Tutor: Mr.

Kirtan Adhikari

Theory Type Question-Assignment

Module Code: GEH 505

Student ID No. 02200229

Date of 10-18-2023
 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Table of Contents
Unit 1: Introduction to Groundwater hydrology..............................................................................2
Unit 2: Movement of Groundwater.................................................................................................4
Unit 3: Classification of Groundwater.............................................................................................6

Figure 1: Components of hydrologic cycle in an open system........................................................2

Figure 2: Dispersion of two dye streams in a heterogeneous porous medium. Dotted areas
indicate bands of much higher per meability (after Skibitzke and Robinson)................................5
Figure 3:Division of subsurface water.............................................................................................6

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Unit 1: Introduction to Groundwater hydrology

Question 1
What is hydrologic budgeting? What is the significance of hydrologic budget in understanding
the flow of water within operating systems? How does it help quantify the overall change in the
water storage and have effective water resource management at various scale?
Answer:
A hydrologic budget, often known as a water budget or water balance, is a key tool for
comprehending the continuity of water flow within a given system. This idea is relevant at all
scales, including local, regional, and even global ones. This strategy is used by hydrologists
when studying open systems, where the quantification of the hydrologic cycle becomes a mass
balance equation. According to this equation, the difference between the system's inputs (I) and
outputs (O) over time (dS/dt) equals the system's inputs minus its outputs.
The surface water and groundwater components of a particular open system can each be treated
individually using the water balance equation, which is expressed in terms of volume per unit
time. As an alternative, it may be determined for a specified time frame and region while taking
changes in water depth into account. This type of open system, where water inputs like
precipitation and inflow and outputs like evaporation and outflow affect total water storage, is
shown in the image below. Hydrologists can learn more about the dynamics of water flow and
availability within a given system by quantitatively modeling these variables.
Scientists and decision-makers may manage water resources effectively, guaranteeing sustainable
use and conservation activities, by thoroughly examining these water budgets. Understanding the
hydrologic budget is essential for resolving issues linked to water shortages, the effects of
climate change, and ecosystem health, whether on a local or global basis.

Figure 1: Components of hydrologic cycle in an open system

Source: W.M Marsh and J. Dozier Landscape: An introduction

to Physical Geography. Copyright ©1986 by Wiley.

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Question 2:
Explain the importance of ancient qanat system with emphasis in Iran regions, where were thses
horizontal well been essential source of groundwater? What are the influences of these traditional
methods in understanding and sustainable modern management of ground water resources?
Answer:
Ancient civilizations were well aware of the value of groundwater, including those referenced in
the Old Testament. Historical documents from 1547 show the existence of several water sources,
including wells and springs. A clever technique known as "qanats" was used by ancient cultures
to harness groundwater in addition to wells that were dug. The arid regions of Afghanistan to
Morocco in Southwestern Asia and North Africa still have these horizontal wells, sometimes
known as ganats.
In essence, qanats are gently sloping tunnels made of alluvial sediments. These systems are
painstakingly handcrafted by knowledgeable individuals using methods that have been used for
over 3,000 years. An irrigation canal and surface exit are located at the lower end of a qanat,
which starts below the water table and transports water by gravity flow from its higher end.
Access to the tunnel is provided by vertical shafts that are close together in space.
Iran stands out as a center for qanat technology, with some 22,000 qanats meeting an astounding
75% of the nation's water demands. These amazing buildings may stretch for up to 30
kilometres, although the majority are just a few kilometers long. Although some have been
recorded to go deeper than 250 meters, the mother well of a qanat, as shown in Figure 1.2.1,
normally reaches depths of less than 50 meters. Water table changes cause seasonal variations in
kanat discharges, which typically do not exceed 100 m2/hr.
The Varamin Plain, southeast of Tehran, where aerial images revealed 266 qanats within a 1,300
km2 region, serves as an example of the density of qanats. This old technique serves as evidence
of sustainable water management methods that have persisted for millennia and highlights
human resourcefulness in exploiting natural resources.

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Unit 2: Movement of Groundwater

Question 1:
What is hydraulic conductivity? What physical features of a geologic material influences
hydraulic conductivity and how do they affect the hydraulic conductivity in the material? How
does the geological process, such as weathering, fracturing, solution channels, and burial depth,
contribute to the variability in hydraulic conductivity values observed in the materials?
Answer:
The fundamental characteristic of geology and hydrogeology known as hydraulic conductivity
governs a material's capacity to convey water. This property is influenced by a number of
physical elements are:
1. First off, hydraulic conductivity is greatly impacted by porosity, which is a measurement
of vacant areas inside a substance. Since there are more linked spaces in materials with
higher porosity, water can move through them more easily.
2. In unconsolidated materials, in particular, particle size and distribution are crucial. Due
to their tightly packed structure, finer particles like clay have low hydraulic conductivity,
which limits the flow of water. In contrast, because there are more spaces between the
particles in coarser particles like sand and gravel, such particles have higher conductivity,
which makes it easier for water to flow through them.
3. Shape and arrangement of the particles are other important considerations. The ease
with which water may flow through the substance can be impacted by irregularly shaped
or improperly sorted particles that can form complicated routes. The experiment with
sands of various sizes in the text serves as an illustration of this intricacy. Smaller grains
interacting with bigger grains to fill in voids shows that the complicated interactions
between variously sized and shaped particles also play an important role in hydraulic
conductivity.
4. The scenario is further made more difficult by the geological setting. The sentence
emphasizes that the hydraulic conductivity values given in the table and figures are
averages and represent the variability in the underlying natural geological materials. This
variability is influenced by a wide range of geological processes, including weathering,
fracture, solution channels, and burial depth. Due to their thicker and less permeable
character, rocks that have been consolidated often have poorer hydraulic conductivity
than those that have not.

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Question 2:
What is Dispersion in Groundwater Hydrology? What are the primary factors influencing
dispersion in groundwater? Explain how geological heterogeneity affects the dispersion process
and the challenges faced during evaluation of dispersion coefficients in natural groundwater flow
situations?
Answer:
When multiple fluids interact, dispersion plays a big role in groundwater hydrology. This
phenomenon is common in a variety of situations, including determining the direction and speed
of groundwater flow, dispersing pollutants into the earth, implementing artificial recharge of
water into an aquifer with different water quality, and managing the intrusion of salt water into
freshwater aquifers. Even in homogeneous sands, the amount of dispersion across thousands of
meters of travel is sometimes just a few meters.
The variability of geological materials presents one of the difficulties in understanding
dispersion. These materials' inherent imperfections cause flow fluctuations, which cause tracers
to mix. The microscopic dispersion is typically overshadowed by these effects. This is seen in
Figure 2 where the quick and asymmetric dispersion of dye streams in a lab context strikingly
emphasizes the important part that material heterogeneity plays in dispersion processes.

Figure 2: Dispersion of two dye streams in a heterogeneous porous medium. Dotted areas indicate bands of much higher per
meability (after Skibitzke and Robinson).

Furthermore, the groundwater flow system is interwoven with the large-scale phenomena known
as macroscopic dispersion. It is difficult to statistically assess dispersion coefficients in the
majority of natural groundwater flow scenarios due to the aquifer properties that are unknown
and the uneven geometries of groundwater recharge and discharge zones.
Fundamentally, geological heterogeneity and the properties of the associated fluids play a
complicated role in the interaction of many elements that affect dispersion in groundwater
hydrology. For correct evaluations in areas like groundwater management, environmental
contamination research, and the sustainable use of water resources, an understanding of these
dynamics is essential.

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Unit 3: Classification of Groundwater

Question 1:
What is vertical zones of groundwater distribution? What are the key vertical zones of
groundwater distribution? Explain the subdivisions of unsaturated zones and how the water table
influences groundwater movement?
Answer:
The subsurface distribution of groundwater can be categorized into distinct zones: the
unsaturated zone, also known as the zone of aeration, and the saturated zone. In the zone of
aeration, the spaces between soil and rock particles are partially filled with water and partially
with air. This area includes different sub-divisions such as the soil water zone, the intermediate
vadose zone, and the capillary zone. These divisions are essential in understanding the complex
dynamics of water movement in the subsurface, as depicted in Figure 2.3.1.
Beneath the zone of aeration lies the zone of saturation, where all the spaces between soil or rock
particles are completely filled with water under hydrostatic pressure. This saturated zone extends
from the upper surface of saturation down to an underlying impermeable rock layer. In cases
where there are no overlying impermeable strata, the upper boundary of the saturated zone is
defined by the water table or the phreatic surface. The water table represents the level at which
water stands in a well penetrating the aquifer and serves as the surface of atmospheric pressure.
It's important to note that the water table isn't a perfectly flat surface; it undulates in response to
variations in the underlying geological formations. Additionally, the zone of saturation extends
slightly above the water table due to capillary action, where water is held against gravity in
smaller openings. While groundwater in the saturated zone is commonly referred to simply as
groundwater, it is also known as phreatic water, emphasizing its connection with the water table
and the subsurface hydrological processes. Understanding these vertical distributions is crucial in
fields such as hydrogeology, environmental science, and civil engineering, as it provides insights
into groundwater availability and movement beneath the Earth's surface.

Figure 3:Division of subsurface water

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 Theory Type Question-Assignment

Question 2:
What is Porosity? Explain the significance of understanding types of interstices (classification,
size and origin in a rock mass. Elaborate on how porosity influences ground water behavior and
management of resources.
Answer:
Porosity describes the void space there are inside rocks or soil. These gaps, interstices, pores, or
pore spaces all of which can be filled with groundwater are crucial. These interstices vary in size,
form, irregularity, and distribution, and these characteristics are crucial when examining the
behavior of groundwater.
Based on the dimensions of these interstices, porosity may be categorized. Surface tension forces
cause water to be held inside tiny capillary interstices. Water isn't trapped in super capillary
interstices as tightly as it is in capillaries since they are bigger. Since there are so few sub
capillary interstices, water is mostly retained in place by adhesive forces.
These voids are the consequence of secondary processes that happened after the rock was formed
as well as geologic events that occurred during the rock's development. In sedimentary and
igneous rocks, original interstices are produced during geological processes. Joints, fractures,
solution holes, and interstices created by plant and animal activity are examples of secondary
interstices that appear later.
Understanding the circulation of groundwater within geological formations depends on porosity.
High porosity rocks or soils are ideal aquifers because they can store more water. Low porosity,
on the other hand, results in poor permeability and reduced water storage. Porosity information is
crucial for engineers, hydrologists, and geologists in order to plan for future land use, regulate
the environment, and extract groundwater. knowing the features of the many kinds of interstices