THE CELL THEORY, STRUCTURE AND
Such observation made him conclude that all
FUNCTIONS
CELL THEORY
Hans and Zacharias Jansen, Dutch inventors, made the
first simple microscope in 1590.
ROBERT HOOKE
Robert Hooke, an Englishman, gave the term “cell” for
the box-like structures observed in a cork tissue under
the microscope in 1667.
Hooke is the one that gives the name cell because
when he looked at the cork under a microscope each
compartment looks like a rectangular shape and he
remembered a monk living in a cell and that is where
he get the name CELL
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
Around 1675, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
naturalist, observed sperm cells, red blood cells,
bacteria, and other microscopic organisms in
rainwater after his invention of a more powerful
microscope. A nucleus was observed within some of
the red blood cells.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, studied plant
structures under the microscope. In 1838, he stated
that all plants are composed of cells.
THEODORE SCHWANN
In 1839, it was concluded that all animals are
composed of cells by Theodore Schwann, a German
zoologist. He studied on animal tissues.
Jointly, Schleiden and Schwann proposed that all
living things are made up of cells.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
Roughly, 20 years later, in 1855, Rudolf Virchow, a
German biologist, observed dividing cells during his
work.
living cells come from preexisting cells.
Eventually, unifying all the discoveries and other
advanced studies conducted, the cell theory was
formulated stating that:
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
3. Cells come from the division of preexisting cells.
The study of cell which started from the invention of
simple microscope until the development of cell
theory was conducted for about 300 years by several
scientists. From then on, further developments and
many technologies were made that had helped
humanity.
All cells have three main parts
CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane separates the internal contents of the
cell from its environment. It is a phospholipid bilayer
with proteins embedded in it. As a selectively
permeable membrane, some substances can readily
pass through it while others cannot.
The three major functions performed by the cell
membrane are as follows:
 (1) Separates the contents of the cell from its
environment,
 (2) regulates the passage of materials in and
out of the cell, and
 (3) permits communication with other cells.
CYTOPLASM
The whole region within the cell membrane is the
cytoplasm.
 Organelles are found and perform their
functions in the jelly-like substance called
cytosol.
 Various metabolic reactions like protein
synthesis and breakdown of sugar into ATP
take place in the cytoplasm.
 Other organic materials are found inthe
cytoplasm such as glucose and other simple
sugars, polysaccharides,
NUCLEUS
 OVAL SHAPE
 CONTROL CENTER OF THE CELL
  IT IS WHERE CHROMOSOMES ARE FOUND
Nucleus is the third main part of the cell. It is generally
oval in shape,covered with a nuclear membrane or
envelope.
 It is the control center ofthe cell that
regulates and coordinates all activities of the
cell.
 Chromosomes are found in the nucleus.
Within the chromosomes are DNAthat make
up the gene that bears the hereditary traits.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary
material in humans and almost all other organisms
The following are the basic organelles found in the
cytoplasm.
1. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the sites for the breakdown of
sugar molecules into adenosine triphosphate or ATP,
which is the main source of energy in the body.
2. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. The
coded message from DNA as to what kind of protein is
to be synthesized is carried by the mRNA from the
nucleus to the ribosome.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines teach our cells how
to make a protein that will trigger an immune
response inside our bodies.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consists of flattened
sheets, sacs, and tubes of membranes that extend
throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is
structurally continuous with the nuclear membrane,
and it specializes in the transport of lipids and
membrane proteins.
4. Golgi apparatus
A system of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that
looks like stack of pancakes is the Golgi apparatus. Its
function is to modify, sort, and pack macromolecules
for secretion or for transport to other organelles.
Rounded vesicles are associated to the Golgi
apparatus that pinched off
from its flattened sacs and carry the materials to
other parts of the cell.
5. Lysosome
Lysosome is also produced by the Golgi apparatus. It
is a membrane- bound organelle that comes in various
sizes and shapes. Lysosomes contain numerous
hydrolytic or digestive enzymes for the breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats within the cell. Thus,
they are known as “digestive sacs.” Destruction or
repair of defective parts of the cell is another function
of lysosomes.
6. Peroxisomes
Another membrane-bound vesicle that contain
oxidative enzymes are the peroxisomes. Enzymes
responsible for oxidizing certain molecules to form
hydrogen peroxide are found in peroxisomes. They
are abundantly found in liver cells, where fats and
lipids are metabolized. In plants, they convert fatty
acids into sugars needed by growing seedlings during
seed germination.
Organic reductions or organic oxidations or organic
redox reactions are redox reactions that take place
with organic compounds. In organic chemistry
oxidations and reductions are different from ordinary
redox reactions, because many reactions carry the
name but do not actually involve electron transfer
 peroxidases, which use hydrogen peroxide,
and oxidases, which use molecular oxygen.
7. Vacuoles
Vacuoles are large storage sacs in cells. The smaller
ones are called vesicles. In animals, some vacuoles
function for storage of water or food, while others are
for excretion of waste materials. Vacuoles in plants
occupy up to 95% of the cell volume.
Intracellular digestion, space filling, and control of cell
turgor are some of the functions of vacuoles in plants.
They contain water, sugar, salts, and anthocyanin
pigment. Toxic molecules are present that protect
plants from herbivorous animals.
 Anthocyanins are blue, red, or purple
pigments found in plants, especially flowers,
fruits, and tubers. In acidic condition,
anthocyanin appears as red pigment while
blue pigment anthocyanin exists in alkaline
8. Centrioles
Outside the nucleus of animal cells is found the
centrosome. It consists of two rod-shaped centrioles
which are at right angle to each other. They replicate
before cell division resulting into two pairs of
centrioles that later move apart becoming part of the
newly formed cells. They are believed to function in
the formation of spindle fibers.
 Spindle fibers form a protein structure that
divides the genetic material in a cell.
9. Cytoskeleton
A network of interconnected protein filaments that
extends throughout the cytoplasm is the cytoskeleton
that provides the cell’s structural support. It is
responsible for cell shape and motility.
Plastids are large membrane-bound organelle found
in plant cells. They have three classifications.
 The first is the chloroplast, the green-colored
plastid which is caused by the green pigment
called chlorophyll and is the site for
photosynthesis.
 The second are chromoplasts, colored plastids
other than green. These are specialized to
synthesize and store carotenoid pigments
such as red, orange, and yellow.
 The third are leucoplasts, the colorless plastid
that contain stored food.
Another organelle found in plant cells only is the
cell wall. It protects and supports the cells of the Cell cycle is divided in two
plants. INTERPHASE- preparing for cell division
MITOTIC- It is the cell division proper
Cytokenesis- mismong pagdidivide ng cytoplasm
G1-it is observed that the cell has no activity, but it is
doing something.

CELL CYCLE

- it double it size so that it has enough size in cell

division.
-they need energy in division of cell

- serve as a check point to ensure order progression in
cell division.
-if there is something wrong /damage in the cell they
will stop the cell division
-if there is no problem they will signal to continue the
cell division
-stimulating protein signals to continue the cell cycle
while the inhibiting proteins signals to stop the cell
division if there is damages ,it is called regulators of
the cell cycle
-the cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases ( regulate cell
cycle) will combine so that they can function to add
phosphate in protein to continue cell cycle
 P53 protein use to check DNA. If there is
damage the inhibiting protein will signal to
stop the cell division, and if the damage is
beyond repair, they will ask the cell to self
destruct in the process of Apoptosis is the
process of programmed cell death.
 Retinoblastoma protein if there is low
nutrient it will signal to stop the cell cycle
 Synthesis of DNA
 They replenish the energy because they
already used up the energy in s phase.
 Tubulin dimers is a substance to hold or
destroy the microtubules.
 Prophase –the Dna that are produced in S
phase will condense to produce
chromosomes. At the same time the nuclear
envelop will disintegrate in preparation for
cell division. Nababaklas ang cytoskeleton so
we can produce spindle fiber
 Metaphase –the condense chromosome will
be align at the middle which we call
equatorial plate so that the spindle fiber will
be attached properly
 Anaphase- ana means separate. The
chromosome will separate at anaphase
 Telophase – at the last phase mabubuo ulit
ang nuclear envelop
 Cytokinesis- cytoplasm will be divide so that
we can produce two daughter cell
  APC/C signal the protein in kinetochores to
disintegrate so that the sister chromatid will
be separated in anaphase
 MAD signals to stop mitosis
Chromosome abnormalities often happen due to
one or more of these:
➢ Errors during dividing of sex cells (meiosis)
➢ Errors during dividing of other cells (mitosis)

➢ Exposure to substances that can cause birth

defects (teratogens)

 Some cells will go back to G1 and some will go

to resting nondividing cell. Ex: neuron in brain
MALFUNCTION DURING CELL CYCLE
 cell cycle has different phases and each part
has its own checkpoint in order to monitor
the activities of the cell.
 Failure to regulate cell activities may result
to various disease and disorder.

CANCER

Karyotyping
 Karyotyping is the process by which
photographs of chromosomes are taken in
order to determine the chromosome
complement of an individual, including the
number of chromosomes and any
 Cancer refers to a group of diseases
abnormalities.
characterized by uncontrolled and abnormal
cell division. Aneuploidy
 It occurs when there is a disruption in the cell Numerical abnormality also called aneuploidy, a
cycle. I condition which occurs when an individual has a
missing chromosome from a pair (monosomy) or has
 Instead of stopping and starting at
more than two chromosomes of a pair (trisomy,
appropriate points, cancerous cells divide
tetrasomy, etc.).
continuously until a disorganized solid mass
of cells called tumor is formed. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
 Tumors can be categorized as benign or
malignant.
GENETIC DISORDERS
A change in the number or structure of
chromosomes can dramatically change the traits of
an organism and can cause serious problems.
Abnormal chromosomes most often happen as a
result of an error during cell division.
  The most common disorder of trisomy is
Down syndrome, wherein the 21st
chromosome has three instead of two
chromosomes.

 ✓ Most cases of Down syndrome are not due

to inheritance but on random mistakes
during formation of reproductive cells of the
parents.

 ✓ Physical manifestations: Short neck, with

excess skin at back of the neck. Flattened
facial profile and nose. Small head, ears, and
mouth. Upward slanting eyes.

✓ A condition resulting from two or more X

Turner Syndrome (45, XO) chromosomes in males

✓ Manifestations are typically more severe if three

or more X chromosomes are present as in (48, XXXY)
or (49, XXXXY).
 Physical manifestations: Primary features are
infertility and small poorly functioning
testicles. Sometimes includes weaker
muscle, greater height, poor coordination,
less body hair, breast growth and less
interest in sex.
Trisomy X Syndrome (47, XXX)

✓ A condition that affects only female as a result of

one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosome) is
missing or partially missing. Trisomy X Syndrome (47, XXX)

✓ Physical manifestations: Webbed neck, short ✓ Characterized by the presence of extra X

stature, swollen hands and feet. Some have skeletal
abnormalities, kidney problems, and/or congenital
heart defect.
Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY)
chromosome in each cell of a female
✓ Physical manifestations: Often taller than normal,
affected individuals have usually mild symptoms to
none at all. Occasionally there are learning
difficulties, delayed speech, decreased muscle tone,
seizures, or kidney problems.
Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

✓ Caused by having an additional copy of
chromosome 13 in some or all of the body’s cells.
✓ Physical manifestations: Clenched hands, cleft lip
or palate, extra fingers or toes (polydactyly), hernias,
kidney, wrist or scalp problems, low-set ears, small
head, undescended testis.
Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
✓ Caused by having additional copy of chromosome
18
✓ Physical manifestations: Cleft palate, Clenched
fists, defects of lungs, kidneys and stomach,
deformed feet, heart defects, low-set ears, severe
developmental delays, chest deformity, slowed
growth, small head, small jaw.
Structural abnormalities occur when the
chromosome’s structure is altered, which can take
several forms such as:
 Deletion – a portion of a chromosome is
missing or deleted;
 Duplication – segment of a chromosome is
repeated twice;
 Translocation – transfer of a section of one
chromosome to non-homologous
chromosome;
 Inversion – a section of the chromosome
becomes changed by rotation at 180 degrees
Cri-du-chat Syndrome (5p minus syndrome)
Cri-du-chat Syndrome (5p minus syndrome)
✓ A genetic condition caused by the deletion of
genetic material on the small arm (p arm) of
chromosome 5
✓ Physical manifestations: mentally retarded, has
abnormal development of glottis and larynx resulting
from a crying sounds that sound like the meowing of
a cat.
MEIOSIS- CELL DIVISION
There are two types of cell division,
 1. MITOSIS
 2. MEIOSIS
 Mitosis allows organisms to reproduce
asexually, grow and repair of worn-out or
damaged tissues
 Meiosis on the other hand, is important in
sexual reproduction and genetic diversity
among sexually reproducing organism.
MEIOSIS
 Many of the steps of meiosis closely
resemble corresponding steps in mitosis.
Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by the
duplication of chromosomes.
 However, this single duplication is followed
by not one but two consecutive cell divisions
called meiosis I and meiosis II. These two
divisions result in four daughter cells (rather
than the two daughter cells of mitosis), each
with only half as many chromosomes as the
parent cell—one set, rather than two.
Meiosis reduces the amount of genetic
information resulting to its importance in
sexual reproduction and genetic diversity
among sexually reproducing
 The overview of meiosis shows for a single
pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid
cell, that both members of the pair are
duplicated and the copies sorted into four
haploid daughter cells.
 Recall that sister chromatids are two copies of
one chromosome, closely associated all along
their lengths; this association is called sister
chromatid. Together, the sister chromatids
make up one duplicated chromosome. In
contrast, the two chromosomes of a
homologous pair are individual chromosomes
that were inherited from different parents.
 PROPHASE I Prophase of the first meiotic
division is typically longer and more complex
when compared to prophase of mitosis. It has
been further subdivided into the following
five phases based on chromosomal behaviour:
1. Leptotene 2. Zygotene 3. Pachytene 4.
Diplotene and 5. Diakinesis
 METAPHASE I The bivalent chromosomes
align on the equatorial plate. The
microtubules from the opposite poles of the
spindle attach to the pair of homologous.
 ANAPHASE I The homologous chromosomes
separate, while sister chromatids remain
associated at their centromeres.
 TELOPHASE I The nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows and
this is called as diad of cells. Although in many
cases the chromosomes do undergo some
dispersion, they do not reach the extremely
extended state of the interphase nucleus.
 PROPHASE II Meiosis II is initiated
immediately after cytokinesis, usually before
the chromosomes have fully elongated. In
contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a
normal mitosis. The nuclear membrane
disappears by the end of prophase II. The
chromosomes again become compact
 METAPHASE II At this stage the chromosomes
align at the equator and the microtubules
from opposite poles of the spindle get
attached to the kinetochores of sister
 ANAPHASE II It begins with the simultaneous
splitting of the centromere of each
chromosome (which was holding the sister
chromatids together), allowing them to move
toward opposite poles of the cell.
 TELOPHASE II Meiosis ends with telophase II
in which the two groups of chromosomes
once again get enclosed by a nuclear
envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of haploid daughter cells.
CELL MEMBRANE AND ITS STRUCTURE
CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane (also known as the plasma
membrane) is a biological membrane that
separates the interior of all cells from the
outside environment (the extracellular space)
which protects the cell from its environment.
 The cell membrane is composed of a
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins
and carbohydrates. It is semipermeable,
which means that not everything can enter or
pass through it. The cell membrane can easily
 be observed when you look at an animal cell
using a compound microscope
 In the cell membrane there are several
specialized fingerlike fold called microvilli.
Which mainly increase the surface of the cell.
These part enable the cell to perform several
functions depending on the type and location
of the cell.
Function of the cell membrane
 One is to transport nutrients into the cell and
also to transport toxic substances out of the
cell. Another is that the membrane of the cell,
which would be the plasma membrane, will
have proteins on it which interact with other
cells.
 The cell membrane also provides some
structural support for a cell.
Fluid mosaic model
 The fluid mosaic model was first proposed by
Seymour Jonathan Singer and Garth L.
Nicolson in 1972 to describe the structure of
cell membranes.
 The model is “fluid” because the various
functional macromolecules embedded in the
phospholipid matrix of the cell membrane can
move about the surface of the cell. Also, the
membrane, according to this model, is made
up of various parts (i.e., proteins,
carbohydrates, and cholesterol) that pave the
surface of the matrix just like individual tiles,
hence the “mosaic” appearance
PHOSPHOLIPID
 A phospholipid is amphipathic, which means it
has hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends. The
hydrophilic head, made up of a phosphate
group, has affinity with water, whereas the
hydrophobic tail, made up of fatty acids, does
not. On the tail of the phospholipid is a kink.
The kink is due to a double bond in the
unsaturated fatty acid. The kink prevents the
tight packing of the phospholipid, hence its
fluid movement.
CHOLESTEROL
 Cholesterol is found in between the
phospholipids. The cholesterol acts as a
fluidity buffer. During warm temperature, it
makes the movement of phospholipids
limited, making them less fluid. During low
temperature, it prevents the close packing of
the phospholipids, thus increasing their
fluidity. Phospholipids and cholesterol are
important in maintaining the fluidity of the
cell membrane. Failure of these two to
function may have detrimental effects to the
cell.
PROTEIN
INTEGRAL PROTEIN
 embed in the lipid bilayer
 Most integral proteins are transmembrane
proteins, which span the membrane
 Some integral membrane proteins form a
channel that allows ions or other small
molecules to pass
PERIPHERAL PROTEIN
 They are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at
all,
 they are loosely bound to the surface of the
membrane.
The functions of membrane proteins include
1. Transport
2. enzymatic activity,
3. signal transduction,
4. cell-cell recognition,
5. intercellular joining, and
6. attachment to the cytoskeleton and
7. extracellular matrix.
Among the most sophisticated functions of the
plasma membrane is its ability to transmit signals via
complex proteins. These proteins can be receptors,
which work as receivers of extracellular inputs and as
activators of intracellular processes, or markers,
which allow cells to recognize each other. Membrane
receptors provide extracellular attachment sites for
hormones and growth factors, which then trigger
intracellular responses. Some viruses, such as the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can hijack these
receptors to enter the cells, causing infections.
Short chains of carbohydrates or sugars (may consist
of 2–60 monosaccharide units and may be either
straight or branched) can be found attached to
proteins (forming glycoproteins) and lipids (forming
glycolipids) on the outside of a cell membrane.
Together, these carbohydrates form the glycocalyx.
The glycocalyx cushions and protects the plasma
membrane, and it is also important in cell recognition.
Functions of the plasma membrane:
 . It encloses every cell and maintains cellular
integrity, thus keeping all contents of the cell
from spilling out.
 It is a selective barrier that separates the
external from the internal environment of the
cell (compartmentalization).
 It provides many of the unique functional
properties of specialized cells.
 The plasma membrane’s lipid bilayer has a
hydrophobic region which creates a barrier
for some polar molecules. This hinders the
movement of certain materials through the
membrane. In other words, not all substances
can pass through the cell membrane.
However, some substances can pass through
it with ease, like gases, water, and other fatty
substances, while others, particularly larger
molecules (i.e., glucose, fatty acids, amino
acids, and glycerol), have difficulty in passing
through the cell membrane. This property
makes the cell membrane semi-permeable or
selectively permeable. The membrane
functions more like a bag of tightly woven
cotton fabric than like a concrete wall.
Nonpolar molecules, such as hydrocarbons, carbon
dioxide, and oxygen, are hydrophobic and can dissolve
in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it
rapidly. Remember that phospholipids are lipid in
nature, thus the concept ―like dissolves like‖ applies.
Polar molecules on the other hand such as glucose
and other sugars pass only slowly through a lipid
bilayer, and even water, a very small polar molecule,
does not cross very rapidly.
 Ions such as sodium and potassium must have
a special means of penetrating plasma
membranes.
 Cell membranes allow these ions and a variety
of polar molecules while avoiding meeting the
lipid bilayer.
 This can be done by passing through transport
proteins called channel proteins used by
certain molecules or ions as tunnels through
the membrane (Figure 3).
Transport across the Cell Membrane
 Transport across the cell membrane can be
classified as passive or active
 Substances moving across the selectively
permeable plasma membrane can be either
―passive‖—i.e., occurring without the input
of cellular energy —or ―active‖—i.e., its
transport requires the cell to expend energy.
Plasma membranes must allow certain
substances to enter and leave a cell, while
preventing harmful materials or wastes from
entering and essential material from leaving.
If plasma membranes were to lose this
selectivity, the cell would no longer be
functioning well, and it would be
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 Passive transport does not require energy,
whereas active transport and bulk transport
require energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) to transport substances
across the cell.
 Proteins can function as enzymes to speed up
chemical reactions, act as receptors for
specific molecules, or transport materials
across the cell membrane.
 Carbohydrates form the glycocalyx.
 Glycocalyx provides cushioning and protection
for the Cell membrane.
 Phospholipids and proteins provide a barrier
between the external environment and the
cell, regulate the transportation of molecules
across the membrane, and communicate with
other cells via protein receptors.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 In passive transport, focus will be given to
simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and
osmosis.
DIFFUSION
 In diffusion, molecules follow down the
concentration gradient. This means that
molecules move from an area of greater
concentration to an area of lesser
concentration. This process does not require
ATP.
 Diffusion is the natural tendency for
molecules to move constantly. Their
 movement is random and is due to the energy
found in the individual molecules. Net
diffusion occurs when the materials on one
side of the membrane have a different
concentration than the materials on the other
side.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 In active transport, molecules move from an
area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration. This kind of transport requires
energy in the process. Active transport allows
the uptake of nutrients from the external
environment even if there are higher amounts
of these inside the cell. Also, it allows
secretions and wastes to exit the cell even if
the concentration outside is higher than the
concentration inside the cell.
 in bulk transport, large substances can be
taken in by the cell through a process called
endocytosis.
 There are three basic types of endocytosis,
namely, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
 The release of substances from the cell is
called exocytosis. Exocytosis can be described
as the opposite of endocytosis. In this
process, products to be excreted from the cell
are first encased in a vesicle, which then move
toward the cell membrane. The vesicle then
fuses with the cell membrane, releasing its
content out of the cell and into the
environment. The vesicle finally becomes part
of the cell membrane. The inner surface of
the vesicle membrane is oriented outward.
Hormones are released by the endocrine
glands using exocytosis.