Major Fruits and Vegetables
Preservation Methods
1.Drying/Dehydration Preservation (aw)
2.Use of preservatives (Chemicals and Gaseous food
preservatives)
3. Preservation of vegetables by acidification
4.Preservation with sugar (aw)
5.Heat preservation/heat processing
6.Concentration as Preservation method (aw)
7.Food irradiation
 1. Preservation by reduction of water content:
1.Drying/Dehydration and Concentration
Water and water activity (aw) in foods
 Micro-organisms in a healthy growing state may contain in excess of 80%
water.They get this water from the food in which they grow.
 If the water is removed from the food it also will transfer out of the
bacterial cell and multiplication will stop.
 Partial drying will be less effective than total drying, though for some micro-
organisms partial drying may be quite sufficient to arrest bacterial growth and
multiplication.
 Bacteria and yeasts generally require more moisture than moulds, and
so moulds often will be found growing on semi-dry foods where bacteria and
yeasts find conditions unfavourable; example are moulds growing on partially
dried fruits.
112
 The term "water activity" is related to relative humidity.
 Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour
in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature.
 Relative humidity refers to the atmosphere surrounding a material or solution.
 Water activity or aw
is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour
pressure of the solution compared with the vapour pressure of pure
water at the same temperature.
 Under equilibrium conditions water activity equals: aw= RH / 100
 Qualitatively, water activity is a measure of unbound, free water in a system
available to support biological and chemical reactions.
 Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes and
chemical reactants encounter and is affected by at the micro-environmental level
in food materials.
113
 1.1 Preservation by drying/dehydration
➢Oldest method of food preservation practiced by mankind.
➢The removal of moisture prevents the growth and
reproduction of micro-organisms causing decay and
minimizes many of the moisture mediated deterioration
reactions.
➢It brings about substantial reduction in weight and
volume minimizing packing, storage and transportation
costs and enable storability of the product under ambient
temperatures, features especially important for developing
countries. 114
 Heat and mass transfer
 Dehydration involves the application of heat to vaporize water
and some means of removing water vapour after its
separation from the fruit/vegetable tissues.
 Hence it is a combined/simultaneous (heat and mass) transfer
operation for which energy must be supplied.
 A current of air is the most common medium for transferring heat
to a drying tissue and convection is mainly involved.
➢The two important aspects of mass transfer are:
I. The transfer of water to the surface of material being dried and
II. The removal of water vapour from the surface.
115
 In order to assure products of high quality at a reasonable
cost, dehydration must occur fairly rapidly.
Four main factors affect the rate and total drying time:
1.The properties of the products, especially particle size
and geometry;
2.The geometrical arrangement of the products in relation
to heat transfer medium (drying air);
3.The physical properties of drying medium/ environment;
4.The characteristics of the drying equipment.
116
 It is generally observed with many products that the initial rate of drying is
constant and then decreases, sometimes at two different rates.
 The drying curve is divided into the constant rate period and the falling rate
period.
 Factors that affect rate drying are:
 Surface area
 Temperature
 Air velocity
 Dryness of air
 Atmospheric pressure and vacuum
 Evaporation and temperature
 Time and temperature
117
 Drying techniques
 Several types of dryers and drying methods, each better suited for a
particular situation, are commercially used to remove moisture from a wide
variety of food products including fruit and vegetables.
 Spray drying is suitable for fruit juice concentrates and vacuum dehydration
processes are useful for low moisture / high sugar fruits like peaches, pears
and apricots.
 Factors on which the selection of a particular dryer/ drying method depends
include:
 Form of raw material and its properties;
 Desired physical form and characteristics of dried product;
 Necessary operating conditions;
 Operation costs.
118
There are three basic types of drying process:
1. Sun drying and solar drying;
2. Atmospheric drying including batch (kiln, tower and
cabinet dryers) and continuous (tunnel, belt, belt-
trough, fluidized bed, explosion puff, foam-mat, spray,
drum and microwave);
3. Sub-atmospheric dehydration (vacuum
shelf/belt/drum and freeze dryers).

119
 Natural drying [sun and solar drying]
 Surplus production and specifically grown crops may be preserved by natural
drying for use until the next crop can be grown and harvested.
 Natural dried products can also be transported cheaply for distribution to
areas where there are permanent shortages of fruit and vegetables.
 The methods of producing sun and solar dried fruit and vegetables described
here are simple to carry out and inexpensive. They can be easily employed by
grower, farmer, cooperative, etc.
 Sun and solar drying of fruits and vegetables is a cheap method of
preservation because it uses the natural resource/ source of heat: sunlight.
 The fresh crop should be of good quality and as ripe (mature) as it would
need to be if it was going to be used fresh. Poor quality produce cannot be
used for natural drying.
120
 They are lighter in weight than their corresponding fresh produce
and, at the same time, they do not require refrigerated storage.
However, if they are kept at high temperatures and have high
moisture content they will turn brown after relatively short periods
of storage.
 Trimming includes the selection of the parts which are to be dried,
cutting off and disposing of all unwanted material
 Some fruit and vegetables, in particular bananas, apples and potatoes,
go brown very quickly when left in the air after peeling or slicing;
this discoloration is due to an active enzyme called
phenoloxidase. To prevent the slices from going brown they must
be kept under water until drying can be started. Salt or
sulphites in solution give better protection. 121
 Blanching - exposing fruit and vegetable to hot or boiling water - as
a pre-treatment before drying has the following advantages:
 It helps clean the material and reduce the amount of micro-
organisms present on the surface;
 It preserves the natural colour in the dried products; for
example, the carotenoid (orange and yellow) pigments dissolve in
small intracellular oil drops during blanching and in this way they are
protected from oxidative breakdown during drying;
 It shortens the soaking and/or cooking time during
reconstitution.
 The average blanching time is 6 minutes
122
 2. Use of preservatives
 Preservatives are used to improve the colour and keeping
qualities of the final product for some fruits and vegetables.
 Preservatives include items such as sulphur dioxide, ascorbic acid,
citric acid, salt and sugar and can either be simple or compound
solutions.
 Treatment with preservatives takes place after blanching or, when
blanching is not needed, after slicing.
 The composition and strength of the preservative solution vary for
different fruit and vegetables. The strength of sulphur dioxide is
expressed as "parts per million" (ppm). 1.5 grams of sodium
metabisulphite in one litre of water gives 1000 ppm of sulphur
dioxide
123
 2.1 Chemical preservation
Many chemicals will kill micro-organisms or stop their growth but most of
these are not permitted in foods.
Chemical food preservatives are those substances which are added in very
low quantities (up to 0.2%) and which do not alter the organoleptic and
physico-chemical properties of the foods at or only very little.
 Preservation of food products containing chemical food preservatives is
usually based on the combined or synergistic activity of several
additives, intrinsic product parameters (e.g. composition, acidity,
water activity) and extrinsic factors (e.g. processing temperature,
storage atmosphere and temperature).
 This approach minimizes undesirable changes in product properties and
reduces concentration of additives and extent of processing treatments.
124
 The concept of combinations of preservatives and treatments to
preserve foods is frequently called the hurdle or barrier
concept. Combinations of additives and preservatives systems
provide unlimited preservation alternatives for applications in food
products to meet consumer demands for healthy and safe foods.
 Chemical food preservatives are applied to foods as direct additives
during processing, or develop by themselves during processes such
as fermentation.
 Certain preservatives have been used either accidentally or
intentionally for centuries, and include sodium chloride (common
salt), sugar, acids, alcohols and components of smoke.
125
 Traditional chemical food preservatives and their use in fruit and
vegetable processing technologies could be summarized as follows:
1. Common salt: brined vegetables;
2. Sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose and syrups):
 Foods preserved by high sugar concentrations: jellies, preserves,
syrups, juice concentrates;
➢Interaction of sugar with other ingredients or processes such as
drying and heating;
➢Indirect food preservation by sugar in products where fermentation
is important (naturally acidified pickles and sauerkraut).
3. Acidulants and other preservatives formed in or added to fruit
and vegetable products are as follows: 126
 Lactic acid: This acid is the main product of many food fermentations; it is formed
by microbial degradation of sugars in products such as sauerkraut and pickles.
 Acetic acid: Acetic acid is a general preservative inhibiting many species of bacteria,
yeasts and to a lesser extent molds. It is also a product of the lactic-acid
fermentation, and its preservative action even at identical pH levels is greater than
that of lactic acid. The main applications of vinegar (acetic acid) includes products
such as pickles, sauces and ketchup.
 Other acidulants: Malic and tartaric (tartric) acids is used in some countries mainly
to acidify and preserve fruit sugar preserves, jams, jellies, etc.
 Citric acid is the main acid found naturally in citrus fruits; it is widely used (in
carbonated beverages) and as an acidifying agent of foods because of its unique
flavour properties. It has an unlimited acceptable daily intake and is highly soluble in
water.
 Ascorbic acid or vitamin C, its isomer isoascorbic or erythorbic acid and their
salts are highly soluble in water and safe to use in foods.
127
 Commonly used lipophilic acid food preservatives
 Benzoic acid in the form of its sodium salt, constitutes one of the most common chemical food
preservative. Sodium benzoate is a common preservative in acid or acidified foods such as fruit
juices, syrups, jams and jellies, sauerkraut, pickles, preserves, fruit cocktails, etc. Yeasts are inhibited
by benzoate to a greater extent than are moulds and bacteria.
 Sorbic acid is generally considered non toxic and is metabolised; among other common food
preservatives the WHO has set the highest acceptable daily intake (25 mg/kg body weight) for
sorbic acid.
 Sorbic acid and its salts are practically tasteless and odourless in foods, when used at reasonable
levels (< 0.3 %) and their antimicrobial activity is generally adequate.
 Sorbates are used for mould and yeast inhibition in a variety of foods including fruits and
vegetables, fruit juices, pickles, sauerkraut, syrups, jellies, jams, preserves, high moisture dehydrated
fruits, etc.
 Potassium sorbate, a white, fluffy powder, is very soluble in water (over 50%) and when added
to acid foods it is hydrolyzed to the acid form. Sodium and calcium sorbates also have preservative
activities but their application is limited compared to that for the potassium salt, which is employed
because of its stability, general ease of preparation and water solubility.
128
 2.2 Gaseous food preservatives
1. Sulphur dioxide and sulphites. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) has been used for many
centuries as a fumigant and especially as a
wine preservative.
It is a colourless, suffocating, pungent-smelling,
non-flammable gas and is very soluble in cold
water (85 g in 100 ml at 25°C).
129
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colourless, odourless, non-combustible gas, acidic in odour and flavour. In
commercial practice it is sold as a liquid under pressure (58 kg per cm³) or solidified as dry ice.
Carbon dioxide is used as a solid (dry ice) in many countries as a means of low-temperature storage
and transportation of food products. Besides keeping the temperature low, as it sublimes, the gaseous
CO2 inhibits growth of psychrotrophic microorganisms and prevents spoilage of the food (fruits and
vegetables, etc.).
 Carbon dioxide is used as a direct additive in the storage of fruits and vegetables. In the controlled/
modified environment storage of fruit and vegetables, the correct combination of O2 and CO2 delays
respiration and ripening as well as retarding mould and yeast growth.
Chlorine
 The various forms of chlorine constitute the most widely used chemical sanitizer in the food industry.
These chlorine forms include chlorine (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), calcium hypochlorite
[Ca(OCl)2] and chlorine dioxide gas (ClO2). These compounds are used as water adjuncts in
processes such as product washing, transport, and cooling of heat-sterilized cans; in sanitizing
solutions for equipment surfaces, etc.
 Important applications of chlorine and its compounds include disinfection of drinking water
and sanitation of food processing equipment.
130
General rules for chemical preservation
1. Chemical food preservatives have to be used only at a
dosage level which is needed for a normal preservation and
not more.
2. "Reconditioning" of chemical preserved food, e.g. a new
addition of preservative in order to stop a microbiological
deterioration already occurred is not recommended.
3. The use of chemical preservatives MUST be strictly limited
to those substances which are recognised as being without
harmful effects on human beings' health and are accepted
by national and international standards and legislation.
131
Factors which determine/influence the action of chemical
food preservatives
A. Factors related to the chemical preservatives:
i. chemical composition;
ii. concentration
B. Factors related to micro-organisms:
i. micro-organism species; as a general rule it is possible to take the following
facts as a basis:
ii. The initial number of micro-organisms in the treated product determines
the efficiency of the chemical preservative.
 The efficiency is less if the product has been contaminated because of
preliminary careless hygienic treatment or an incipient alteration. Therefore,
with a low initial number of micro-organisms in the product, the preservative
dosage level could be reduced. 132
C. Specific factors related to the product to be preserved:
i. Product chemical composition;
ii. Influence of the pH value of the product: the efficiency of the
majority of chemical preservatives is higher at lower pH values,
i.e. when the medium is more acidic.
iii.Physical presentation and size which the product is sliced to: the
chemical preservative's dispersion in food has an impact on its
absorption and diffusion through cell membranes on micro-
organisms and this determines the preservation effect.
 Therefore, the smaller the slicing of the product, the higher the
preservative action. Preservative dispersion is slowed down by
viscous foods (concentrated fruit juices, etc.) 133
 D. Miscellaneous factors
1. Temperature: chemical preservative dosage level
will be established as a function of product
temperature and characteristics of the micro-flora;
2. Time: at preservative dosage levels in employed in
industrial practice, the time period needed in order
to obtain a "chemical sterilization" is a few weeks
for benzoic acid and shorter for sulphurous acid.

134
 Desirable properties of food preservatives
There are seven requirements for food preservatives:
1. No toxicity problems;
2. Microbiocidal rather than micro biostatic properties;
3. Must be stable in foods (especially if only micro biostatic);
4. The spectrum of activity should correspond to the spectrum of
micro-organisms likely to appear in the food;
5. Must not stimulate the development of resistant strains of
micro-organisms;
6. Chemicals used therapeutically are not recommended as food
additives; &
7. An assay procedure should be available. 135
 Usage of Chemical Food Preservatives in Some food products in
common are summarized as follows:
 Citric acid: fruit juices; jams; other sugar preserves;
 Acetic acid: vegetable pickles; other vegetable products;
 Sodium benzoate: vegetable pickles; preserves; jams; jellies; semi-
processed products;
 Sodium propionate: fruits; vegetables;
 Potassium sorbate: fruits; vegetables; pickled products; jams, jellies;
 Methyl paraben: fruit products; pickles; preserves;
 Sulphur dioxide: fruit juices; dried / dehydrated fruits and vegetables;
semi-processed products
136
 2.3 Preservation of vegetables by acidification
 Food acidification is a means of preventing their deterioration in so far as a non-favourable
medium for micro-organisms development is created. This acidification can be obtained by
two ways: natural acidification and artificial acidification.
1. Natural acidification
 This is achieved by a predominant lactic fermentation which assures the preservation
based on acidoceno-anabiosys principle; preservation by lactic fermentation is called also
biochemical preservation.
2. Artificial acidification
 Artificial acidification is carried out by adding acetic acid which is the only organic acid
harmless for human health and stable in specific working conditions; in this case biological
principles of the preservation are acidoanabiosys and, to a lesser extent, acidoabiosys.
➢ Combined acidification
 Combined acidification is a preservation technology which involves as a preliminary
processing step a weak lactic fermentation followed by acidification (vinegar addition).
137
 2.4 Preservation with sugar
 The principle of this technology is to add sugar in a quantity that is necessary to
increase the osmotic pressure of the product's liquid phase at a level which will
prevent microorganism development.
 From a practical point of view, however, it is usual to partially remove water (by
boiling) from the product to be preserved, with the objective of obtaining a higher
sugar concentration. In concentrations of 60% in the finished products, the sugar
generally assures food preservation.
 In the food preservation with sugar, the water activity cannot be reduced below
0.845; this value is sufficient for bacteria and neosmophile yeast inhibition but does
not prevent mould attack. For this reason, various means are used to avoid mould
development:
1. Finished product pasteurization (jams, jellies, etc.);
2. Use of chemical preservatives in order to obtain the antiseptisation of the
product surface.
138
 3. Heat preservation/heat processing
Various degrees of preservation
There are various degrees of preservation by heating; a few terms have to be identified and
understood.
A. Sterilization: By sterilization we mean complete destruction of micro-organisms.
Because of the resistance of certain bacterial spores to heat, this frequently means a treatment of
at least 121° C (250° F) of wet heat for 15 minutes or its equivalent. It also means that every
particle of the food must receive this heat treatment.
B. "Commercially sterile". Term describes the condition that exists in most of canned or
bottled products manufactured under Good Manufacturing Practices procedures and methods;
these products generally have a shelf-life of two years or more.
C. Pasteurized means a comparatively low order of heat treatment, generally at a
temperature below the boiling point of water. The more general objective of pasteurization
is to extend product shelf-life from a microbial and enzymatic point of view; this is the
objective when fruit or vegetable juices and certain other foods are pasteurized. Pasteurization is
frequently combined with another means of preservation - concentration, chemical, acidification,
etc.
D. Blanching is a type of pasteurization usually applied to vegetables mainly to inactivate
natural food enzymes. Depending on its severity, blanching will also destroy some
microorganisms.
139
Determining heat treatment/thermal processing steps
 Since heat sufficient to destroy micro-organisms and food enzymes
also usually has adverse effects on other properties of foods, in
practice the minimum possible heat treatment should be used which
can guarantee freedom from pathogens and toxins and give the
desired storage life; these aims will determine the choice of heat
treatment.
 In order to safely preserve foods using heat treatment, the following
must be known:
A. What time-temperature combination is required to inactivate the most
heat resistant pathogens and spoilage organisms in one particular food?
B. What are the heat penetration characteristics in one particular food,
including the can or container of choice if it is packaged? 140
 Different foods will support growth of different pathogens and different
spoilage organisms so the target will vary depending upon the food to be
heated. Food acidity/pH value has a tremendous impact on the target in heat
preservation/ processing.
 TABLE. Heat processing requirements - dependence on product acidity

141
 Technological principles of pasteurization
 Physical and chemical factors which influence pasteurization process are the
following:
 temperature and time;
 acidity of the products;
 air remaining in containers.
 Pasteurization temperature and time will vary according to:
➢Nature of product; initial degree of contamination;
➢Pasteurized product storage conditions and shelf life required. In this first
category of pasteurization processes it is possible to define three phases:
➢Heating to a fixed temperature;
➢maintaining this temperature over the established time period (=
pasteurization time);
➢Cooling the pasteurized products: natural (slow) or forced cooling. 142
 Pasteurization processes: In pasteurizing certain acid juices for example,
there are two categories of processes:
 a) Low pasteurization where pasteurization time is in the order of minutes
and related to the temperature used; two typical temperature/time
combinations are as following:
1. 63° C to 65°C over 30 minutes or
2. 75° C over 80°C to 10 minutes.
 b) Rapid, high or flash pasteurization is characterized by a pasteurization time
in the order of seconds and temperatures of about 85° to 90° C or more,
depending on holding time. Typical temperature/time combinations are as
follows:
I. 88° C (190° F) for 1 minute;
II. 100° C for 12 seconds;
III. 121°C for 2 seconds. 143
 Thermopenetration- The thermopenetration problem is extremely
important, especially in the case of the pasteurization of products packed in
glass containers because it is the determining factor for the success of the
whole operation.
 During pasteurization it is necessary that a sufficient heat quantity is
transferred through the receptacle walls; this is in order that the product
temperature rises sufficiently to be lethal to micro-organisms throughout the
product mass.
 The most suitable and practical method to speed up thermopenetration is the
movement of receptacles during the pasteurization process
 The critical speed of for this movement is generally about 70 rotations per minute
(RPM). This enables a more uniform heating of products, reducing heating time and
organoleptic degradation.
144
 4. Concentration as Preservation method
 Concentration is process of increasing the amount of solute and reducing the solvent in a
given food product by different methods. Principle of preservation constitutes removal of
water and subsequent reduction in water activity in a given food product.
Concentration process is usually employed as a pre-treatment to reduce the initial moisture
content of different foods like, milk, tea or coffee prior to their final dehydration in a spray
or freeze dryer. It can be used to reduce the bulk by freezing or by sterilization, such as
frozen orange juice or evaporated milk.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF CONCENTRATION

1. Application of Heat
Thermal concentration
Thermal concentration means increasing the total solids content of the food by evaporation
of water using heat. As concentration process increases the solids content of a food, it
preserves the food by reducing its water activity.
145
2.Removal of heat
Freeze concentration- crystallizes water to ice as a primary step then removal of those
ice crystals formed during freezing, followed by washing columns or mechanical separation
techniques.
 Freeze concentration process is used to overcome the two important limitations of
thermal concentration which are: volatile components lost (flavours) and product quality
degradation due to heat. It has primarily been used where quality considerations are
important and important volatile components to be retained, as in concentration of beer
and wines (where flavours and alcohol are to be preserved) and concentration of coffee
before freeze drying (where it is important to retain flavour).
 Concentration using membranes
Conventional evaporation, in its variant forms, is the most widely used, very common as
well as cost-effective process to get higher concentration of liquid or semi liquid foods.
The major limitation of this process includes, destruction of sensorial attributes and
nutritional properties due to higher processing duration at higher temperatures.
146
 Intermediate moisture foods (IMF)
Intermediate moisture foods are those in which the moisture content is reduced to a level
low enough to prevent spoilage microorganisms from growing but moist enough for the
food to have improved palatability characteristics. Intermediate moisture foods or semi-
moist foods contain 20-50 per cent. In addition, they contain high concentration of
dissolved solutes. These foods do not require refrigeration during storage and can be eaten
without rehydration. Honey, jam, jelly, cakes, dates and osmo-dried food products are the
examples of intermediate moisture foods.

 Solar evaporation
 Open kettles
 Concentration by flash evaporation
 Concentration by thin film evaporation
 Ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis
 Concentration by vacuum evaporation-suitable for heat sensitive foods as this
method involves low temperature.
147
 5. Food irradiation
 Food irradiation is one of the food processing technologies available to
the food industry to control organisms that cause food-borne diseases
and to reduce food losses due to spoilage and deterioration.
 For each application it is important to determine the optimum dosage
range required to achieve the desired effect. Too high a dosage can
produce undesirable changes in texture, colour and taste of foods.
 Shelf-life extension: Irradiation can extend the shelf-life of foods in a
number of ways.
 Disinfestation: Ionizing radiation can also be used as an alternative to
chemical fumigants for disinfestation of grains, spices, fruits and
vegetables.
148
 Summary of Preservation Methods
1. Canning 10.Acidification
2. Freezing 11.Modified Atmosphere
3. Refrigeration Storage and
4. Drying 12.Controlled Atmosphere
5. High sugar content (fruits) Storage
13.Packaging
6. Concentrating (juices)
14.Pasteurization
7. Fermentation (Sauerkraut and
Pickles)
8. Irradiation
7. Fruits and Vegetables
 INTRODUCTION
 Fresh horticultural produce has limited shelf-life ranging from a few
hours to few weeks at ambient temperature.
 Packaging is required for food preservation, protection and for safe
transportation of products during storage and handling.
 It also has assumed a multi-functional role by serving as a symbol of
value addition, an assurance of quality and quantity/, a conveyor of
convenience and ultimately a tool for marketing food products.
 Packaging is defined as a means or system by which a fresh
produce or processed product will reach from the production
center to ultimate consumer in safe & sound condition at an
affordable price. 151
 More than 1,500 different types of packages are used for
produce and the number continues to increase as the
industry introduces new packaging materials and
concepts.
 Packing and packaging materials contribute a significant
cost to the produce industry; therefore it is important
that packers, shippers, buyers, and consumers have a clear
understanding of the wide range of packaging options
available.

152
The following are among the more important general
requirements of food packaging materials/ containers:
Products cannot delay or prevent fresh fruits and
vegetables from spoilage Incorrect packaging can accelerate
spoilage.
Packaging can serve to protect against contamination,
damage and most importantly against excess moisture loss.
Protect fruits and vegetables from pathogens.
Size, shape, weight limitations.
153
They must be non-toxic Tamper proofness.
and compatible with the Appearance, printability.
specific foods. Low cost.
Sanitary protection. Easy to open
Gas and odor protection. Pouring features.
Light protection. Reseal features.
Resistance to impact. Ease of disposal
Transparency.
154
 The respiration in a package materials are influenced by:
• Quantity of the produce
• Stage of maturity
• Temperature
• Concentration of ethylene gas
• Light intensity
The permeation of the package materials are influenced by:
• Type and nature of material
• Thickness and surface area of the material
• Temperature and relative humidity
• Partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2

155
 Functions of Packaging
A. Packaging should protect the product from contamination and
prevent it from spoilage, and at the same time it should:
B. Extend shelf life
C. Facilitate distribution and display
D. Provide the consumer with greater ease of use and time-saving
convenience
E. Communicate with the consumer as a marketing tool
F. To assemble the produce into convenient units for
handling.
G. Containment of the product
156
 Packaging Materials Classification
➢Based on holding capacity the packages for fresh fruits and
vegetables can be classified as:
1. Consumer / Retail packs
 Consumer packages are small in size and designed to hold ½
dozen – 1 dozen fruits or ½ kg to 2 kg of vegetables.
 Many types of packages in terms of forms and materials are
used as consumer packs.
 The selection criterion for the type of consumer pack depends
on marketing characteristics of the product.

157
 2. Transport / Bulk packs
 Transport packages are designed for long distance
transportation in capacities ranging from 4 – 5 kgs to 20 –
25kgs.
 These packs must withstand impacts, compression and
vibration during transport.
 The transport packages can be broadly categorized as rigid
containers made of wood, corrugated fibre board or plastics
and flexible containers such as sacks made of plastic.
 Along with these materials some traditional materials used
are jute (jute sacks), wooden boxes and bamboo baskets.
158
➢Some materials are provided with efficient primary containers
by nature, such as nuts, oranges, eggs and the like. In packaging these, we
generally need only a secondary outer box, wrap, or drum to hold units
together and give gross protection.
Hermetic closure
➢Two conditions of the greatest significance in packaging are
hermetic and non-hermetic closure.
➢The term hermetic means a container which is absolutely impermeable to
gases and vapors throughout its entirety, including its seams.
➢On the other hand, a container which prevents entry of microorganisms, in
many instances will be non-hermetic.
➢The most common hermetic containers are rigid metal cans and glass
bottles, although faulty closures can make them non-hermetic.
159
 Types of Packaging Materials
Based on specific function
1. Moisture Resistant materials
A. Polythene films
B. Polyester films
C. Polyvinyl films
D. Aluminum foils
E. Laminations
F. Cellulose film (coated)
G. Rubber hydrochloride
H. Cellulose acetate
I. Glass containers
160
2. Natural materials [mechanical
damage protection]
Wood products: used for bulk transportation
• Pallets
• Pallet Bins
• Wire-Bound Crates
• Wooden Crates and Lugs
• Wooden Baskets and Hampers
• Corrugated Fiberboard
161
3. Flexible and transparent
✓Pulp Containers.
✓Paper and Mesh Bags
✓Plastic Bags
✓Shrink Wrap
✓Rigid Plastic Packages
✓Plastic field boxes
4. Active packaging
162
Natural materials:-Baskets and other traditional containers are
made from bamboo, rattan, straw, palm leaves, etc.
Disadvantages are:
They are difficult to clean when contaminated with decay
organisms.
They lack rigidity and bend out of shape when stacked for long-
distance transport.
They load badly because of their shape.
They cause pressure damage when tightly filled.
They often have sharp edges or splinters causing cut and
puncture damage.
163
 Wood
 Wood Pallets. literally form the base on which most fresh produce is
delivered to the consumer. Pallets were first used during World War II as an
efficient way to move goods.
 Depending on the size of produce package, a single pallet
may carry from 20 to over 100 individual packages.
 the pallets are built as inexpensively as possible and discarded after a single
use.
 The use of a single pallet size could substantially reduce pallet inventory
and warehousing costs along with pallet repair and disposal costs.

164
 Pallet Bins. Substantial wooden pallet bins of milled lumber or plywood are
primarily used to move produce from the field or orchard to the packing
house.
 Depending on the application, capacities may range from 12 to more than 50
bushels.
 Pallet Bins- are primarily used to move produce from the field or orchard to
the packing house.
 Pallet bin can add up to big problems when several hundred are stacked
together for cooling, ventilation, or storage. It is also important that stress
points be adequately reinforced.

165
166
 Wire-Bound Crates- Although alternatives
are available, wooden wire-bound crates are
used extensively for snap beans, sweet corn
and several other commodities that require
hydro cooling.
 Wire-bound crates are sturdy, rigid and have
very high stacking strength that is essentially
unaffected by water.
 They are not generally acceptable for
consumer packaging because of the difficulty
in affixing suitable labels.
167
Wooden Crates and Lugs-
Wooden crates, once extensively
used for apples, stone fruit, and
potatoes have been almost totally
replaced by other types of
containers.
The 15-, 20-, and 25-pound wooden
lugs still used for bunch grapes and
some specialty crops are being
gradually replaced with less costly
alternatives.
168
 Wooden Baskets and Hampers. Wire-reinforced wood veneer baskets
and hampers of different sizes were once used for a wide variety of crops
from strawberries to sweet potatoes. They are durable and may be
nested for efficient transport when empty.
 Pulp Containers. Containers made from recycled paper pulp
and a starch binder are mainly used for small consumer packages of fresh
produce. Pulp containers are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes
and are relatively inexpensive in standard sizes.
 Paper and Mesh Bags. Consumer packs of potatoes and onions are
about the only produce items now packed in paper bags. In addition to
potatoes and onions, cabbage, turnips, citrus, and some specialty items are
packed in mesh bags. Sweet corn may still be packaged in mesh bags in
some markets. In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage of
uninhibited air flow. Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.
169
170
 Plastic Bags. Plastic bags (polyethylene film) are the predominant
material for fruit and vegetable consumer packaging.
 Plastic films are available in a wide range of thicknesses and grades
and may be engineered to control the environmental gases inside the
bag.
 Rigid Plastic Packages. packages with a top and bottom that are
heat formed from one or two pieces of plastic are known as
clamshells.
 Clamshells are gaining in popularity because they are inexpensive,
versatile, provide excellent protection to the produce, and present a
very pleasing consumer package. Clamshells are most often used
with consumer packs of high value produce items like small fruit,
berries, mushrooms, etc., or items that are easily damaged by
crushing. 171
172
 Shrink Wrap. One of the newest trends in produce
packaging is the shrink wrapping of individual produce
items. Shrink wrapping has been used successfully to
package potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples, onions,
sweet corn, cucumbers and a variety of tropical fruit.

173
Corrugated fiberboard- is manufactured in many different styles
and weights. Because of its relativity low cost and versatility, it is the
dominant produce container material and will probably remain so in
the near future.
Both cold temperatures and high humidity reduce the strength of
fiberboard containers.
 Unless the container is specially treated, moisture
absorbed from the surrounding air and the contents can
reduce the strength of the container.
 Cabbage, melons, potatoes, pumpkins, and citrus have all
been shipped successfully in these containers. The
container cost per produce is as little as one fourth of
traditional size containers.
 Some bulk containers may be collapsed and re-used. 174
 Paper and Mesh Bags. Consumer packs of potatoes and onions
are about the only produce items now packed in mesh bags.
 In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage of uninhibited air
flow.
 Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.
 Supermarket produce managers like small mesh bags because they
make attractive displays that stimulate purchases.
 Have several serious disadvantages. Large bags do not palletize well
and small bags do not efficiently fill the space inside corrugated
fiberboard containers. Bags do not offer protection from rough
handling. Mesh bags provide little protection from light or
contaminants. 175
Plastic field boxes - are usually made of polyvinyl
chloride or palyetylene. they are durables and can last
many years. They are designed in such a way that they
can nest inside each other when empty to facilitate
transport, and can nest inside each other when empty
to facilitate transport.

176
 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
 Modified atmosphere packaging is a form of packaging involving the removal
of air from the package and replacing it with a single or mixture of gases.
 The gaseous atmosphere changes continuously throughout the storage due
to factors like respiration and other biochemical changes of the produce and
the permeation of gases through the package.
 A technique used for prolonging the shelf-life of fresh foods.
 The air surrounding the food in the package is changed to
another composition.
 MAP is used with various types of products. The mixture of gases in the
package depends on the type of product, packaging materials and storage
temperature.

177
MAP

178
 The main characteristics to consider for selecting packaging films are
– gas permeability
– water vapour transmission rate
– mechanical properties
– transparency
– type of package
– sealing reliability
• Fruits and vegetables are respiring products, hence need to
transmit gases through the film, called permeable films
• Treat MAP foods as if it were fresh

179
 Vacuum packaging
It is a method of packaging that removes air from the
package prior to sealing.
It involves placing items in a plastic film package,
removing air from inside, and sealing the package.
The intent is usually remove oxygen from the
container to extend the shelf life of foods and, with
flexible package forms, to reduce the volume of the
contents and package.
180
Vacuum packaged products

181
 Advantages
➢Protection from oxygen.
➢Positive control of the moisture content of the product.
➢Inhibits the growth of aerobic spoilage bacteria.
➢Longer shelf life for goods.
➢Larger quantities of food can be purchased and kept over
a longer period of time and bulk purchases are often
cheaper.
➢Reduces the post harvest losses.
182
 Active Packaging Technologies:
 Active packaging is normally designed to deal with one property or
requirement of the food or beverage. The property normally selected is
that most critical as the first limiter of shelf life or quality.
 To this extent, active packaging is provided to fine-tune the properties of
the packaging to meet the necessities of the food, this is not different from
the normal aim of the packaging technologist to match the requirements
of the food with the properties of the packaging.
 Active packaging perform traditional functions of packaging such as
providing barriers to gases, moisture and vapor, preventing product
contamination from outside, and making food handling and identification
easy .
 Additionally, the active packaging has secondary functions such as
antioxidation, antimicrobial, and product traceability; thus it helps in
further improvement of produce properties. 183
184
 Active packaging is a packaging system that is coordinated to maintain and
even improve the health properties, organoleptic properties and quality of the
packaged food product, thereby extending its shelf-life. (UpToDate definition)
 Active packaging with temperature systems: these are systems that
allow the food to be heated or cooled, and that can also increase the
temperature inside the packaging.
 Active packaging with absorber and emitter systems: absorbers
eliminate unwanted substances, such as oxygen, ethylene, excess moisture and
certain tastes and smells. Emitters, on the other hand, emit anti-microbial
substances, such as carbon dioxide and ethanol.
 Active packaging with systems that modify the composition of
the food or interact with it: extensive research has enabled materials to be
additivities with natural extracts. These additives can be anti-microbial, taste-
absorbent and smell-absorbent, enzymatic or anti-oxidant. It is important to
remember, however, that all developments in this area have to comply
with food safety standards, in terms of authorized substances and the
requirements for food-contact materials.
185
 Labelling
➢ Packaging is also designed to be visually stimulating and provide
information about the product to help the customer.
➢ The information supplied must cover:
✓ the name of the food;
✓ the weight/volume (metric) (unless under 5g);
✓ the list of ingredients in descending order of weight;
✓ how the food should be stored, where appropriate;
✓ the date when the food should be eaten;
✓ genetically modified ingredients and allergens;
✓ the name and address of manufacturer or distributor;
✓ nutrition information on the back of pack (recent).
 Labelling and package design
➢The manufacturer may choose to provide extra
information, e.g. preparation and cooking instructions,
the place the food comes from and a bar code to
identify the food.
➢The overall design of packaging, from its shape to the
style of writing used, indicate the type of product it
contains and for whom it is intended. It may also use
‘graphical’ tricks to give a sense of quality, e.g. that it
has been hand made.
 Packaging design
When designing packaging it is important to consider the following:
✓ Is it easy to handle and open?
✓ Is it a convenient shape, so it is easy to stack?
✓ Which colours will be used on the packaging?
✓ What size of print should be used? (Can consumers read it easily?)
✓ Will it be economical to produce?
✓ What about environmental considerations? (Will it be recyclable or
does it make minimum use of natural resources?)
However, other factors also determine the choice of materials used,
especially in relation to food hygiene and safety. For example, the
material must be suitable for the food, as some chemicals present in the
food or packaging may react together.
 Introduction
◼ Product quality is a prime criterion in gaining access to competitive
markets.
◼ Most marketers will agree that, apart from everything else, commercial
markets require a stable supply and consistent quality.
◼ With the increased rate of production, uniformity of size, shape, and
composition have become important, and specifications for raw
materials for canning and freezing, for example, are now more exacting
than specifications for sale on the fresh market.
◼ A potential application of the results of flavor chemistry, new
developments in descriptive analysis, consumer acceptance testing, and
the interrelations of chemistry/sensory analysis, may be the trends in
quality determination.
Quality can be defined as combinations of attributes or
characteristics of a product that have significance in determining
the degree of acceptability of that product to the consumer.
It can also be said as measure of purity, strength,
physicochemical & organoleptic characteristic of food products
but the classical definition of quality is composite of these
characters that differentiate between individual units of the
products & have significance in determining the degree of
acceptability of that unit by the user.
Tow major methods that used to determine food quality are;
1) Subjective method
2) Objective method
1. Subjective Method; Evaluating quality are based on opinion of
the investigators/sensory panelists. It includes sense organs.
✓ It is usually a physiological reaction which is a result of past
training, experience of the individual influence of personal
preference & power of perception.
✓ It is also referred as subjective or sensory method e.g. flavor,
color, touch, odour and taste.
2. Objective method; objective methods of quality are based on
observations from which the human perception is excluded. They
are based on scientific tests from instruments. Eg. Colorimeter,
texture analyzer, proximate analysis.
 Attributes/index of Fruit and Vegetable Quality
➢ In reference to fruits and vegetables, the characteristics that
impart distinctive quality may be described by four different
attributes. These are:
1) Color and appearance,
2) Flavor (taste and aroma),
3) Texture and
4) Nutritional value.
➢ As consumers, these four attributes typically affect us in the
order specified above, for example we evaluate the visual
appearance and color first, followed by the taste, aroma, and
texture.
Quality attributes of fresh fruits and vegetables can be classified into three
classes according to the occurrence of product characteristics when they are
encountered or consumed: External, Internal and Hidden quality attributes.
 SENSORY EVALUATION
➢ A SCIENCE that measures, analyzes, and interprets the reactions
of the senses of sight, smell, sound, taste and texture to products.
➢ It is a PEOPLE science, i.e. people are essential to obtain
information about products.
➢ Appearance, although most important, is by no means the sole
criterion of quality.
➢ Important also are the properties appreciated through other human
senses: those of taste, smell and touch, which can be grouped
together under the heading of color, flavor, and texture.
➢ The attainment of a satisfactory color, flavor, and texture may often
be associated with a certain development of color, but appearance
can be a deceptive and completely satisfactory way of assessing
flavor and texture.
200
201
Consumer panels (no training) indicate how much a
product is liked
• Do not indicate which component of the product
is the driver for liking
• Descriptive analysis (trained panels) to define
descriptors, traits
• Relate consumer with descriptive Preference mapping

202
 During sensory analysis uniform samples are prepared for
quality evaluation.
 Organoleptic appraisals are made for color, flavor, texture,
and aroma by a panel of ten trained judges or by a large
consumer panel of nonsmokers.
Numerical values (I0—Like extremely—to 1—dislike
extremely) are assigned to fresh and processed fruits and
vegetables (Table 2).
The judges are instructed to appraise each sample and
encircle the phrase which best describes their feelings about
the sample.
 Following judging, preference scores for each sample are
added together and divided by the number of judges to find
the final average score.
203
204
◼ The minimum general requirements of fresh fruits and vegetables
are as follows:
1. The fruits or vegetables should be healthy and sound, that is to say,
free from blemishes liable to affect their natural powers of resistance,
such as traces of deterioration or decomposition, bruises, or unhealed
cracks.
2. They should be whole, clean, practically free from extraneous matter,
free from any foreign taste or smell and without abnormal surface
moisture.
3. They should be of normal size and appearance in regards to the
variety, season and production area.
4. They should have reached a degree of maturity which will ensure the
arrival of the produce in good condition.’ 205
 HUMAN SENSES
➢ Many accepted definitions: Senses are the
physiological methods of perception.
• Aristotle – There are five senses in humans:

1. Sight
2. Hearing
3. Touch
4. Smell
5. Taste
• From neurological Sciences - Humans have at least six
additional senses (at least 11 senses all together):
– Nociception – pain
– Equilibraception – balance
– Proprioception and kinesthesia - joint motion and
acceleration
– Sense of time
– Thermoception - temperature differences
– Magnetoception – direction (weak in many individuals)
• From all the senses above the only one that may
influence sensory evaluation of a food item is
thermoception
•Commonly recognized categorization
for human senses is:
– Chemoreception (taste and smell)
– Photoreception (sight)
– Mechanoreception (touch)
– Thermoception (thermoception)
• All human senses fit into one of the
categories listed above.
• Sight or vision:
– Ability of the brain and eye to detect electromagnetic
waves within the visible range (light) and interpret the
image
• Touch, mechanoreception or somatic sensation:
– Sense of pressure perception, generally in the skin
• Hearing or audition:
– Sense of sound perception
– Sound is vibrations propagating through a medium
(e.g. air)
– Detection of these vibrations is a mechanical sense
similar to ‘touch’ but much more specialized
 Taste or gustation:
Taste or gustation: This is a "chemical" sense
– There four main types of tastes that
receptors (buds) in the tongue can
distinguish:
• Sweet
• Salt
• Sour
• Bitter
 Smell or olfaction
– This is a “chemical" sense
– Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory
receptors in our olfactory epithelium (where the
receptor are located)
– Odor molecules have a variety of features
and can combine with many or few receptors
– It is known that there isn’t one receptor for
specific kinds of smells, our sense of smell works
with ‘patter recognition’.
 Smell or olfaction

– This combination of signals from different

receptors makes up what we perceive as
smell of substances or mixtures of substances
(volatiles).
– Volatiles are molecules of low boiling point
at atmospheric pressure (1 atm or 760 mmg
Hg)
• Note: Taste is not the same as flavor!
• Flavor includes the smell of a food as well as
its taste
 WHAT IS SENSORY ANALYSIS?
i. Sensory Analysis is a scientific discipline that analyses and measures
human responses to the composition of food and drink, e.g.
appearance, touch, odour, texture, temperature and taste.
ii. Identification of food product (s) properties
iii. Scientific measurement of food product (s) properties
iv. Analysis and interpretation of the identified and measured food
product properties.

AS THERE ARE PERCIVED THROUGH THE FIVE SENSES:

- sight (e.g. color of a food product)
- smell (e.g. presence of rancidity in a product)
- taste (e.g. intensity of sweetness)
- touch (e.g. firmness of a muscle food)
- hearing (e.g. crunchiness of a potato chip)
 WHAT QUESTIONS SENSORY ANALYSIS ANSWER?
Questions that deals with quality of food products
under three main categories:
1. Discrimination
• These questions have the objective of determining if
differences exist between two or more products
• Type of questions that may be asked in discrimination
sensory tests:
– Is product A identical to product B?
– Find the two similar products among the three
samples provides
– Find the odd sample among the three samples
provided
2. Description
• These questions have the objective of describing
characteristics of a product and/or measuring any
differences that are found between products
– What does this product taste like?
– What are the three most important texture
attributes you perceive in this product?
– For which sensory attributes are the differences
between product A and B most marked?
3. Preference or Hedonics
• These questions have the objective of describing liking
or acceptability of a product
– Do you like this product? How much do you like this
product on a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 = dislike
extremely, and 10 = like extremely?
– Is this product acceptable?
– What do you like most about this product?
– Is product A better then product B?
– Which of the three products A, B and C do you prefer?
Why use sensory analysis to evaluate food products?
(Importance SA)
1. To evaluate quality (quality control) or improve quality
– E.g. Maintain a product with same sensorial
characteristics so consumers of that product continue to
buy it
– E.g. Release production batch for sale because the
products inspected meet the standards set by the
manufacturer
– E.g. Reject production batch because the products
inspected are below the acceptable level of quality set by
the manufacturer
2. To provide input for decision making (product development)
– E.g. Launching a new fruit snack, or a new flavor fish stick
3. To determine the market value of a product
– E.g. Determine value of perishable products such as fish. If
fish is very fresh and was handled with great care, then it is
likely to be sold for a higher price then frozen fish that has
kept in frozen storage for 6 months
4. To determine shelf-life of a product
– E.g. How long can a cracker remain in the groceries
shelves before it becomes stale?
5. Ingredient substitution in product formulation
– E.g. Cost reduction of a product formulation by
substitution of ingredient A for ingredient B. Does it change
the product? Can the consumer perceive it? How does it
changes the product?
6. To compare a product (s) with the competitor‘s
product (s)
– E.g. How close in taste is beverage A produced by
company A as it compares to beverage B produced
by company B?
7. To determine storage conditions
– Should the product be stored refrigerated, frozen
or at room temperature?
– Will the product become rancid very quickly if it sits
at room temperature? (butter; cheese…)
– Will the product change texture, appearance or
taste if it is stored frozen? (eggs; milk…)
 SENSORY EVALUATION PITFALLS
✓ Determining the wrong objective for conducting
sensory analysis
✓ Choosing the wrong set of participants in the
sensory test(s)
✓ Asking the wrong questions to the participants
✓ Having biased judgments of the products tested
✓ Lacking scientific control (scientific rigor)
✓ Conducting the sensory test in the wrong
(inadequate) environment
 Types of Sensory Tests
I. DISCRIMINATION TESTS
A. Paired Comparison Tests – Testing for differences between
two samples
– Simple test: request panelist to taste two samples and respond
if the samples are identical or different
– More complex tests can involve differences is specific
attributes) such as sweetness, bitterness, type of odor..
B. Duo-Trio – Panelists evaluates three samples, and one of them
is marked as reference. Panelist is asked to pick the sample
that is closer in taste, odor, etc.. To the reference sample
C. Triangle Test – Panelists evaluates three samples, two are
identical and one if different. Panelist is requested to pick the
sample that is different
 2. DESCRIPTIVE SENSORY ANALYSIS
• Useful when a detailed specification of the sensory attributes of a product
is desirable
• Also, it can be useful for comparisons between products when descriptions
of differences are needed
• Normally uses trained panelists
• Some of descriptive sensory analysis methods:
• Flavor Profile, Quantitative Descriptive Analysis, Texture Profile; Sensory
Spectrum; Generic Descriptive Analysis; Free choice Profiling, etc…
3. Preference/Hedonic Scale????
• Likeness or dislikeness b/n product/s
 TYPES OF SCALES
• Many types of scales available…
• Numerical scale
– E.g. Intensity: (weak) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (strong)
• Verbal categorical scales
– E.g. Oxidized flavor: not noticeable; trace; faint; mild;
moderate,strong, very strong
• Ranking or ordering scales
– E.g. Preference between products A, B, C: 1 most
preferred, 2 intermediate preference; 3 least preferred
• Magnitude of differences (interval scale, see sturgeon
example slide 8)
• Hedonic scaling for children (‘smiley face model’)
 TYPES OF PANELISTS
1. Consumer (untrained)
2. Semi-trained (experienced)
3. Trained (highly trained)
4. Responses recorded on ballots
(scorecards)
 PRIMARY SENSORY ATTRIBUTES
1.Appearance
2.Flavor
3.Texture
➢Perceived by senses individually
and processed by brain into total
impression of quality
 APPEARANCE
• Shape & size
• Color or hue
• Gloss/luster/sheen & other surface characteristics
• Opacity
• Volume
• Interior appearance
❑Factors Affecting the Perception of Appearance
➢Nature of the light source
➢Nature of the object
➢Nature of the surroundings
 FLAVOR
• Olfactory (smell)
• Nose
• Nasal cavity from mouth
• Taste
• Salt (front sides)
• Bitter (back)
• Sweet (front tip)
• Sour (sides)
• Umami (taste enhancers such as MSG that are
savory)
 TEXTURE: CHEMICAL & PHYSICAL
• Hardness/tenderness • Factors affecting
• Brittleness taste sensitivity
• Chewiness • Time
• gumminess • Concentration
• Cohesiveness • Temperature
• Viscosity • Taste interactions
• Elasticity • Taste fatigue
• Adhesiveness • Age (?)
 Introduction
• Plants produce several underground structures that
typically store food so that the plant can survive an
inclement part of the year - people utilize some of these as
foods.
• In a bulb, the stem is relatively short and most of the
storage structure is composed of fleshy leaves that are
compressed together.
• A rhizome is a general term for a horizontal, usually
underground stem. Although it can superficially resemble
a root, a rhizome has nodes and internodes, has the internal
anatomy of a stem, and can root at its nodes.
• In some plants, the ends of
rhizomes become much
swollen and form the
underground storage
structure - we call this
structure a tuber.
• A tuber is a modified stem.
Post harvest technologies of Root & Tubers
1.Harvesting
2
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Harvest & Post harvest handling of bulbs
 Soaking
• Soaking is a preliminary stage in cleaning heavily contaminated
materials, such as root crops, permitting softening of the soil
and partial removal of stones and other contaminants. Metallic
or concrete tanks or drums are employed; and these may be
fitted with devices for agitating the water, including stirrers,
paddles or mechanisms for rotating the entire drum.
 Peeling
• Peeling is used in the processing of many fruits and vegetables to remove unwanted or
inedible material, and to improve the appearance of the final product. The main consideration
is to minimize costs by removing as little of the underlying food as possible and reducing
energy, labor and material costs to a minimum.
• Peeling of fruits and vegetables is frequently carried out in association with cleaning.
Mechanical peeling methods require loosening of the skin using one of the following
principles, depending on the structure of the food and the level of peeling required [14]:
• – Steam is particularly suited to root crops. The units are exposed to high pressure steam
for a fixed time and then the pressure is released causing steam to form under the surface
of the skin, hence loosening it such that it can be removed with a water spray.
• – Lye (1–2% alkali) solution can be used to soften the skin which can again be removed by
water sprays. There is, however, a danger of damage to the product.
There are five main methods of peeling:

•1. flash steam peeling

•2. knife peeling
•3. abrasion peeling
•4. caustic peeling
•5. flame peeling.
• 1 Flash steam peeling
• Foods (for example root crops) are fed in batches into a pressure vessel which
is rotated at 4–6 rpm. High-pressure steam (1500 103 Pa) is introduced and all
food surfaces are exposed to the steam by the rotation of the vessel for a
predetermined time, which differs according to the type of food. The high
temperatures cause rapid heating of the surface layer (within 15–30 s) but the
low thermal conductivity of the product prevents further heat penetration, and
the product is not cooked. Texture and colour are therefore preserved. The
pressure is then instantly released which causes steam to form under the skin,
and the surface of the food ‘flashes off’. Most of the peeled material is
discharged with the steam, and water sprays are needed only to remove any
remaining traces.
• 2 Knife peeling
• Stationary blades are pressed against the surface of
rotating fruits or vegetables to remove the skin.
Alternatively the blades may rotate against stationary
foods. This method is particularly suitable for citrus
fruits where the skin is easily removed and there is
little damage or loss of fruit.
• 3 Abrasion peeling
• Food is fed onto carborundum rollers or placed into a rotating bowl which is lined
with carborundum. The abrasive surface removes the skin and it is washed away by a
copious supply of water. The advantages of the method include low energy costs as
the process operates at room temperature, low capital costs, no heat damage and a
good surface appearance of the food. Irregular product surfaces (for example ‘eyes’
on potatoes) may mar the appearance of the peeled product and require hand
finishing. The limitations of the method are:
•  a higher product loss than flash peeling (25% compared with 8–18% losses, for
• vegetables)
•  the production of large volumes of dilute waste which are difficult and expensive
to dispose of
•  relatively low throughputs as all pieces of food need to contact the abrasive
surfaces.
• An exception is the peeling of onions where the skin is easily removed by abrasive
• rollers at production rates of up to 2500 kg h-1.
• 4 Caustic peeling
• A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (named lye) is heated to 100–120ºC. In
the older method of lye peeling, food is passed through a bath of 1–2% lye
which softens the skin and the skin is then removed by high-pressure water
sprays. Product losses are of the order of 17%. Although once popular for root
crops, this method causes changes in the colour of some products and incurs
higher costs.

5 Flame peeling
Developed for onions, this peeler consists of a conveyor belt which carries and
rotates the food through a furnace heated to 1000ºC. The outer ‘paper shell’
and root hairs are burned off, and the charred skin is removed by high-pressure
water sprays. Average product losses are 9%.
Size reduction
Size reduction or ‘comminution’ is the unit operation in which the
average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the application of
grinding, compression or impact forces. When applied to the
reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids (for example oil
globules in water) size reduction is more frequently referred to as
homogenisation or emulsification.
• Fermentation
• Fermented foods are among the oldest processed foods and have
formed a traditional part of the diet in almost all countries for
millennia. Today they continue to form major sectors of the food
processing industry, including baked products, alcoholic drinks,
yoghurt, cheese and soy products among many others. During food
fermentations, the controlled action of selected micro-organisms is
used to alter the texture of foods, preserve foods by production of
acids or alcohol, or to produce subtle flavours and aromas which
increase the quality and value of raw materials. Today the
preservative effect is supplemented by other unit operations (for
example pasteurization, chilling or modified atmosphere
packaging.
• The main advantages of fermentation as a method of food
processing are:
•  the use of mild conditions of pH and temperature which maintain
(and often improve)
• the nutritional properties and sensory characteristics of the food
•  the production of foods which have flavours or textures that
cannot be achieved by
• other methods
•  low energy consumption due to the mild operating conditions
•  relatively low capital and operating costs
•  relatively simple technologies.
• Breaking of dormancy
• Root, tuber and bulb crops have a natural dormancy period that can be
considerably extended under suitable storage conditions. Storage and shelf-
life is often limited by the breaking of dormancy. Most commonly this is seen
as the growth of sprouts, for example, in onions or potatoes.
• Under high moisture conditions, the development of roots may also occur.
Neither sprouts nor roots are acceptable in marketed produce (Schouten,
1987). Although roots and shoots can be trimmed off during processing, the
internal quality of the produce generally deteriorates during the breaking of
dormancy owing, for example, to the conversion of stored starch into sugars
that are transported to the growing points.
 Nutritional/Health benefits of root and tubers
Starchy roots and tuber crops play a pivotal role in the human diet. There are number of
roots and tubers which make an extensive biodiversity even within the same geographical
location. Thus,
➢ Used as energy source and reservoir
➢ Good sources of vitamins, minerals and add variety to the diet
➢ Rich sources of antioxidative, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, antimicrobial, and
immunomodulatory activities.
➢ A number of bioactive constituents such as phenolic compounds, saponins, bioactive
proteins, glycoalkaloids, and phytic acids are responsible for the observed effects.
➢ Many starchy tuber crops, except the common potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava,
are not yet fully explored for their nutritional and health benefits.
➢ In Asian countries, some edible tubers are also used as traditional medicinal.
➢ A variety of foods can be prepared using tubers and they may also be used in industrial
applications. Processing may affect the bioactivities of constituent compounds.
➢ Tubers have an immense potential as functional foods and nutraceutical ingredients to
be explored in disease risk reduction and wellness.
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