PLANT AND

ANIMAL ORGAN
SYSTEMS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS
1.3 CHEMICAL and
NERVOUS CONTROL
LEARNING
COMPETENCY
Compare and contrast chemical and nervous control in plants
and animals.
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 What is Nervous
System?
The nervous system consists of a network of
nerve cells that gather information about the
conditions of the body and the external
environment, process and integrate that
information and then send instructions to
muscles and glands which carry out the
responses to the conditions detected.
 Divisions of the Nervous
System
The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM,
• Consists of the brain and spinal
cord,
• Processes information and creates
a response that is delivered to the
appropriate part of the body
through the peripheral nervous
system.
 The Central Nervous System
THE BRAIN
• The major areas of the brain—Brain stem – medulla, pons, midbrain;
Diencephalon – thalamus & hypothalamus; Cerebellum; Cerebrum - is
responsible for processing and relaying information
THE SPINAL CORD
• The main communication link between the brain and the rest of the body.
 Regions of the Brain
• Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor
learning
• Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion,
thought, and planning
• Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays
information to various brain regions
• Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration
• Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary
responses) and relays information from spine to upper brain
• Hypothalamus – involved in regulating activities internal
organs, monitoring information from the autonomic nervous
system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones, and
regulating sleep and appetite.
 Spinal Cord
The spinal cord has 31 segments:
8 cervical segments that correspond to the C1-C8
vertebrae;
12 thoracic segments corresponding to the T1-T12
vertebrae;
5 lumbar segments corresponding to L1-L5 vertebrae,
5 sacral segments corresponding to S1-S5 vertebrae,
and 1 coccygeal segment.
The 44 cm long spinal cord is shorter than the spinal
column, so segments do not perfectly correspond to
the vertebrae.
 Spinal Cord

At each segment of the spinal cord, left and right pairs of sensory and motor nerves
branch out and connect to the peripheral nervous system. Impulses travel back and
forth to the brain and back to the muscles.
 Cerebrospinal fluid
• A colorless fluid is produced in
the ventricles of the brain; it
surrounds the brain and spinal
cord.
• It is called cerebrospinal fluid,
and it cushions the brain and cord
from shocks that could cause
injury.
• It is maintained at a level around
1/2 - 2/3 cup.
 Divisions of the Nervous
System
The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
• consists of peripheral nerves, that
is the spinal nerves and the cranial
nerves.
• It connects the brain and spinal
cord (CNS) to the rest of the body
including the muscles, sensory
organs and organs of the digestive,
respiratory, excretory and
circulatory systems.
 Neurons
It is the functional unit of the nervous system.
It is specialized for transmitting impulses from one location in the body to
another
 Parts of a Neuron
• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it
impulses toward the cell body
• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of
cytoplasm
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from
cell body
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or
fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which
insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin
sheath
 Types of Neurons
Neurons can be classified into three types
according to the direction in which an
impulse travels.
• Sensory neurons carry impulses from
the sense organs, such as the eyes and ears,
to the spinal cord and brain.
• Motor neurons carry impulses from the
brain and the spinal cord to muscles and
glands.
• Interneurons process information from
sensory neurons and then send commands
to other interneurons or motor neurons.
 Somatic Nervous System
(voluntary)
• Relays information from skin,
sense organs & muscles to CNS

• Brings responses back to skeletal

muscles for responses
 Autonomic Nervous System
• It controls the involuntary responses by
influencing the heart, smooth muscles and
glands.

• It is controlled by the medulla oblongata and

the hypothalamus of the brain.

• It is divided into the ‘sympathetic’ and

‘parasympathetic’ divisions.
 Autonomic Nervous System
• The sympathetic nervous system is
responsible for the ‘flight or fight’
responses… increased alertness,
metabolic rate, respiration, blood
pressure, heart rate, and sweating
AND a decrease in digestive and
urinary function.

• The parasympathetic nervous system

counteracts the responses of the
sympathetic system… restoring
homeostasis.
 Synapse
 Synapse - small gap or space between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite
of another - the neurons do not actually
tough at the synapse

 It is junction between neurons which

uses neurotransmitters to start the
impulse in the second neuron or an
effector (muscle or gland)

 The synapse insures one-way

transmission of impulses
 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters – are chemical substance
that transfers information across a synapse,
the junction between a neuron and another
neuron.
It acts by diffusing across the synapse
and binding to the protein receptor molecules
on the postsynaptic membrane.
Examples:
• NORADRENALINE
• ACETYLCHOLINE
• DOPAMINE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 What is the endocrine
system?
The endocrine system is made up of glands
and tissues that secrete hormones.
Hormones influence the metabolism of cells,
the growth and development of body parts
and homeostasis.
Endocrine glands are ductless.
They secrete the hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
 What is the
Endocrine System?
The primary endocrine glands are the
pituitary (the master gland), pineal,
thyroid, parathyroid, islets of Langerhans,
adrenals, ovaries in the female and testes in
the male.

The function of the endocrine system is

the production and regulation of chemical
substances called hormones.
 Hormones…

A hormone is a chemical transmitter. It is released in small amounts from

glands, and is transported in the bloodstream to target organs or other cells.
Hormones are chemical messengers, transferring information and
instructions from one set of cells to another.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
1. STEROID HORMONES
these hormones are lipid – soluble and derived
from cholesterol.
Examples:
a. Cortisol – secreted by adrenal cortex

• regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat

metabolism;
• has an anti-inflammatory effect;
• helps the body cope during times of stress
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
Examples:
b. Testosterone – secreted by the testicles.

• Itis essential for normal growth and

development of the male sex organs.
• Testosterone is responsible for the erection of
the penis.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
Examples:
c. Progesterone and Estrogen – produced by the
ovary

• These hormones prepare the uterus for pregnancy,

promote the development of mammary glands, play
a role in sex drive, and develop secondary sex
characteristics in the female.
• Estrogen is essential for the growth, development,
and maintenance of female sex organs.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
2. AMINES
these hormones are amino acid derivatives.
Examples:
a. Triiodothyronine, also known as T3
It affects almost every physiological process in the
body, including growth and development,
metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate.

b. Thyroxine, also known as T4

It stimulate the consumption of oxygen and thus the
metabolism of all cells and tissues in the body.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
3. PEPTIDES / PROTEINS
these hormones are water – soluble.
They make up the largest hormone group.
Examples
a. Glucagon – produced by pancreas
• It stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen (stored in the liver) to glucose, which can be
released into the bloodstream. This process is called glycogenolysis.
• It promotes the production of glucose from amino acid molecules. This process is called
gluconeogenesis.
• It reduces glucose consumption by the liver so that as much glucose as possible can be secreted
into the bloodstream to maintain blood glucose levels.
• Glucagon also acts on adipose tissue to stimulate the breakdown of fat stores into the
bloodstream.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
Examples
b. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – secreted by
the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
It stimulates the reabsorption of water by the
renal tubules.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
Examples
c. Oxytocin – secreted by the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland.
It stimulates the uterus to contract during labor,
delivery, or parturition.
Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
d. Adrenocorticotropin(ACTH)
essential for the growth of the
adrenal cortex.

e. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

essential for the growth and
development of the thyroid gland.
Types and Characteristics of
Hormones

f. Calcitonin: influences bone and

calcium metabolism; maintains a
homeostasis of calcium in the blood
plasma
Types and Characteristics of
Hormones

g. Insulin regulates how the body uses

and stores glucose and fat. Many of
the body’s cells rely on insulin to take
glucose from the blood for energy.
 Types and
Characteristics of
Hormones
h. Growth Hormone (GH):
essential for the growth and
development of bones, muscles, and
other organs.
It also enhances protein synthesis,
decreases the use of glucose, and
promotes fat destruction.
Types and Characteristics of
Hormones

i. Prolactin (PRL):
stimulates the development and
growth of the mammary
glands and milk production
during pregnancy.
The sucking motion of the baby
stimulates prolactin secretion.
 Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
j. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
is a gonadotropic hormone.

It stimulates the growth ovarian

follicles in the female and the
production of sperm in the male.
Types and Characteristics of
Hormones
k. Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
is a gonadotropic hormone
stimulating the development of
corpus luteum in the female
ovarian follicles and the
production of testosterone in the
male.
The yellow corpus luteum remains
after ovulation; it produces
estrogen and progesterone.
 PLANT
RESPONSES
 Plant Responses
• Plants, like animals, respond to stimuli in their
environment as a safety measure to ensure their
survival. Most plants respond more slowly than
animals by growing, either towards or away from
stimuli.
• This sort of response is called a tropism and it
is brought about by hormones, which are
involved in the control of many aspects of
plant growth and development.
• Different plant hormones interact with one
another to bring about the necessary responses.
 Phototropism
• Phototropism is a change in the
growth of a plant in response to
light.

• The stalk displays positive

phototropism growing towards
the light.
 Geotropism/
Gravitropism
• Geotropism is a change in growth of a
plant in response to gravity.
Negative
• The stalk displays a negative geotropism
growing away from gravity.

• The roots display a positive geotropism

Positive
growing towards gravity.
 Hydrotropism

• Hydrotropism is a change in the growth

of a plant in response to water.

Positive
• The roots display a positive
hydrotropism growing towards water.

Water
 Thigmotropism
• Thigmotropism is a movement in
which an organism moves or
grows in response to touch or
contact stimuli

• Thigmotropism usually occurs

when plants grow around a
surface, such as a wall, pot, or
trellis.
 Plant Hormones
• Plant Hormones are chemicals that occur naturally in
plants. These hormones work at extremely low
concentrations.
• They regulate plant growth and development, from seed
formation and germination to the ageing and death of a
plant.
• They also coordinate many plant responses to external
stimuli, for example, phototropism and geotropism.

• Plant hormones can be divided into two classes:

• Growth promoters: Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins
• Growth inhibitors: Ethylene gas, Abscisic acid
Growth promoters
Hormones can promote plant growth in two ways:

• Stimulating cell division in meristems to produce new cells.

• Stimulating elongation in cells.

A. Auxins
Auxins stimulate genes in cells associated with plant growth.

• Auxins carry out multiple

roles having to do with plant
growth including:
• Tropisms
• Apical dominance
• Growth of adventitious
roots
• Fruit growth
 Tropisms
• Tropisms are the growth of a plant
toward or away from a stimulus,
including:
• Phototropism: in response to
light
• Gravitropism: in response to
gravity
• Thigmotropism: in response to
touch
• Hydrotropism: in response to
water
Apical dominance
• Auxins are released from the
shoot tip. These stimulate cell
elongation in the stem, but
suppress the lateral buds.
Adventitious roots

• Adventitiousroots are those growing

out of places where roots don’t
normally grow.
• Auxinsstimulate root growth on the
end of a houseplant cutting.
 Fruit growth
• Developing seeds produce auxins that
stimulate growth of the plant ovary
into a fruit.

• Removal of seeds from a strawberry

prevents the fruit from growing, but
add auxin and will grow.
 B. Foolish rice seedlings

• Gibberellins were discovered

when Japanese scientists were
investigating bakanae, or “foolish
rice seedling” disease, that
caused seedlings to grow
excessively tall, then fall over.
Discovery of Gibberellins
• In1898, Shotaro Hori suggested that the disease was caused by a fungus that
infected the rice.

• Eiichi Kurosawain 1926 was able isolate secretions from the fungus. The
secretions caused the same symptoms when applied to other rice plants.

• In 1934, Teijiro Yabuta isolated the active substance and named it gibberellin.
 Functions of Gibberellins
• Promotescell elongation in the
internodes of plants.

• Stimulates growth of the ovary wall into

a fruit.

• Stimulatesseed germination and release

of food reserves in seeds.
 C. Cytokinins
• They are synthesized in the roots and in
developing fruits and seeds, and are transported
to various parts of the plant.
• It
promotes cell division in apical meristem and
cambium of stem.

• Promote fruit growth

• Promote lateral bud growth
• Break seed and bud dormancy
• Delay leaf senescence
 Growth Inhibitors
These chemicals inhibit growth and promote dormancy and
abscission in plants.
 D. Abscisic acid
• Abscisic acid
is found mostly near leaves,
stems, and unripe fruit.

Functions of Abscisic Acid

• Stimulation of closing of stomata
• Inhibition of shoot growth
• Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of
proteins
 E. Ethylene
• Ethylene ispresent in the tissues of ripening
fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and
flowers.

Functions of Ethylene
• Leads to release of dormancy state
• Stimulates shoot and root growth along with
differentiation
• Leaf and fruit abscission
• Flower and leaf senescence stimulation
• Stimulation of Fruit ripening