UNIT: Power, Sovereignty and International Relations

KEY GLOPO CONCEPTS: (memorize definitions) Power, Sovereignty, Legitimacy, Conflict, Violence,
Globalization, Interdependence

Power- The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a
range of types and forms.
Sovereignty- Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of a territory within recognised
borders. Primary organizing principle of global politics which provides states with the authority to represent their
territorial entity within the international community. State sovereignty can be challenged internally (for example,
secessionist groups) or externally (for example, one state invades another).
Legitimacy- Political legitimacy is the popular acceptance of authority. It is considered to be the basic condition for
government, without which it will collapse. Sometimes it only takes a small-influential elite to render a nation
legitimate despite the regime being unpopular (syria).
Globalization- Acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labor and capital which promote
global interdependence. These have been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology. Has
widespread impacts on social, political, economic and cultural life.
Conflict- The dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals, groups or countries. This
could be opposition over positions, interests or values. Most theorists would distinguish between nonviolent and
violent conflict. In this distinction, non-violent conflict can be a useful mechanism for social change and
transformation, while violent conflict is harmful and asks for conflict resolution.
Violence- Often defined as physical or psychological force inflicted upon another being. In the context of global
politics it could be seen as anything man made that prevents someone from reaching their full potential (e.g.
structural violence). This broader definition would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory
practices that exclude entire groups of people from accessing certain resources.
Interdependence- For global politics, the concept of interdependence most often refers to the mutual reliance
between and among groups, organizations, areas and states for access to goods and services that sustain living
arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a security dimension
(such as defense arrangements) and, increasingly, a sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties).
Globalization has increased interdependence , while often changing the relationships of power among the various
actors engaged in global politics.

Theories: Power Sovereignty

Liberalism Believe soft-power, cooperation and a rules
based international order are the most
effective and safest way of using power in
global politics. Liberals perceive states as
more powerful when they work together (i.e
through cooperation in international
organizations. They believe states should use
power by conforming to a world order
governed by international law and respecting
human rights.
Sees sovereignty as one of several principles
in world politics. It is important but not
exclusive and at the expense of other groups
or ideas. Sovereignty is not absolute and can
be pooled and challenged (when other states
fail to exercise their sovereignty responsibly).

Realism Believe that power politics have to do with
states’ hard power capabilities. They see
states as locked in competition with each
other, with each state wanting to protect its
national security against threats from other
states in an anarchic world order. States
either pursue offensive realism (i.e aiming to
expand their global power) or defensive
realism (i.e aiming merely to defend
themselves against external threats
Sees sovereignty as an essential feature of
global politics. Prepared both to defend
sovereignty as an inviolable principle and to
breach the sovereignty of other states if their
own national security requires it. View states
are the only legitimate bodies in global
politics. The interests and right of states to
act independently and defend their core
interests is prioritized over most other
principles and ideas.
Definitions and Joseph Nye (American political scientist and cofounder of neoliberalism theory)
theories of power  Hard power
 The use of force and threats of force to influence the decision-
making of those in charge
 Soft power
 Achieving aims through persuasion or influence (i.e the power to
get others to want what you want)
 Lies more in the realm of negotiation, promises of aid, cooperation
and other non-military means of influencing change
 Smart power
 The combination of hard and soft power – the ability to use both
when called for, or one or the other when necessary
Eric Wolf (Anthropologist)
 Structural power
 Refers to social conditions and the use of labor to maintain social
realms
John. J Mearshemer
 Offensive realism

Types of power Power

 The ability to influence other group in global politics and achieve outcomes.
At its simplest, power is about achieving desired goals and influencing
others.
 Power can be used to achieve material gains (i.e agree a trade deal
or defeat a terrorist group). It may be used to persuade others to
conform to a political/economic idea (i.e states persuading other
states to choose a democratic, capitalist model of government/fight
corruption)
 Power is variable → states can become more powerful,
whilst others see their power decline.
 Through IGOs, smaller states can cooperate with other states to
become more powerful than they would be alone (multilateral
power)
 Members of NATO may respond collectively (collective
power) to security threats by launching military action.
 Political and economic unions (e.g EU) can establish a single
currency zone that aims to maximize their economic power
Types of power
 Hard vs soft (see above)
 Military power – essential when using hard power.
 Military resources (i.e land, air or sea) are the ultimate means to
force another group or state to comply or to change their behavior.
 The most powerful states are often thought to be those with the
largest armies, the most advanced weapons (comprising nuclear),
and the technology/willingness to use this power.
 It is dangerous to draw firm conclusions about military
power from statistics and resources alone. What matter is
whether military resources are actually used and whether
they are successful when they are used (success should be
measured in terms of the objective of the use of military
power
 Economic power – (GDP, GDP per capita, Economic growth %)
 It is possible for states to seek only economic power (Germany,
Japan) however it is unlikely that a state will be a significant
 military power if it is not also a significant economic power.
 States can use economic power as a form of hard power.
States often impose sanctions on other states to force them
to change their behavior (i.e US sanctions on Iran to reduce
its nuclear deal)
 It’s also possible for states to develop an economic
relationship that balances out each state’s economic
strengths/weaknesses (i.e China depends on natural
resources from Africa, Africa depends on China for FDI in
infrastructure).
 Structural power – the means by which states affect global politics,
usually by promoting a model of politics that they favor, such as democracy
or capitalism.
 Some states may wish to push others towards a more democratic,
capitalist, free market economic model (i.e the ideological struggle
between capitalist and communist models of economic
development).
 In recent times, Western powers have tried to remove authoritarian
regimes and build up the democratic models of government (i.e
regime change in Iraq, Libya, Afghanistan) through hard military
power and regime change.
 Relational power is when a state has a relationship with another state and
uses this relationship to influence the other state to change its behavior;
using military, economic, hard, soft power or a combination of such.
 To be successful, the state will need an effective strategy, and must
know the other state’s strengths/weaknesses to know what would be
a convincing threat.
 Three types of relational power (Nye)
 Threats and rewards – likely to encourage the state to
achieve their desired goal
 Controlling the agenda – limiting the choices of the other
state in order to achieve the desired goal
 Establishing preferences – getting the other state to want
the same goals as your state
 Social and cultural power – globalization has given rise for some states to
export their cultural resources across the world.
 Global brands (e.g Simpsons, Facebook, BBC, Apple) are
universally known and popular. However, it’s difficult to know
whether this brand popularity has any soft power benefit for the
states from which the brand originates
 Just because BBC is popular in Pakistan, it does not mean
that the UK is perceived positively
 Thus, cultural power connects diverse populations around the world
at a more human, rather than strategic, level
The evolving Nation state
nature of state  The result of a complex division of labor and exchange relationships – it is
sovereignty a political and territorial entity
 “Nation” implies that there is a common ethnicity and cultural
characteristics (i.e language)
 “State” most often refers to the sovereign nature of the area in
which a state has been formed
 States are classified as sovereign if they are independent entities not
controlled by other territories or entities
 In order for sovereignty to exist, there has to be an agreement
within the nation’s population that the state is legitimate and the
holders of the will of the people
Westphalian Sovereignty
 A state’s sovereignty is dependent on other states recognizing the state as a
state
 This idea originates from classical Rome and Medieval Europe. The
Treaty of Westphalia (1648) can be seen as the point where the
ideas of statehood were formally established.
 The principle of sovereignty has been supported through
putting ideas such as diplomacy and non-intervention into
practice.
 Groups such as the Islamic State may call themselves a state, but if
no other states or international organizations recognize them,
they cannot be considered a sovereign state. International
legitimacy is essential in order for a state to be considered an
independent sovereign country.
Features of Sovereign Nations – Montevideo Convention (1933)
 A permanent population
 Do people live in a permanent place? Is the population fixed?
Refugees?
 A defined territory and borders
 Do the ICJ and international law agree on state borders?
Identifiable borders on a map?
 Effective government
 Does a government exist? Does it have full authority and control
over its territory?
 The capacity and legitimacy to enter relations with other states
 Does the state have diplomatic relations (i.e summits, IGO
memberships, bilateral/multilateral partnerships)?
The Montevideo Convention is used to determine whether a nation is a
sovereign state, however there are many challenges to this method as some
non-state groups conform to some of the above features

Present-day status of sources of sovereignty

 In modern global politics, the UN is the key international body which
agrees the legitimacy of state borders and makes rulings on borders that are
contested
 → being recognized as a full member state of the UN is the ultimate
confirmation of independent statehood
 At an international level, where borders or sovereignty are disputed, the
resolutions of the UNSC and decisions of the ICJ are important statements
of international law
 Rulings from both institutions however are sometimes ignored
 At a national level, states and regions seeking independence often hold a
referendum, in which the population votes directly on whether it should
become independent
Legitimacy of Legitimacy of state power (i.e how states organize themselves and manage their
state power internal sovereignty)
 Democratic states
 Democracy is the most common model of state government. This
means that governments are elected by a free and fair process –
where every member of the adult population is able to vote freely
for the representative they choose, without intimidation,
interference and with every vote counting equally.
 There is no single model of a democratic state. Each has its
own strengths and weaknesses, each distributes power and
ensures accountability within the state in different ways.
 In states that are not democracies, the governments
generally nneed to use authoritarian means to
control their territory. This means that the
government is not elected or accountable to the
population, and people have no means of
influencing or removing the government
 Federal states
 In federal states, there is a government, usually in the capital city,
which has central power over some policy (i.e foreign policy).
Beyong this, there are governments at a subnational level which
have the power to make and enforce the law.
 The US is a federal system of government. Individual states
have the power to decide and enforce their own, different
laws (i.e some states have the death penalty).
 Unitary states
 In unitary states, the central government has greater control and
authority over what happens within its territory. Most decisions and
laws are decided by a national legislature (i.e national elected
parliament).
 In the UK, Scotland has its own parliament and can make
its own laws in certain areas. These powers are delegated
by the legislature and could be restored back to the national
parliament.
 Fragile states
 May be democratic or undemocratic, but the defining feature is that
the state’s internal sovereignty and power is weak. The government
may be non-existent, illegitimate, or just too weak to have authority
over its territory
 The central government in Somalia had no power over
large parts of its country during the civil war. The war
prevented elections from being held and there was an
almost total collapse of the government’s power to keep
law/order and provide public services (i.e health/education)
 Authoritarian states
 In states where there is no democracy, the government is not
elected and governs with authority that cannot be challenged, held
to account or influenced by its population. Leaders remain in power
for as long as they wish, or until they are removed by means such as
a military coup, foreign intervention or popular uprising.
 Human rights abuses are likely to be widespread and the
rule of law is not respected
 Monarchy
 Governed by a hereditary monarchy or royal family, which is
unelected but has gained its authority through generations of rule by
 the family.
 Monarchies differ greatly, some have more of a symbolic
role (i.e England), while others have greater political
control (i.e ruling family in Saudi Arabia).
 Theocracy
 Meaning literally ‘rule or government by religion’ theocracy is
where power is held by religious groups, rather than non-religious
political parties
 Ruling Shura council in Saudi Arabia has the power to make and enforce
Saudi’s Sharia oe Islamic law, alongside the countries ruling monarchy

The United The United Nations (UN)

Nations (UN)  The leading international organization truly ‘international’ in nature. It has
193 member states, representing most of the world’s sovereign states. Its
policies are wide ranging
 Charter of the United Nations
 Founding document of the UN
Major constituent parts
 General assembly
 Security council
 Economic and social council
 International court of justice
 Secretariat
Objectives
Objectives Agencies and activities
Promoting and UNSC – passes resolutions and authorizes peacekeeping and other
protecting global military action to protect global security. Some resolutions authorize
security military action led by other international organizations, such as
NATO. Peacekeepers are sent across the world.

ICJ – makes rulings in international law when states disagree over

sovereignty
Protecting and UN Human Rights Council – consists of a selection of UN member
promoting human states, working in rotation, to investigate and make other member
rights states accountable for protecting human rights

UN High Commissioner for Human Rights – a UN agency that

operates independently from member states. It scrutinizes member
state’s human rights record
Advancing world Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – until 2015, agreed
human and international action to promote human development across the
economic poorest regions of the world. Replaced by the Sustainable
development Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, which continued the work of
MDGs, with a greater emphasis on sustainable development.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – made up of 54 member

states, serving one-year terms, ECOSOC coordinates UN action on
economic, social and environmental issues. It also oversees the work
of SDGs

United Nations Development Program (UNDP) – works on UN-

agreed development priorities across the world, funded by member
states
Tackling collective The UN has led to many important international summits on climate
issues change. Successful examples: Kyoto protocol (1997). Less
 successful: Copenhagen Accord (2009) and the Paris Agreement
(2015)

The essence of the debates about the UN center on its ability to challenge the
sovereignty of the nation state, and if any of its treaties and covenants are
enforceable at all.

Intergovernmenta Economic IGOs

l Organizations  World Trade Organization (WTO)
(IGOs)  Decides and enforces the rules of international trade, and resolves
trade disputes between states through negotiation. The WTO is
made up of member states and is therefore an IGO. There has to be
an agreement amongst all members before policy is officially
adopted.
 Has been criticized for failing to make progress in helping
developing countries to join global markets through its
Doha Development Agenda.
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 Works to improve global cooperation on financial stability and to
promote economic growth and reduce poverty across the world.
 The IMF continues to offer both financial assistance (loans)
and technical advice to help states’ economic development
Collective Security
 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
 The most significant example of a formal security alliance –
founded in 1949 by the US and European allies in response to the
Cold War threat.
 NATO has expanded continuously since, mainly Eastward
to include former soviet states
 An IGO such as NATO exists to provide states with collective
security – all member states offer one another military protection in
the event of an attack
Hybrid IGOs – having a number of different functions
 The European Union (EU)
 Complex regional hybrid IGO that has a very wide range of
responsibilities and supporting institutions. It has supranational
powers.
 The idea was that member states would become politically
and economically unified, and would become so
interdependent that any future conflict would be near
impossible
 Most advanced and integrated IGO, sometimes criticized for actions
ling a nation state and challenging state sovereignty.
 Key bodies
 European commission – acts as the EU’s executive, with the power
to propose new laws. Has the power to set the agenda of the EU
independently of the member states and their interests
 European parliament – Often criticized as its parliament has weaker
powers than the national parliament of sovereign states.
 European court of justice – has the power to force member states to
comply with EU law
 European central bank – has the power to set monetary policy for
member states of the EU that are in Eurozone and have adopted the
EU’s single currency
 African Union
  Made up of every African nation state (excluding Morocco), and
mainly deals with security, and political and economic
development.
 Has become more involved in peacekeeping missions in
Africa, and has had considerable success.
 It also allows African states to speak with one voice on the
international stage

Non-governmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

organizations  They lobby in domestic as well as international settings and mobilize their
(NGOs), home or host states and national and global public opinion.
multinational  NGOs immensely enhance the flow of information in global governance.
corporations They report information about domestic politics to the world beyond a
(MNCs) and trade nation's borders, and, in the reverse direction, they bring global concerns
unions and perspectives to the national and local levels
 International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Amnesty
International, Human Rights Watch, Greenpeace
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
 Their job leads to investments and goods being traded that contribute to
interconnections between different nations.
 Unilever, Philops, IKEA, Lenovo, Tata
Trade Unions
 The typical activities of trade unions include providing assistance and
services to their members, collectively bargaining for better pay and
conditions for all workers, working to improve the quality of public
services, political campaigning and industrial action.
 International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)

Social movements, Social movements

resistance  A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people
movements and to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be
violent protest to carry out, resist or undo a social change. It is a type of group action and
movements may involve individuals, organizations or both.
 Occupy, Black Lives Matter, Umbrella Movement, Fridays For
Future
 The Occupy movement is an international socio-political
movement against social inequality and lack of 'real
democracy' around the world, its primary goal being to
advance social and economic justice and new forms of
democracy.
Stages of social movements

Violent protest movements

 An organized initiative portraying collective disapproval towards a socio-
political reform (protest); which oftentimes devolves into the use of violent
force and aggression by state and non state actors.
 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC),
 Hezbollah, Naxalites
 The FARC and other guerrilla movements claim to
be fighting for the rights of the poor in Colombia to
protect them from government violence and to
provide social justice through communism. The
Colombian government claims to be fighting for
order and stability, and to protect the rights and
interests of its citizens.
Resistance movements
 A resistance movement is an organized effort by a portion of the civil
population of a country to withstand the legally established government or
an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability.
 Arab Spring, Orange Revolution in Ukraine

Political Parties Political Parties

 A key element in almost every country in the world.
 There are one party systems (China), 2 party systems (US) and
multi-party systems (India)
 Political parties by nature function at a national level
 They differ in their composition, structure and aims
Similar ideas across political parties:
 Agree on some policies and programs for the society with a view to
promote the collective good
 As there exist different views on what is good for all, the parties try to
persuade people as to why their policies are better than others
 Seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through
elections
 Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in society
 Parties are a part of society and thus involve partisanship
 Thus, a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it
supports and whose interests it upholds

Legitimacy of States (sources of legitimacy)

state and non-  Democracy
state actors  At a national level, democracy brings legitimacy to governments
that wish to exercise control over a particular region. Leaders are
democratically elected by popular vote and serve for limited
periods.
 i.e US Constitution limits presidents to two 4 year terms of
office
 Democracies are enhanced by:
 The ability of the electorate to participate in elections freely
and without intimidation
 The electorate being able to choose from a wide range of
political parties and alternative governments
 The extent of checks and balances on the government (i.e
an independent judiciary and effective legislature).
 Balance of power
 At a national level, states are often organized so that power is
balanced amongst 3 key branches
 Executive
 Elected government which produces policy ideas
and carries them out
 Legislative
 Scrutinizes proposals of the elected government,
 votes on whether these proposals should become
law
 Judiciary
 Ensures that the laws proposed by the executive,
and agreed by the legislature, are upheld fairly
according to the rule of law.
 Constitution
 This clearly sets out and limits the powers of the state, and branches
of government within the state. Powers that are set out in a
constitution are fixed and cannot be changed without undergoing a
lengthy process
 The rule of law
 Key source of legitimacy
 Particularly important for a fair system of justice and
human rights. The key principles are that the law is always
applied equally to all citizens; that neither citizens nor the
government are above the law; and that every citizen has
the right to a fair and legitimate trial
 International law
 Sovereignty can be confirmed and legitimized in a number of ways
in international law (often through judgements of the ICJ and
UNSC)
 Other sources include:
 Performance legitimacy
 Possession and use of force
 Ideological legitimacy
NGOs
 Non-governmental organizations frequently offer an independent
perspective on the legitimacy of government actions
 Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International put pressure on
governments to improve their codification and protection of human
rights laws.
 NGOs themselves gain legitimacy through both their actions – being seen to
be fair and transparent – and also through the recognition and status that
some IGOs give them, such as the UN and EU
IGOs
 International organizations gain legitimacy from the treaties and agreements
on which they are founded
 Treaty of Rome (European Union), United Nations Charter (United
Nations).
 IGOs usually have clear procedures and rules stating what their powers and
areas of interest are. Some very powerful IGOs, like the European Union
and its European Central Bank, can clash with nation states.
 In such cases, deciding which side has the greater legitimacy (the
state or IGO), can only be done by examining whether the IGO is
acting within its powers and whether the state has complied fully
with the rules and procedures of the IGOs
 i.e IMF and European Central Bank imposing austerity
measures on Greece (Eurozone member state), even though
the Greek people had elected an anti-austerity government.
Violent Extremist Groups
 A frequent debate in global politics is whether violent extremist and
terrorist groups are fighting a legitimate cause.
 i.e whether one person’s terrorist is another person’s freedom
fighter
  Confidence building measure, like commitment to non-violence and to
peaceful dispute resolution, may give violent extremist groups legitimacy to
take part in negotiations
 Other violent extremist groups may try to justify their violent actions by
saying that they have no other option than violent struggle.
 When civil and political rights are denied to opposition groups there
is a risk that they may resort to violence or civil disobedience
 The way in which IGOs or states refer to violent extremist groups (i.e
terrorist groups or other names) influences their legitimacy

NGOs and extremist groups often gain legitimacy through the recognition of states
or IGOs, whereas an IGO is usually legitimized by a treaty or formal international
agreement

Global governance Global governance

 The way states organize themselves, make agreements and tackle shared
challenges above national level, usually through international organizations
with clear rules.
 From a liberal perspective, global governance is a key priority. It
allows states to react to – and solve – problems that they have in
common and that, if left unresolved, would impact on more than
one state.
 Climate change, for example.
 The growth of IGOs over recent decades suggests that the liberal ideal of
global governance is progressing well.
 However, IGOs are frequently limited in what they are able to agree
on. Often IGOs or international summits cannot agree on a joint
agenda for action.
 Realism takes over, with states protecting their national
interests. Some states use IGO memberships to protect their
core interests. This can be seen when the core members of
the UNSC use their veto power.

Reasons why effective global governance is difficult

Cooperation: Cooperation
treaties, collective  Treaties
security, strategic  States do not simply cooperate with each other through IGOs. A
alliances, more flexible way of cooperating with other states is through
economic bilateral and multilateral treaties
cooperation,  These are agreed between as many or as few states as
informal desired
cooperation  These may be agreed by states that group together on a
particular issue, rather than by region
  If in treaty form, they represent formal international law
 Some treaties are used to establish, or change the rules of,
IGOs
 To be fully covered by, and obliged to comply with treaties, states must:
 Sign the treaty
 Ratify the treaty through their national legislatures or parliaments
Examples of treaties

 States can cooperate with one another by signing international treaties,

however some have been more successful than others
Collective security
 NATO (see above)

Strategic alliances
 States frequently cooperate more informally, without the need for treaties or
IGOs. Choosing reliable and profitable allies and working together on
matters of security, trade or development is important if states want to
achieve their goals and protect their interests.
 For example, the so-called “Special Relationship” between the US
and UK. This peaked after the attacks of 9/11, and subsequent
military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq, where both states were
involved in military action in Iraq and Afghanistan.
 Powerful states may decide to form new alliances with less powerful states
for mutual benefit.
 China has increased ties with many African states in recent years.
China has invested heavily in infrastructure in return for favorable
access to natural resources which they lack.
Economic cooperation
 Bilateral and multilateral trade agreements (Trans-Pacific Partnership, trade
blocs)
 Regional economic integration (EU Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade
Areas, DCFTA)
 These facilitate and regulate international production of goods and
services
 Economic globalization
UNIT: Development

KEY GLOPO CONCEPTS: (memorize definitions) Development, Globalization, Inequality, Sustainability,

Justice, Liberty, Equality, Power

Development - A sustained increase in the standard of living in a society.

Globalization - The increasing interdependence and interconnectedness among countries, regions and peoples due
to the integration of trade, culture, finance, people and ideas in one global marketplace.
Inequality - A state of affairs where equality between people or groups is not realized and the consequent potential
compromises of justice and liberty. Inequality often manifests itself through unequal access to resources that are
needed to sustain life and develop individuals or communities.
Sustainability - Ensuring that present actions to improve the lives of human beings and the environment should
endure for future generations.
Justice - The concept of fair treatment, usually based on an agreed and accepted set of laws that are applied
equally, universally and with the right to a fair trial. Usually delivered through rule of law, a key feature of an
effective and fair justice system.
Liberty - About the freedom of individuals to live a life without excessive interference from those in power, and with
the freedom to flourish and make the most opportunities. Predominantly negative rights (first-generation) like civil
and political ones that protect individuals’ liberty from the state.
Human Rights - The indivisible rights which all human beings are entitled to by virtue of their humanity, without
discrimination.
Equality - The idea that people are treated the same, without discrimination, and are allowed to enjoy the same
opportunities. Predominantly positive rights (second-generation) which emphasize the economic, social and cultural
rights that allow citizens to flourish within the state. Aimed at delivering equality of opportunity for each citizen.
Power - The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a
range of types and forms.

THEORIES:

Neo-Marxism/  An idea that stems from classical marxism, but operates on an international
Neo-Colonialism level:
 The class struggle that is seen at a national level between the proletariat and
the bourgeois, the same inequalities of wealth and development are observed
between states. Developed states (Western world) exploit the developing
world by extracting their resources and making them dependent on them for
trading exports.
 Free trade, privatization, and deregulation has created a new form of neo-
colonialism that keeps developing countries reliant on wealthier states for
development
o Global North vs Global South

Feminist Critical  'The personal is political' - Feminist theory claims that much of IR has
Theory operated on the premise that the state is the main actor, disregarding the
private sphere of influence concerning the individual.
 The idea that women should be placed at the forefront of legislation, and that
empowering women through equal opportunities in education, employment
and political representation will promote development

Different Development
definitions  A sustained increase in the standard of living in a society
of Contested essence of development
developmen  The term has diverse meanings and forms for different stakeholders, ranging from
t IGOs, governments and NGOs to families and individuals.
 While development for all sections of society necessarily includes the
basics of food, clothing and shelter, the significance of what else has to be
considered varies.
 People often refer to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the context of
development, as it shows a progression from basic human needs (i.e water) at the
bottom of the hierarchy, to higher needs (relationships, self-esteem) further up the
hierarchy.
 The goal is self actualization (i.e achieving one’s potential), but this can
not be achieved if the bottom levels are not secure.

 Conventionally, development was simply used in the context of economic growth

or perceptible and quantifiable economic and technological advancement
 While development is intrinsically linked to economic growth and a well
managed economy, it is too simplistic to say that higher income states are
more developed.
 Social and political factors, like human rights and democracy, are equally
important in development.
 For development to occur, it is important that economic growth
also translates into an improved quality of life for people in every
area of society, bringing in a human dimension to its
understanding
 Similarly, it also has to be sustainable – that is, endure for future
generations
Economic development (growth)
 Refers to economic growth. The aim of economic development is to increase
productivity and revenue, to establish new industries; innovate and diversify the
economy into many different sectors.
 This would ordinarily mean an increase in GDP/GNP, and overall
standard of living
 Not so much about money as it is about value and productivity (i.e
a highly developed economy will produce more goods and
services that are of value).
 Poverty reduction and equitable distribution of wealth
 The twin problems of poverty and income inequality are
fundamental to all development-related policies, and a solution
of both the causes and indicators of poverty coupled with
equitable distribution of wealth are essential prerequisites to any
progress
 Poverty is similarly very contested, but the majority of perceptions and
definitions can be grouped into: material needs, economic
circumstances and social circumstances
  In order for development to occur at a sustained level, it is imperative to cut off the
roots of these problems by devising and implementing effective strategies to tackle
them

Human development
 The process of enlarging people’s freedoms and opportunities, as well as
improving their well-being; in a way that enables them to:
 Lead longer, healthier lives
 Gain knowledge
 Have a comfortable standard of living
 There is an emphasis on capabilities which refers to the prerequisites people
require to pursue a life of value. Thus, it is imperative that this process of
development focuses on:
 Widening people’s choices through formation of human capabilities –
through improved knowledge, skills and health
 The level of their achieved well-being and the use people make of these
capabilities – for leisure, productive purposes or being active in
political/social/cultural affairs
Therefore, an increase in a country’s GDP does not translate to an improvement in its
inhabitants’ standard of living. This may occur because:
 The poor may not be able to enjoy the benefits of this increase in income due to
income disparities
 Weak governance, absence of a government inclined to assist the poor
 High levels of corruption
Process of human development

 1) building and improving human capabilities through ensuring good nutrition,

education and sharpening skills
 2) making sure that these honed skills and improved human capital are used to
acquire better employment or participate actively in political decision-making and
so forth
Sustainable development
 Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs
 The concept of sustainable development stresses the need to balance the
three interlinked areas – social, economic and environmental.
  The idea is to foster social and economic development while ensuring
environmental protection for future generations
 This is due to the fact that resources are finite and have to be used
with caution and care
 Sustainable development stress the need to eliminate poverty, alter consumption
patterns and protect natural resources in the process of economic and social
development
 Sustainable development rests on the following pillars:

Measuring Measuring development

developmen  The complexity of development makes the task of measuring it very convoluted
t Income-based measures
 GDP and GDP per capita, gini coefficient.
 GDP per capita measures the economic output of a nation per person.
When GDP per capita is increasing, this means the economy is growing,
and it is an indicator of development. If there is no growth, or a downward
trend, there is negative development.
 While the measure is simple and easy to get for most
states, it does not consider how the income is distributed.
This can be very misleading in unequal societies (i.e if the
rich are getting richer, this may show an increase in GDP
per capita, even though the situation of the poor did not
change at all)
 The gini coefficient considers the distribution of income. It measures the
difference between the incomes of the richest and of the poorest, and how many
people earn how much on this spectrum.
 A high gini coefficient indicates that there is a lot of inequality in
society and a great difference between the incomes of the
wealthiest and poorest. It is used to complement the overall
picture provided by GDP per capita.
Complex measures of development (composite)
 More complex measures of development attempt to capture aspects of
development other than just economic data.
Human Development Index (HDI)
  The index addresses three dimensions of human development
 1) Life expectancy at birth; 2) Average years of schooling of people 25
years old and above, expected years of schooling of a child; 3) PPP GNI
per capita
 The HDI reveals the following:
 National priorities in terms of which countries are effectively combining
economic progress with social development. The rankings also reflect on
which sector – education, health or income – has been successfully built
on or is lagging behind.
 Potential growth – if a country has built up human capital, and the correct
policies are employed, it is very likely that people will have access to
market opportunities, resulting in equitable economic growth
 Disparities between people – the report has breakdowns of data on the
basis of gender, income, geographical region and ethnicity
 Countries are ranked as: Very high, High, Medium, and Low in
terms of human development
 HOWEVER, the HDI simplifies and captures only part of what human
development entails. It does not reflect on inequalities, poverty, human security,
empowerment, etc.
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) – sustainable development
 The Genuine Progress Indicator uses a set of 26 indicators including social,
environmental and economic factors which are used to measure the quality of life
 Beginning with GDP, the GPI also factors in all the intangible and
unaccounted positives such as parenting, volunteer work and higher education
and then lessens the costs of social and environmental setbacks (i.e
deforestation, pollution)

Happy Planet Index (HPI)

 Measures the extent to which countries are able to provide a happy, long and suitable
life for their citizens and inhabitants.

 The HPI uses three indicators

 1) Life expectancy; 2) Experienced well-being (where respondents can rank
their lived on a scale of 0 to 10); 3) Ecological footprint (a per capita measure
of the amount of land needed to sustain the consumption patterns of a country
 Countries are ranked on the basis of how many happy and long lives are produced for
every unit of environmental output.
 Reveals that most of the high-income countries ranked low on the index due
to their use of the environment
 Corruption Perception Index (CPI)
 The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) ranks of countries around the world,
based on how corrupt their public sectors are perceived to be.

Political Conflict and development

factors  Development depends on the bedrock of peace. The centrality of peace and
stability as a foundation for development has been aptly reiterated and stressed
upon by the UN
 How can peace and stability promote development?
 Developed countries are often peaceful and stable, meaning there
is relatively little violence or conflict in these states. A stable
government is necessary for appropriate decision making and
employing policies that are beneficial for development. Stability
also leads to inflows of FDI, as people seek security for their
assets.
 How can peace and stability inhibit development?
 Conflicts destroy the social, economic, political and cultural fabric
of society through a trail of ill effects such as loss of life, forced
migration, damage to energy infrastructure (which may force
countries to switch to less sustainable alternatives – Liberia)
 Instability and war deprives governments the ability to provide
relief, as most funds are allocated to military or policing. Wars
also increase vulnerability to famine.
 Erodes trust and attractiveness of investment destinations and
trade partners (capital flight) – both of which are an intrinsic part
of economic growth/development
 Proven that poverty continues to persist in countries plagued by
violence
Governance: accountability and transparency
 Much of a country’s development is related to matters concerning governance (i.e
stability, accountability, transparency, legal frameworks).
 This means the actions of government officials can be reviewed by the public or
an independent body. The purpose here is to prevent corrupt government officials
from personally benefiting from their office. Developed states also have a
powerful and independent judicial system that impartially reviews the legality of
the government’s actions. A state that does not have an independent judiciary may
be more vulnerable to corruption.
 How can accountability and transparency promote development?
 Governments and leaders who have a positive approach towards
an accountable and transparent system with a strong and efficient
bureaucracy are known to have an accelerated growth rate
 High levels of government transparency can be associated with
low corruption levels in the public sector. This means that the
population can trust that the government and public sector act in
their best interests. Tax revenue will most likely be reallocated
efficiently, improving infrastructure, healthcare, education and
other desirable services. This will likely lead to improvements in
development
 How can accountability and transparency inhibit development?
 Low levels of government transparency can be associated with
high corruption levels in the public sector. Corruption erodes the
trust people have in the public sector to act and represent their
best interests. It misallocates taxes and other revenues leading to
little or no improvement in infrastructure, healthcare or education.
Finally, lack of an independent judiciary means that courts will
 likely not act impartially, making unfair or unjust decisions due to
influence by outside sources.

Economic Access to resources

factors  Different countries have different supplies of natural resources. Having access to
valuable resources is considered necessary for economic development. Having a
supply of valuable resources allows for economic growth since they are typically
exported to larger markets abroad.
 How can access to resources promote development?
 Access to natural resources can help states advance in Rostow’s
model of development, as developing states can export these
natural resources and branch out into different sectors. Simply put,
to create wealth you must first have something to sell. Different
countries have different things for sale depending on what they
have access to.
 How can access to resources inhibit development?
 Although having natural resources is useful for creating economic
growth, depending too much on exports can cause a country to be
vulnerable to changes in the global economy. If prices of a
country’s exports drop they may experience an economic
recession.
 The impacts of this recession may be more severe if
exports are created by state or publicly owned enterprises
(e.g. oil production in Venezuela).
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
 A foreign direct investment is an investment in the form of controlling ownership
in a business in one country by an entity based in another country.
 How can FDI promote development?
 Developing countries can be rich in resources, but lack the needed
infrastructure and technology to take advantage of them. These
resources can bring about much needed revenue for the
government to invest in education, healthcare and other services
to improve the quality of life.
 How can FDI inhibit development?
 Much of the revenue they earn from extraction of resources is not
invested in the developing country, but shared with stockholders
back home.
 MNCs can face accusations of human rights abuses and other
abuses of their power.
Access to capital, credit and aid
 Capital could be defined as a stock of wealth used to produce goods and services
(physical, natural, human). Credit is an agreement under which a borrower
receives something of value in the present and has to repay the same (with
interest).
 How can access to capital, credit and aid promote development?
 Aid can prop up the process of development in various ways.
External assistance in areas critical to human development (i.e
food, education, health).
 For a country that has been suffering, or is in the process of
recovering from natural disasters or conflicts of any kind, aid is
required to ensure relief and stability.
 Aid in areas such as the establishment of sound infrastructure
facilities can help establish a solid foundation for industrialization
and growth
 Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA)
  How can access to capital, credit and aid inhibit development?
 Aid could promote the tendency for states and governments to
develop a pattern of reliance, even as it expunges the spirit of self-
help, hard work and entrepreneurship.
 Aid can prove to be harmful when combined with poor
governance – corruption and a lack of transparency. A corrupt
government could swindle aid for private gain and become even
stronger at the expense of the poor population
 Lack of transparency only aggravates this problem

Social Values, cultures and traditions

factors  The term culture includes a society’s or community’s value systems and beliefs.
Since culture and traditions help shape and condition the values of ethics of
society, they also have an impact on the social and economic aspects of their lives.
 How can values, cultures and traditions promote development?
 A culture clear of corrupt practices and with an ethos conducive to
innovation, entrepreneurship, gender equality and racial harmony
augments the attractiveness of a country as a destination for
investments (FDI) as well as a favorable location for setting up
operations for companies/institutions/organizations.
 Culture could also be used to attract tourism – a major
revenue earner for many states.
 How can values, cultures and traditions promote development?
 Trade union culture, strikes, loss of labor hours and a lack of
discipline are all cultural attributes that deter both interest and
investments in society (capital flight).
 Some suggest that religion is a limiting factor on development
while others believe it improves productivity.

Gender

 Gender roles are integral to culture. Some societies adhere to strict gender roles
while others are more egalitarian.
 How can gender roles promote development?
 A society in which women have rights and access to opportunities
provides an environment for the expansion of capabilities (i.e
ability to read/write, have a long and healthy life, earn a
respectable living and take part in decision-making)
 Empowering women will generate additional income and
productivity, and create employment
 The most productive, and also most developed, states are the ones
that mobilize the productive capacity of its entire population,
regardless of gender.
 The contribution of the many roles that women can play in
development cannot be disputed
 How can gender roles inhibit development?
 In some cultures, women are relegated to domestic tasks and child
care. This effectively removes women from the work force and
limits the overall productivity of society.
 Women are unable to realize their potential
(impedes human development)
 Discriminated against in terms of education, property,
employment opportunities, economic freedom and empowerment
 Contradicts feminist critical theory
 Miration

 Crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain minimum

period of time. This includes movements of refugees and uprooted displaced
people as well as migrants. One of the main variables encompassing globalization
 How can migration promote development?
 Migration can bolster economic growth and the development of a
recipient country simply due to the fact that it involves the
transfer of skilled workforce as well as labor force, both of which
are required to increase productivity and GDP.
 Migrants often send remittances back to their home
country, providing their family with necessary resources
and paving the way for them to come out of poverty.
 Migration adds to the GDP and foreign exchange of both the
recipient and home country
 How can migration inhibit development
 Loss of human resource – both skilled and unskilled labor. Brain
drain takes away the valuable human resource and country can
exploit to its advantage. The presence of large number of
immigrants sometimes leads to social unrest in the host country
 Low levels of development in the host country, as
immigrants leave in an attempt to realize their potential as
the prerequisites to live a desirable life are not present in
the host country.

Environmen  Safeguarding the environment and sustainable development are critical aspects of
tal factors the discourse and practice of development goals in today’s world.
Impact of climate change
 Climate change directly opposes sustainable development. Communities and
countries are harming and overexploiting the very resources on which they depend
for survival.
 How can climate change inhibit development
 Climate change and global warming are having a direct impact on
weather and rainfall patterns. This results in floods, droughts,
rising seawater levels, higher temperatures and other natural
disasters that affect agricultural production.
 Disease, hunger and malnutrition are additional problems that the
poor are likely to face as a result of this, bringing about added
costs of healthcare and a fall in productivity of human resources.
 Developing countries (and the poorest), will bear the
brunt of climate change. Vulnerable areas include: sub-
Saharan Africa (drying), Asian mega deltas (flooding),
small islands and the Arctic region.
 Such states do not have the resources/expertise to face this challenge as
they try to move ahead on the path to growth,
 ANY development now has to be in tandem with the sustainability
factor

Models of Rostow’s model of development (modernization theory)

developmen  The oldest theory of development. States that there is a single way for countries to
t modernize and develop – by imitating what the industrial countries did.
1. Traditional Societies: societies that are based on subsistence agriculture, with low
levels of technology and pre-scientific values
2. Preconditions for take-off: Societies that have started to introduce money and
 banking into their economy, and have a new class of entrepreneurs with scientific
values.
a. New opportunities now offering job in secondary sector
3. Take-off: Societies in which values that encourage economic growth are
widespread and growth of certain economic sectors has become common
a. Urbanization
b. New technology has allowed for new production to occur
4. Drive to Maturity: Societies with an economy that is diversifying and producing
an increasingly large variety of goods. Standards are rising and poverty is
decreasing
a. Specialization: diversified economy
b. Society is more independent less reliant on other countries
5. High Mass Consumption: Societies in which wealth and the production and
consumption of modern consumer goods are widespread
a. Majority of jobs have moved into the tertiary sector
Neoliberalism
 The neoliberal model of development that emerged during the 1970s endorsed the
belief that for the well-being of people and the economic growth and development
of a country it was best for the state to minimize its intervention and leave the
market free to function on its own, setting wages and prices.
 Argues that government interference almost always has negative long-
term consequences on development. This is because it can create sudden
economic growth that does not last, and because corrupt officials have a
lot of opportunities to take money for themselves illegally.
 A better solution would be to encourage free enterprise (i.e intervening in
the economy as little as possible).
 This would lead to healthy competition, meaning that only the
strongest companies survive and grow, which in turn leads to
sustainable long-term growth and development.
 Development should grow from FDI rather than government
investment. Furthermore, the amount the state spends on public
services such as healthcare and pensions should be smaller, so that
people are encouraged to work and contribute to the economy
 The Washington Consensus
 In the 1990s, a lighter version of the neoliberalism ideology emerged,
often referred to as the Washington Consensus. It has a stronger emphasis
on free market non-interventionism, strong institutions and good policies.
This ideology tried to find a balance between complete deregulation and a
strong and accountable government that manage the negative effects of
liberalization
 Pro-democracy argues that free markets can only function
effectively and efficiently in an environment where the rule of law
is respected and citizens are able to express their opinions.
 The Washington Consensus attempts to balance deregulation with an
accountable government who oversees the market
State capitalism (China, Russia)
 A political system in which the state has supreme control over both production
and the usage of capital and thereby utilizes the market for political
advantages, protected from the ups and downs of a market system.
 Involves a widespread influence of the government in the economy, either
by owning majority or minority equity positions in companies or by
providing subsidizes credit and/or privileges to private companies
 Governments can use various tools to exercise their control over the economic
sphere
 Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs), state owned enterprises and national
 champion firms. Many oil companies are owned by states
 In China it has been a great success, with their GDP consistently growing
for the past 12 years.
 The Chinese government is a primary stakeholder in the top
12 companies that are state owned.
 The central government exercises control over these companies
through major decisions on investments and through appointments
to the top posts
 They are protected from competition by the state
mechanism
Capability theory
 The approach is based on the premise that economic development in terms of a
rise in GDP does not necessarily guarantee a good quality of life for people.
 Rather, the quality of life can be evaluated and assessed in terms of the
capability to function – that is, the opportunities to perform actions they
wish to and be what they want to be.
 Thus, the focus of policy should be to ensure a person’s well-
being and development, and to provide the freedom to live the
kind of life they choose or find valuable.
 This comprises a full spectrum of variables (i.e health,
education and political freedom)
 Martha Nussbaum argued that people across a cross-section of cultures
and societies have a few basic capabilities required for a good life. These
capabilities should be followed as a guideline in the formulation of
development policy. Capabilities include:
 Ability to live a life of normal length
 Good health, nutrition, shelter
 Ability to use senses, imagine, think, reason and have the
education to realize all of these
 Ability to live for others and show concern for other human
beings
 Ability to laugh and enjoy recreation

Approaches Trade liberalization and export orientation

for  Became popular in the face of failure of the import substitution model of the
developing economy. Liberalization has thus become one of the salient features of many
the economy countries on their road to development.
 Countries have adopted export orientation – increase in the production and
export of goods in which they possess comparative advantage – in order to
raise the level of the economy. They also open their markets for inflow of
foreign goods or promote free trade.
 Some advantages include:
 In developing countries it is expected to enhance product development and
enable firms to compete globally.
 The opening up of the economy and focusing on exports encourages
innovation and facilitates transfer of skills and technology enhancement
 East Asian economies (Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, South
Korea) experienced rapid economic development based on export-
led growth and liberalization of the economy.
 They increased their share of world trade by exporting
manufactured goods, including telecommunication
equipment, computers and robotics
Tourism and entrepreneurship
Tourism involves the movement of people from one place to another within or across
borders. People travel for the purpose of leisure, business, health or visiting relatives.
  Such travel has grown rapidly in an increasingly globalized world, where
transportation is relatively cheap, and where borders are becoming
blurred.
 In many countries and continents the rapid growth of tourism has made a
significant contribution to the growth of the economy.
 Currency spent by visitors brings in foreign exchange into the host
country, which subsequently helps in firming up infrastructure and
provides added revenues for industries such as airlines and
telecommunications.
 Money spent by cross-border visitors is counted as exports for the
host country, and imports for the visitor’s country.
 The long term forecast for tourism (2030) seems promising, making it one of the
key sectors to be kept under a watchlist eye as an important contributor to the
development of the economy
 Tourism however, creates primarily low-paying jobs, so the winners in
the growth of tourism are the owners of tourist establishments rather than
the workers who keep the industry functioning
Entrepreneurship refers to the process by which an individual or a group of people make
an attempt to convert an idea into a business or economic activity
 Entrepreneurship can help spur the economy by creating jobs and making
good use of capital from investors. The products and services made by a
successful entrepreneur add to the GDP of the country, and help bring in
foreign exchange if such products are exported
 Entrepreneurship also leads to innovation
 In order to facilitate entrepreneurship a few significant conditions must be present:
 Entrepreneurial spirit has to be supported by the presence of a sound
infrastructure, a promising market, governmental policies free of “red
tape” and bureaucracy, funding and financing systems, and stable
institutions.
 These factors can coalesce to create and support strong
entrepreneurial ventures, which in turn can boost economic
development.
Knowledge economy
 Refers to knowledge and intellectual capabilities.
 Based on the production, distribution and use of knowledge and
information.
 It involved production and services based on knowledge-intensive
activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and
scientific advance
Basic requirements:
 Educated and trained workforce capable of participating in such an economy

 Sound infrastructure, including internet access to enable the dissemination and

communication of information
 An environment conducive to the dispersal of knowledge, entrepreneurship,
investment in information and communication technology
 Set of think tanks, research centers that are able to understand, create and suitable
 use knowledge

 The knowledge economy thrives on an educated and knowledgeable human

resource with the capability to use their expertise and intellect to create and
innovate consistently through the process of research and development. It includes
advances in higher education, technology and innovation.
Circular economy
 A circular economy is a system devised to ensure that the production process
allows for the recycling of material and products.
 This contrasta a typical industrial economy, which relies on usage and
consumption of primary energy resources while aiming for growth and
development. In such a set-up, resources are used to manufacture goods
that are then disposed of after usage.
 This process impedes sustainable development, having negative
impacts on the environment
 Such an economy attempts to make products out of secondary raw materials and
use waste purposefully. This model is expected to spur development, create
employment, encourage innovation in eco-friendly industries and also safeguard
the environment.
 In order for the circular economy to be set in motion, there is a need to
make changes both in the system of production and the consumption
behavior of people to ensure all materials are reused.
 This places the concept of circular economy in harmony with the
concept of sustainable development.

Approaches Improving education and healthcare

for  Education opens the door for economic gains by enabling individuals to find
developing employment and earn income. This facilitates their ability to provide the basic
society needs of food, clothing and a shelter to their families.
 Of those educated, people with a higher level of education have more
chances of earning higher incomes, which in turn adds to national income.
 Education enables people to be in better health. Statistics and studies prove that
education of girls has many positive effects – decreased fertility and thus fewer but
healthier children, more job opportunities and their elevated status in the family
along with increased decision-making powers
 An educated and aware citizenry takes informed and better decisions on all matters
– political, economic, environmental, social and cultural. It sharpens the skills and
attitudes of people, thus improving the quality of human resources of a country.
 Education also helps promote sustainable development. Education can empower
people to assume responsibility to create a sustainable future.
 This has to be done by ensuring more people receive a basic level of
education, increasing awareness and skills among people to help them
pursue sustainable education as well as revising and formulating the
curriculum to help achieve this aim.
Healthcare
 People in good health and also those with access to good healthcare would be
better workers, ensuring optimum productivity in their own field of work. This
increases efficiency as well as enhances the changes of more income with better
performance at work.
 Improves human resources
Changing roles of women
 Women have suffered neglect and discrimination all over the world for a variety of
social, cultural or religious regions.
 The empowerment of women can accelerate the pace of economic and
 social growth as well as environmental protection and sustainable
development.
 While there has been notable progress (MDGs, Beijing
Declaration), there is still a need to reduce disparities in
education, healthcare, decision-making power, political
participation and rights
 Women need to be educated and integrated into the workforce in order for them to
contribute to the family, community and country’s income.
 Higher education opens more doors and introduces possibilities of more income as
well as providing better decision-making powers within the family
 Equal ownership of resources (capital/land), enabling women to utilize resources
not just for monetary gains, but also social emancipation

Globalizatio Globalization
n; winners  The increasing interdependence among countries, regions and people due to the
and losses integration of trade, culture, finance, people and ideas in one global marketplace.

Advantages of globalization
 Increased economic growth; economies that have access to more markets,
workers and resources are more likely to grow. This can mean more wealth for
more people.
 Improved standards of living; workers who work within growing economies
have more purchasing power and can access a wider variety of ideas, products and
services.
 Globalized countries can become more democratic; economies that become more
financially open usually have to become more politically open. Greater freedoms
are enjoyed by people living in politically open states
 Cultural development; globalized cultures tend to embrace modern ideas, for
example, with regards to women’s rights, children’s rights, worker rights and the
rights of other minority groups (i.e LGBTQ and racial minorities)
 Transnational problems (i.e environmental pollution, climate change, threat of
terrorism), all of which impede the goal of sustainable human development, can be
managed and handled more effectively.
Disadvantages of globalization
 Loss of jobs for people in countries with high cost of living as factories and
manufacturing units are shifted to underdeveloped countries that provide cheaper
labor and materials.
 While this may mean greater employment opportunities in
underdeveloped countries, there is a greater likelihood of the exploitation
of local labor, including working conditions that present a threat to life.
 Growing wealth gap: in a globalized marketplace, wealth can become
concentrated within an elite.
 Wage competition: workers have to compete with workers in other countries and
this places pressure on wages. This result is potentially lower wages, as
multinational corporations can threaten to relocate their factories to places with
lower worker wages. While this may be good for corporate profits, it is bad for
workers
 Price competition: there is global price competition, meaning prices are
sometimes lowered. However, the option to buy abroad is usually only of benefit
to large corporations and not individuals.
 Regulation avoidance: corporations locate factories in countries where
regulations are less strict. Regulations might cover workers’ rights, health and
safety, ot child labor.
 Lack of cultural diversity: globalization does not always lead to an equal exchange
of ideas, products and services.
  English is becoming a dominant language. At the same time, Western
corporations are dominant within marketplaces, while non-Western
corporations go bankrupt, finding it difficult to compete.

Inequality: Beyond a certain threshold, inequality harms growth, poverty reduction, the quality of
how relations in the public and political spheres of life and an individual’s sense of fulfillment
important a and self-worth.
factor in  There are several viewpoints on how inequality affects development
developmen  Benefit:
t  The process of globalization will ultimately benefit the
underdeveloped/developing countries. Changes such as free trade and
open markets, along with the culture of liberal democracy will only add to
the prosperity, progress, growth and well-being of less fortunate people.
 Harm:
 Development does not necessarily translate into inequalities in societies or
between states. The rich continue to get richer at the expense of the poor,
and large organizations (i.e MNCs) are the real winners as whole
populations have become losers in a global scheme

Sustainable In order to achieve sustainable development, states must address economic, social and
developmen
t: which
way
forward?
environmental factors which threaten well-being

Economic sustainability
 Reduce factors that threaten economic well-being
 Establishing sustainable transportation and infrastructure
 Investing in education, research, technology, entrepreneurial and
workforce skills
 Increasing jobs and incomes through business development
 Reducing corruption
 (i.e addressing the global north vs. global south divide)
Social sustainability
 Reduce factors that threaten human social well-being

 (i.e empowering women)

Environmental sustainability
 Reduce factors that threaten environmental well-being (focuses on land use,
atmosphere, food production and energy use)
  (i.e economic growth at the expense of environmental degradation)

UNIT: Peace & Conflict

KEY GLOPO CONCEPTS: (memorize definitions) Peace, Conflict, Violence, Non-violence, Power,
Sovereignty,

Peace - The absence of violence or conflict, sometimes underpinned by a level of deeper harmony and equity. Can
be divided into negative and positive peace. The former refers to merely the absence of active, organized violence
by both state and non-state groups. Positive peace looks more deeply at what helps sustain peace beyond simply
reducing or stopping violence. It is possible to identify a deeper level of harmony in society, where the causes of
conflict themselves are neutralized.
Conflict - The dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals, groups or countries. This
could be opposition over interests and values, a distinction between violence and non-violent and violent conflict
must be made (i.e non-violent conflict can be a useful mechanism for social change).
Violence - Violence is often defined as physical or psychological force afflicted upon another being. In the context of
global politics it could be seen as anything man made that prevents someone from reaching their full potential. Can
be divided into structural, cultural, and direct.
Non-violence - The practice of advocating one’s rights without physically harming the opponent. It often involves
actively opposing the system that is deemed to be unjust, through boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience.
Can draw attention to issues and provide a fertile base for post-conflict transformation.
Sovereignty - Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of a territory within recognised
borders. Primary organizing principle of global politics which provides states with the authority to represent their
territorial entity within the international community. State sovereignty can be challenged internally (for example,
secessionist groups) or externally (for example, one state invades another).
Power - The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a
range of types and forms.
Legitimacy- Political legitimacy is the popular acceptance of authority. It is considered to be the basic condition for
government, without which it will collapse. Sometimes it only takes a small-influential elite to render a nation
legitimate despite the regime being unpopular.

THEORIES: Negative peace Positive peace

Realism The more natural state in an anarchical world An unrealistic aim. It is natural for states to
order. States exist to protect and advance their compete with each other. Equal status among
own national interests. Their priority is national nation states is both impossible and undesirable.
security over peace for its own sake.
Liberalism A desirable and realistic first objective, perhaps The desired final state in all conflict situations,
to be achieved through diplomacy, negotiation seen as realistic and achievable. Both sides will
and with the assistance of IGOs. A means to an be willing to make concessions on core interests
end, rather than an end in itself. and seek to reconcile and forgive.

CASE STUDIES:
UN Mission in Sierra Leone
South Sudan
South Africa and Sierra Leone TRC
Iraq war
Libya 2011

Different Peace
definitions of
peace, conflict  The absence of violence or conflict, sometimes underpinned by a level of deeper
and violence (i.e equity and harmony
positive peace and
structural violence) Negative Peace
 Involved merely the absence of active, organized violence by both state and non-
state groups
 Most useful at the first stage in conflict resolution, where the aim is to stop
immediate violence
 Does not consider factors contributing to non-violence
Power and Peace
 Power plays an important role in developing peace, notably in the distribution and
balance of power between great powers who might be drawn into conflict with
each other.
 Unipolarity
 One great power (hegemon) exists which cannot be challenged militarily
by any other
 Hegemonic stability theory (the theory that peace is more likely
with the presence of a single dominant power on the global
stage)
 Bipolarity
 In the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union were in direct
bipolar competition with each other, but never fought directly. The
appalling consequences of nuclear war introduced a measure of stability
(i.e mutually assured destruction)
 Multipolarity
 Many powers are competing with each other and non-state groups are
challenging nation states in armed conflict
 Realists believe there is more instability in a multipolar order
 Liberals are more optimistic; they believe if many states have
power, it increases the possibility of nation states working in
common interest.
 (i.e working through the UN to achieve international
peace)
 Democratic Peace Theory
 Some theorists argue that democracy itself promotes peace. This is
because in democratic states there is a fairer balance of power and
distribution of wealth/resources, where, if there is conflict, democracy
promotes dispute resolution through democratic rather than violent
means.
Peace as balance of power
  Goes beyond the negative peace interpretation by also identifying how war could
be prevented
 At an international level, this refers to a balance of power between global
power blocs or the lack of a power vacuum
 Hegemonic stability theory argues the opposite — that the existence of one
global superpower furthers stability/peace
 This still relates to the balance of forces view as it also interprets
peace as the absence of war and the prevention of it through
stability
 At a national level, balance of forces refers to a certain balance between
various groups within a country that could prevent the outbreak of civil
war
 (i.e when Yanukovych not signing the association treaty with the
EU led to an outbreak of violence stemming from the lack of
balance between pro-Russia and pro-EU governments)
Positive Peace
 Looks more deeply at what helps sustain peace beyond simply reducing or
stopping violence
 There is no visible violence and no deeper social causes of conflict
 Positive peace is the absence of both direct and structural violence, and is
the presence of social justice (just & equal society).
 This would indicate that without development, there would not be
peace (not just economic development, but the removal of any
form of inequality).
 Feminist peace
 Further extended the interpretation of peace to include the removall of any
form of discrimination
 Does not emphasize discrimination towards women over other forms, it
refers to the feminist peace researchers who put this interpretation forward.
“Holistic gaia-peace” and “holistic inner-outer peace”
 Relate to living in harmony with the environment and being at ease with yourself
Holistic gaia-peace
 A holistic peace theory, where human beings are seen as one of many species
inhabiting the earth, and the fate of the planet is seen as the most important goal.
Spiritual, often religious, dimension and “holistic inner-outer peace”
 The often-heard phrase “if you don’t love yourself you can’t love someone else” is
here applied to peace.
 If you’re not at peace with yourself, your own shortcomings, temptations
and abilities, how can you further peace towards others?
 This can, for example, be related to the concept of the Greater Jihad in
Islam. The Greater Jihad entail the internal human struggle of dealing with
disappointment, strong emotions and temptations
Conflict
 When parties disagree or compete with each other over ideas, resources or
territory. Conflict may be violent or non-violent
 Actors in pursuit of incompatible goals. The aims of two or more parties seem to
be contradictory and as they seek to achieve these aims, they clash or strike
together.
 Non-violent Conflict
 Groups often disagree with each other in an entirely peaceful way, without
violence (i.e peaceful demonstrations, strikes, civil disobedience, campaigns,
diplomacy)
 These conflicts are non-violent because
 A legitimate structure or process for dialogue is in place
 Democratic structures allow the population to be consulted
 (these consultations are considered legitimate)
 Violent solutions are against the core interests of all parties
 Violent Conflict
 Much conflict results in violence — the most obvious form being direct, which
commonly takes place during a war (i.e terrorist attacks, civil war, interestate war,
guerrilla war, genocide)
 These conflicts can be violent
 Lack of trust between both sides of the conflict
 No structure exists for the dispute to be resolved peacefully,
through democratic or legitimate means
 Grievance and trauma are sustaining, and deepening, the conflict
 Violent approaches are seen as the only way to secure core
interests
Violence
 Direct violence
 When an individual or group is physically or mentally harmed, through
direct action. Refers to physical violence
 Direct violence is generally:
 Straightforward to identify
 Possible to investigate and establish who is responsible in
such a way that people can be held accountable
 Possible to quantify/measure
 Structural violence
 When a government/other forms of power functions in a way that results in
direct violence to groups.
 Discrimination and unequal global distribution of power, resources
and food should be considered structural violence.
 A government that hoards wealth within an elite, and fails to spend
resources to protect its citizens from preventable illnesses/violence
is considered structural violence
 Structural violence generally
 Leads to preventable suffering not being prevented
 Is widespread, but often unchallenged and unacknowledged
 Is hard to quantify and deem who is responsible
 Causes harm through lack of basic necessities
 Perpetuates direct violence
 Cultural violence
 The way in which society legitimizes direct or structural violence is called
cultural violence. Refers to the values embedded in society which
perpetuate violence.
 Can be identified in the mindset, beliefs and values of a society
 In general, cultural violence:
 May be government-driven (culture influencing government
structure) or society-driven (grassroots culture influencing
behavior)
 Is any aspect of culture used to legitimize violence in
direct/structural forms
 Harder to eliminate as it is embedded in the mindset of a society
and linked to cultural/religious values seen as legitimate
Types of conflict Armed Conflict
 The contested incompatibility which concerns government and/or territory where
the use of armed force between two parties, of which at least one is the government
of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related deaths
Inter-state Conflict
 The warring parties, who first stated the incompatibility, must be government
 parties.
 This type of conflict has been decreasing in prevalence since the end of the
Cold War, some years (2004-2008), have seen no inter-state war anywhere
in the world.
 Yet, inter-state conflict remains of the main concerns of leaders and
decision-makers
Extra-state Conflict
 Extra-state conflict occurs between a state and a non-state group outside its own
territory. It can be further subdivided into colonial war and imperial war.
 This type of conflict has not occurred since 1975, when Indonesia
conquered East-Timor
 Such conflicts were common in the period of colonization
Internationalized and Internal Conflict
 Internationalized internal conflict occurs between the government of a state and
internal opposition groups with intervention from other states
 This type of conflict has become more prominent since the end of the Cold
War.
 The Ukrainian government is largely supported by Western powers,
whereas the pro-Russian opposition has received support from Russia.
Intra-state Armed Conflict
 Intra-state conflict occurs between the government of a state and internal
opposition groups without intervention from other states,
 By far the most widespread form of armed-conflict — it has increased
steadily since 1946
Non-state Conflicts
 Non-state armed conflicts involve the use of armed force between two organized
armed groups, neither of which is the government of a state
 i.e The Taliban in Afghanistan, Christian and Muslim groups in the Philippines,
various Kenyan tribes, and paramilitary and revolutionary groups in Columbia
 This type of conflict has been under-researched and often ignored in
traditional conflict analysis

Moore claims that issues within conflicts are often at an impasse around the following:
relationship, interest, value, structure, and data

Relationship Conflicts
 Relationship conflicts can arise from a number of causes, 1) when parties involved
are upset with one another 2) when one party has a negative perception or
stereotype of the other 3) when poor communication leads to a damaged
relationship
 Examples are found in:
 Conflicts where initially positive relations turned sour (i.e certain
marriage conflicts)
 Conflict parties who have a long history of problematic relations –
or a particularly painful memory of the past – like ethnic violence
(i.e violence in the Sierra Leone Civil War, Armenian genocide)
Data Conflicts
 Data conflicts can be caused by inadequate, inaccurate, untrustworthy information,
or different interpretations of relevant data.
 In conflicts there are often disagreements about what actually happened
during an argument; be it non-violent conflicts or a battle/massacre.
 Information can be distorted by the emotional state of the conflict
parties,
 Parties may have an interest in hiding information or downplaying
its importance
  Parties often highlight the events that were particularly painful for
them, without acknowledging the other party’s views
 After a long period of violence and discrimination, it is difficult to obtain
the complete picture and all the relevant facts
Interest Conflicts
 Interest conflicts occur when there are perceived or actual competitive interests
 Many conflicts revolve around the perception of competitive interests (i.e
the Arab-Israeli conflict is often seen as such because spokespeople of
both parties lay claim to exclusive right of ownership of the land)
Structural and Value Conflicts
 Structural conflicts are caused by destructive patterns of behavior or interaction,
unequal control, ownership or distribution of resources, and unequal
power/authority.
 Although inequality can be seen as a form of structural violence, it often
leads to tensions between those who aspire to create more equality, versus
those who want to preserve the status quo.
 Value conflicts revolve around ‘different criteria for evaluation ideas or
behavior… different ways of life, ideology and religion.’

It is important to identify the main area of conflict, as in the end that is the area where real
progress is to be made, in order to solve all other related problems.
 It must be noted however that as conflict progresses, other issues arise and it is up
to mediators to address such newly risen issues
Justifications of Justifications of Violence
violence,
including just  At all levels, we often aim to justify our violent behavior with references to
war theory culture, religion and human nature.
 Historically, it is generally accepted that the state is the on actor allowed to
use violence
 Many non-state actors (i.e Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia,
Islamic State) are likely to use similar forms of violence, yet with the
state’s generally accepted monopoly on violence this is normally
considered unjustified
 If these actors were to establish themselves as rulers of a particular
state, they could adjust the legal systems to retrospectively
legitimize their violent actions
 Other states may further legitimize this by accepting the
new government
 Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
 Doctrine provides justifications for intervening militarily in conflict
situations

Just War Theory

 A set of principles have largely legalized through the UN concerning conduct of
war. These principles are known as Just War Theory, which covers the reasons to
go to war, and the conduct during war.
 While pacifists believe violence can never be justified, others believe that violence
 can be both morally and legally justified.
 If the rules are not being followed, it is considered a war of aggression

Jus ad bellum (basic criteria for a war to be fought for the right reasons)
 Right authority — those starting violent conflict should have legitimate authority
to do so — nation states have to follow international law (some question legality of
Iraq War in 2003, while Libya 2011 was authorized by UNSC)
 Just cause (heavily debated) — One of the main just causes is “self defense.” Yet,
it is unclear how far this self defense goes (i.e Bush Administration stretched just
cause in Iraqi invasion, causing its legality to be questioned)
 Right intention — A state must pursue its just cause, and cannot change its
objectives during the war to include other (perhaps unjust) causes.
 The war must have the objective of restoring peace rather than material
gain.
 Probability of success — it must be achievable (violence in pursuit of
unachievable or unrealistic aims is not just).
 Proportionality — The ends must justify the means, the probable good expected
to result from success is weighted against the probable evil that the war will cause.
Any action taken must be proportional to the initial act of aggression.
 Last resort — efforts to resolve the conflict peacefully (i.e diplomacy,
negotiation) have been exhausted.

Jus in bello (principles of just conduct during a war)

 Principle of proportion — The conduct during a war must be proportional to the
offense and the end goal
 Principle of discrimination — Warring parties are expected to refrain from direct
international attacks on non-combatants and non-military targets.
 Factories, media and governmental institutions may serve the military in
some way, but the point when they become a legitimate military target is
unclear.
 Necessity or minimal force
Jus ad bellum and jus in bello almost appear theoretical, as it is difficult to find a war
which adheres to these criteria
 The fact that elements are open to interpretation allows for much leeway when
justifying reasons to go, or conduct during war
Causes of Causes of Conflict
conflict
 There are various factors that can be identified as having caused a conflict in one
way or another, however, it is often very difficult to pinpoint exactly what the role
of each factor is.
Greed versus Grievances (i.e Colombia, Sierra Leone)
 Greed stands for the claim that combatants in conflicts are motivated by
opportunistic reasons — cost/benefit calculus, alternative income & risk.
Grievance refers to the idea that people rebel over issues of inequality,
discrimination, authoritarianism.
 Although it is easier to quantify greed factors, it doesn’t mean that
grievance plays a minor role in conflict. Often, religious or ethnic “ancient
hatreds” cause conflicts (i.e former Yugoslavia)

Factors which make some places more predisposed to violence than others
  i.e if a state’s government has a lack of control over its territory it can be classified
as a weak state. Such lack of control can then lead to groups providing for their
own security which makes violent conflict much more likely
 Similarly, if a state’s political system values groups equally, and provides the same
opportunities for groups to represent themselves through the political system, it is
less likely that conflict will lead to violence.

Galtung’s Conflict Triangle

 Attitudes, behaviors and contradictions act together to encourage violent conflict,
with each reinforcing the other.
 Violent behavior will deepen contradiction. This may harden attitudes and deepen
a sense of grievance/injustice.
 All 3 need to be stopped in order for conflict to be resolved, even 1 can
prolong the conflict.

Parties to Parties to Conflict

conflict
 Conflict often starts with a limited amount of conflict parties, but over time it can
draw in many others
 The distinction between state and non-state actors is an important one, as
states have certain rights and responsibilities (morally and legally), which
non-state actors may not possess.
Types of Conflict
 The parties to conflict depend on the type of conflict
 Intrastate conflict
 States are typically confronted with intrastate groups labeled as
 terrorists or guerrillas
 Interstate conflict
 States are confronted with other states, disputing over
territory/resources etc.
 Non-violent conflict
 Protest groups or individuals are typical parties to non-violent
conflict like demonstrations
Manifes- Evolution of Conflict
tations of
conflict,  Conflict can go through various phases of intensification/manifestation, as the
including non- attitudes and behaviors of the parties to conflict change over time
violence  The complexity further increases when third parties become involved

Manifestations of Conflict
 Our behavior based on prejudgements can begin relatively harmless, but escalate
and manifest itself in several ways

 This shows how the sooner prejudiced behavior is addressed, the greater the
chance to prevent further suffering in the future
Terrorism, Interstate war, guerrilla warfare
 The violent manifestations of conflict we are often confronted with on the news
are wars and acts of terrorism.
 Conventional warfare/terrorism are rather different – from the use of
weaponry to legality of actions

Violent Protests
 Violent protest groups generally claim they have the right to use violence as they
are often fighting a stronger opponent with more resources, weaponry and financial
support
 Violent protestors may refer to religious/ideological texts that justify the use of
violence
 These organizations often fight against the state and contest their
monopoly on violence.
 Nonviolent Protest (i.e demonstrations)
 Deemed twice as successful as violent campaigns.
 It can draw attention to the cause of the protestor, especially when the
opponent uses violence against non-violent protests, as supporters of the
opponent are likely to side with the protestors, or withdraw their support
→ playing a large role in the success of the protest

Conflict Conflict Dynamics

dynamics
 The dynamic nature of conflict makes it difficult to fully understand parties’
motivations, actions and impact
 Various models, which although may oversimplify a conflict, offer support
by allowing the analyst to focus on key elements of the conflict.
Galtung’s Conflict Triangle
 Separates the conflict (incompatibility of goals between parties), from the
attitudes parties take and the behavior they display towards each other →
these elements are mutually reinforcing.
 If a demonstration is met with violence, this will influence the attitudes
that the groups hold of each other and their subsequent behavior
 To understand a conflict, one must backtrack through various actions that have
been influenced by attitudes and have altogether changed the core conflict.

 In all its simplicity the conflict triangle visualizes the dynamic nature of conflict
and its core components.
Positions-Interests-Needs Model
 In conflicts, we mainly see the position of a party, or what they claim to be
pursuing. However, the reasoning behind this claim, or the interest, is often hidden
 Russia may claim it is defending the rights of ethnic Russians in its
 relations with Ukraine, but is merely creating pretext to justify its actions.
The deeper need for the Russian government is security.
 The model is also often used to find “shared interests and needs” or overcome what
seems to be an unresolvable conflict
 Russia and Ukraine’s claim to Crimea seems incompatible in that they
both agree they should have full ownership. However, if the deeper needs
of both were addressed (i.e Russia’s global security concerns, and
Ukraine’s concerns about safety from Russian domination).

 The model applies to all levels of analysis

Model of Conflict Dynamics
 Ramsbotham and Woodhouse created a model of conflict dynamics that helps
policymakers understand the stages through which conflict escalates and de-
escalates, and the ideal responses for resolving at each stage.
 From the identification of incompatibility of goals (contradiction), conflict
can turn violent and then be transformed through negotiations, and then
social change (through peacebuilding) may occur
 Also visualizes how to resolve conflict, you must first separate the parties
(peacekeeping), before you can sit them down to talk (peacemaking), and
hopefully eventually reconcile them (peacebuilding).

Third-party Third-party Involvement

involvement in
conflict,  Third parties can be involved in conflicts in many different ways, both violent and
including non-violent.
humanitarian
intervention  The way in which a third party gets involved in a conflict depends on their
own interest in the conflict and the power they have over the parties
involved
Pacific Third-party Intervention

Humanitarian Intervention
 These are only a limited number of justification for military intervention. The
UNSC may sanction it under article 42 of the UN Charter, but only if
international peace and security are under threat.
 The gradual emergence of humanitarian intervention has undermined the realist
principle of state sovereignty
 The R2P argues that states forego the right to full sovereignty if they fail
to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing and crimes against humanity
 With so many examples of states doing so (i.e Sudan, Syria), it
seems like an obvious choice for the international community to
support this development.

Humanitarian Intervention
For Against

Moral Case Broadness

- If the media can make us aware of events
globalls and the international community has
the means to intervene, why should it not
protect civilians from genocide/mass killings
- i.e universalist argument of common
basic human rights obligates us to help each
other
- The R2P can be abused, used
selectively, interpreted in many
different ways, that military
intervention doesn’t work and that
legal basis is lacking
- Libya 2011 intervention was
largely based on R2P principles, yet
they were loosely followed

Legal Case
- The United Nations Charter “highlights the
importance of human rights.” This would
provide justification for the UNSC-sanctioned
intervention
 - There are historical cases of what could
be considered humanitarian intervention,
which would provide a legal basis for future
interventions

Peacemaking, Conflict Resolution and Post-conflict Transformation

including
negotiations and  Peacemaking (i.e bringing the parties together) is still a vital element in the process
treaties towards conflict resolution, but increasingly the argument is made that a
transformation is needed by fully reconciling the conflict parties.
Peacemaking
 Stopping violent conflict and creating negative peace. A pause or end to immediate
violence is achieved, commonly through negotiation and the building of trust
between both sides in a conflict. The causes of conflict will not yet be resolved but
a pause in violence enables stabilization.
 Elite Peacemaking
 Attempts to stop violence which are led by senior leaders, for
example prime ministers or presidents
Peacekeeping
 Sustained negative peace to allow positive peace to be built. When a ceasefire is
agreed, independent peacekeepers will be sent to the area to ensure that the peace
holds. The priority is to monitor agreements made during the peacemaking process
(i.e through armed forces from the UN)
Peacebuilding, The Four Basic Options Post-conflict
including
negotiations and 1. Societies are to altogether ignore the conflict
treaties 2. To bring the perpetrators of crimes to justice
3. To offer amnesty via, for instance a TRC
4. A combination of the above
Reconciliation and Peacebuilding
 Often overlooked, and still is.
 Reconciliation is a process that can move people from antagonism to
coexistence. It fosters mutual respect, and at its most ambitious, it can
foster forgiveness, mercy, compassion, a shared vision of society, mutual
healing, and a harmony among parties formerly in conflict.
Peacebuilding
 The building of sustainable, positive peace and long-term conflict resolution. This
includes stabilization efforts to build longer-lasting peace and security. Commonly,
it involved significant development assistance to improve health and education,
address inequality and rebuild destroyed infrastructure.
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs)
 Aim to unearth the truth of what has happened and provide a chance for both
perpetrators and victims to have their say as they can “formally acknowledge a
silenced and painful past
 This kind of reconciliation involves agreeing and publicizing accounts of
the conflict, understanding opposing views, and ultimately rebuilding
relationships.
Disadvantages:
 Costs involved in the research
 Normalization of extreme violence
 Bureaucratization of the reconciliation process (i.e victims repeatedly faced with
questions about how often they were beaten or how many corpses they counted in
the street)
 People may not feel like actual justice has been done when perpetrators/murderers
receive amnesty and are not held accountable
 Criminal Tribunals
Pro Con

It can diminish individual Tribunals can be seen as justice imposed by the victors on
vengeance and avoid a the defeated, that they can be slow, partial, and criticized
continuing cycle of because individuals were prosecuted for acts more
violence attributable to governments

It can enhance respect for Courts are a costly affair and involve many perpetrators
the rule of law denying their involvement in acts of violence.