Science Revision Booklet

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UP General Science – Revision Booklet
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. PHYSICS ......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. Unit and Dimension ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Motion .................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Work, Energy and Power........................................................................................................................ 8
1.4. Thermal Properties ................................................................................................................................. 8
1.5. Wave ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.6. Sound..................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.7. Electromagnetic Waves ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.8. Optics ................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.9. Fluid Mechanics ................................................................................................................................... 12
1.10. Nuclear: .............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.11. Instruments and their Use .................................................................................................................. 13
1.12. Scientists and their Contribution: ........................................................................................................ 15
2. CHEMISTRY .................................................................................................................................. 17
2.1. Important Terms ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2. Discoveries, Theories and Laws ........................................................................................................... 18
2.3. Atomic Structure ................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4. Periodic Classification of Elements ....................................................................................................... 19
2.5. Chemical Reactions and Bondings ....................................................................................................... 20
2.6. Compounds, Solutions and Mixtures .................................................................................................... 21
2.7. Acids, Bases & Salts ............................................................................................................................ 23
2.8. Gases................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.9. Ions ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.10. Carbon and its Compounds ................................................................................................................ 25
2.11. Metallurgy........................................................................................................................................... 26
2.12. Metals and Non-metals....................................................................................................................... 27
2.13. Environmental Chemistry ................................................................................................................... 28
2.14. Polymers ............................................................................................................................................ 29
2.15. Chemistry in Everyday Life ................................................................................................................. 30
2.16. Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................................... 31
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3. BIOLOGY....................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2. Cytology ............................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3. Botany .................................................................................................................................................. 32
3.4. Zoology ................................................................................................................................................ 34
3.5. Reproduction ........................................................................................................................................ 35
3.6. Blood .................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.7. Human Body ........................................................................................................................................ 37
3.8. Human Body System ............................................................................................................................ 38
3.9. Nutrients ............................................................................................................................................... 40
3.10. Human Diseases, Instruments, Vaccine and Drugs ............................................................................ 42
3.11. Ecology .............................................................................................................................................. 46
3.12. Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................................... 46
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1. PHYSICS
The word Physics comes from a Greek word meaning nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that is used to refer to
the study of the physical world. Physics can broadly be described as a study of the basic laws of nature and their
manifestation in different natural phenomena.
Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have been
chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount
of substance, and luminous intensity).
● The name Physics was introduced by Aristotle in the year 350 BC.
Branches of Physics:
1.1. Unit and Dimension

Generally, three basic systems are used:
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There are two types of units:

● There are seven fundamental, underived dimensions of physics-
Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
● Derived Units:
Physical quantity SI Unit Name SI Unit Symbol
Area square metre m²
Volume cubic metre m³
Speed, velocity metre per second m/s or m s⁻¹
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s or rad s⁻¹
Acceleration metre per second square m/s² or m s⁻²
Angular acceleration Radians per second square rad/s² or rad s⁻²
Wave number per metre/reciprocal metres m⁻¹ 1/m
Density, mass density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m³ or kg m⁻³
Current density ampere per square metre A/m² or A m⁻²
Magnetic field strength, magnetic ampere per metre A/m or A m⁻¹
intensity, magnetic moment density
Concentration (of amount of substance) mole per cubic metre mol/m³ or mol m⁻³
Specific volume cubic metre per kilogram m³/kg or m³ kg⁻¹
Luminance, intensity of illumination candela per square metre cd/m² or cd m⁻²
Kinematic viscosity square metre per second m²/s or m² s⁻¹

Momentum kilogram metre per second kg m s⁻¹
Moment of inertia kilogram square metre kg m²
Flow rate cubic metre per second m³ s⁻¹
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SI derived units with Special Names

Physical quantity SI Unit Name Symbol
Frequency hertz Hz -
Force newton N -
Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m² or N m⁻²
Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J Nm
Power, radiant flux watt W J/s or J s⁻¹
Quantity of electricity, electric charge coulomb C As
Electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force volt V W/A or J/C
Capacitance farad F C/V
Electric resistance ohm Ω V/A
Conductance siemens S A/V
Magnetic flux weber Wb V s or J/A
Magnetic field, magnetic flux density, magnetic induction tesla T Wb/m² or N s/ (C m)
Inductance henry H Wb/A or V s/A
Luminous flux, luminous power lumen lm cd sr
Illuminance lux lx lm/m²
Activity (of a radioactive nuclide/radioactive source) becquerel Bq s⁻¹
● Scalar Quantities - These are physical quantities that have only magnitude (size or amount) and no direction.
Examples of scalar quantities include time, temperature, speed, mass, distance, and energy.
● Vector Quantities - These are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector
quantities include velocity, acceleration, force, displacement, momentum, and electric field.
1.2. Motion
Motion refers to the change in position of an object with respect to time.
● Translational motion: When an object moves in a straight line, and all parts of the object move the same distance in
the same direction at the same time. For example, a car moving in a straight line on a highway.
● Rotational motion: This type of motion is when an object rotates or spins around an axis. For example, a spinning
top.
● Oscillatory motion: This type of motion is when an object moves back and forth around a fixed point, repeating
its motion periodically. For example, a pendulum swinging back and forth or a guitar string vibrating.
● Projectile motion: This type of motion is when an object is launched into the air and moves under the influence
of gravity alone. For example, a baseball thrown into the air.
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● Periodic motion: This type of motion is when an object repeats its motion after a fixed time period. For example,
the motion of a swinging pendulum.
● Uniform motion: Where an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, i.e., the speed of the object
remains constant throughout the motion. For example, a car moving on a straight and level road with a constant speed
of 60 km/h.
● Non-uniform motion: Where an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, i.e., the speed of the
object varies throughout the motion. For example, a car moving on a curved or hilly road with varying speed.
● Distance: Distance is the total length of the path that an object travels during its motion. The SI unit of distance
is meter (m).
● Displacement: The shortest distance between the initial and final positions of an object, along with its direction.
The SI unit of displacement is also meter (m).
● Speed: The distance traveled by an object per unit time. The SI unit of speed is meter per second (m/s).
● Velocity: It is defined as the displacement of an object per unit time. The SI unit of velocity is also meter per
second (m/s).
● Acceleration: Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. The SI unit of acceleration
is meters per second squared (m/s²).
● Circular Motion: It is defined as the motion of an object in a circular path (𝑎 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟). For Example -The motion
of planets around the sun
● Centripetal Force: The force that acts on an object moving in a circular path, directed towards the center of the
circle.
● Centrifugal Force: To act on an object moving in a circular path, directed away from the center of the circle.
● Angular velocity: It is the time rate at which an object rotates or revolves about an axis. Example- The rotation of a
bicycle tire and a merry-go-round.
● Force: It is a physical quantity that can cause an object to accelerate, change its direction or shape, or deform.
The SI unit of force is Newton (N).
● The laws of motion were given by Sir Isaac Newton.
○ Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): Every object continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line, unless an external unbalanced force acts on it.
○ Newton's Second Law of Motion: "the rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the
applied force in the direction of the force".
○ Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law of Action-Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
● Gravitational Force: Gravitational force is a force of attraction between any two objects in the universe.
● Weight: Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object.
● Contact Force: Contact force is a force that is exerted only when two objects are in contact with each other.
○ Frictional force: It is the force that resists the motion of an object over a surface.
○ Normal force: It is the force that is exerted by a surface perpendicular to an object in contact with it.
○ Air resistance force: It is the force that opposes the motion of an object through the air.
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● Non-Contact Force: Non-contact force is a force that can act between two objects even if they are not in physical
contact with each other.
○ Electrostatic force is the force that exists between charged objects. Like charges repel each other, and unlike
charges attract each other.
○ Magnetic force is the force that exists between magnets or between a magnet and a magnetic material.
○ Nuclear force is the force that holds the nucleus of an atom together.
1.3. Work, Energy and Power

● Work is measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over a distance by an external force at least
part of which is applied in the direction of the displacement. In the SI system, the unit of work done is N-m (or) joule
(J) (W = F s).
● Energy is the ability to do work. The unit of energy is, therefore, the same as that of work, that is, joule (J).
○ Kinetic Energy is the energy of an object in motion. The formula for kinetic energy is 𝑲𝑬 = 𝟏/𝟐 × 𝒎 × 𝒗𝟐 ,
where KE is kinetic energy, m is mass, and v is velocity.
○ Potential Energy is the energy that an object has due to its position or state. The formula for potential energy is
PE = mgh, where PE is potential energy, m is mass, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height of the
object from a reference point.
● Law of Conservation of Energy: The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
1.4. Thermal Properties

● Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object or a substance. It is a
scalar quantity that is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F), or in the Kelvin (K) scale, which is
the standard unit of temperature in the SI system.
● Heat: Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between objects or substances due to a temperature difference.
○ It is measured in joules (J) or calories (cal).
○ Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.
● Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit
● Latent heat is the amount of heat energy required to change the state of a substance without changing its temperature.
● Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material or substance, from a higher temperature region to a lower
temperature region, by direct contact.
● Convection is the transfer of heat by moving fluids, such as gases or liquids.
● Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, which can travel through a vacuum or a transparent
medium, such as air or water.
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1.5. Wave
The patterns, which move without the actual physical transfer or flow of matter as a whole, are called waves.
● Mechanical waves require a medium for propagation, they cannot propagate through a vacuum. The medium can be
a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
● Matter waves refer to the wave-like behavior exhibited by particles that have both particle-like and wave-like
properties, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc.
● Electromagnetic waves do not necessarily require a medium - they can travel through a vacuum. Light, radio waves,
and X-rays are all electromagnetic waves.
1.6. Sound
Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. Sound is produced by vibrating objects. The
matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound is a
longitudinal wave.
● Loudness is measured in decibel(dB).
● The quality of sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish one sound from another having the same
pitch and loudness.
● Crest and trough: The highest surface part of a wave
is called the crest, and the lowest part is the trough.
● Wave height: The vertical distance between the crest
and the trough is the wave height.
● The time taken by two consecutive compressions or
rarefactions to cross a fixed point is called the time of
the wave. It is represented by the symbol T. Its SI unit
is second (s).
● Intensity is defined as the amount of energy crossing
per unit area per unit time perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave.
● Sound Levels (in Decibels):
● Sound waves travel faster in solids than in liquids,
faster in liquids than in gasses and absence in vacuum.
● Infrasonic Sound: Sound waves with frequencies
below 20 Hz are known as infrasonic sound or
infrasound. Examples - sounds produced by
earthquakes, volcanoes, and thunder.
● Ultrasonic Sound: Sound waves with frequencies
higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sound or
ultrasound. Examples include sounds produced by bats
and dolphins for communication and echolocation,
respectively.
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● Audible Sound: Sound waves with frequencies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called audible sound. This is the
range of sound that humans can hear.
● Sound Navigation and Ranging: SONAR is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance, direction,
and speed of underwater objects.
1.7. Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves, are (coupled) time-varying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space. The speed of the
waves, according to Maxwell’s equations, turned out to be very close to the speed of light (3 ×10^8 m/s), obtained from
optical measurements. This led to the remarkable conclusion that light is an electromagnetic wave.
● Electromagnetic waves include microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and
gamma rays.
● Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.
○ They are used in radio and television communication systems.
● Microwaves are produced by electromagnetic oscillators in electric circuits.
○ It is used in radar systems for aircraft navigation, speed of the vehicle, microwave oven for cooking and very
long distance wireless communication through satellites.
● Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
● Infrared radiation also plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or average temperature through
the greenhouse effect.
● Visible rays are the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. It runs from about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7
× 1014 Hz or a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.
● Ultraviolet rays cover wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × 10–10 (0.6 nm).
○ It is absorbed in the ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 40 – 50 km.
○ Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role.
● X-rays covers wavelengths from about 10–8 m (10 nm) down to 10–13 m (10−4 nm).
○ X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer.
● Gamma rays: A gamma ray is a packet of electromagnetic energy (photon) emitted by the nucleus of some
radionuclides following radioactive decay.
Type Wavelength Range
Radio >0.1 m
Microwave 0.1m to 1 mm
Infrared 1mm to 700 nm
Light 700 nm to 400 nm
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 1nm
X-rays 1 nm to 10–3 nm
Gamma rays <10–3 nm
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1.8. Optics
Optics is the branch of physics that studies light and its interactions with matter and devices.
Light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye.
● Light travels in a straight line.
● Light can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
● Light has a dual nature - it behaves as both a wave and a particle.
● Light travels at a constant speed of approximately 299,792,458 meters per second in a vacuum.
● Reflection of light is the process by which light waves bounce off a surface and change direction.
● Mirrors are the surfaces that reflect almost all types of incident light rays that hit their surface.
● A concave mirror is a curved mirror where the reflecting surface is curved inward.
○ They are used as reflectors in car headlights, searchlights, torches, and table lamps.
● A convex mirror is a curved mirror where the reflecting surface is curved outward.
○ Used in rearview mirrors in vehicles, allowing drivers to see a wider field of view behind them and to judge
distances more accurately.
● Refraction of light refers to the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another.
● Convex lens, also known as a converging lens, is a type of lens that is thicker at the center and thinner at the edges.
○ Used in eyeglasses and contact lenses to correct hypermetropia or farsightedness.
● A concave lens, also known as a diverging lens, is a type of lens that is thicker at the edges and thinner at the center.
○ Used in eyeglasses and contact lenses to correct myopia or nearsightedness.
● Total Internal Reflection is a phenomenon that occurs when a ray of light passes from a medium with a higher
refractive index (denser medium) to a medium with a lower refractive index at an angle greater than the critical angle.
● Mirages occur when light is refracted, or bent, by layers of air with different temperatures and densities.
● Diffraction is the bending and spreading out of waves as they encounter an obstacle or pass through a narrow
opening.
● Scattering of light is the process by which light waves are redirected in many different directions as they pass
through a medium, such as air or water, due to interactions with particles or irregularities in the medium.
● The Tyndall effect refers to the scattering of light by colloidal particles in a medium, which makes the path of the
light visible.
● The Raman effect is a phenomenon in which the energy of
the photon is scattered by the molecules/atoms of a medium,
resulting in a shift in its frequency.
● Human eye: The human eye is a complex organ responsible
for vision. Its various parts and functions include:
● Cornea: This is the transparent, outermost layer that covers
the front of the eye. It helps to focus light onto the retina.
● Iris: It controls the amount of light that enters the eye by
adjusting the size of the pupil.
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● Pupil: This is the opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.
● Lens: It helps to focus light onto the retina by changing shape.
● Retina: A layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light
into electrical signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
● Optic Nerve: A bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
● Blind spot: Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits, there are no photoreceptor cells to detect thus no image is
formed on this part.
1.9. Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids (liquids and gases) and their behavior when they are at rest or in motion.
● Pressure is defined as the amount of force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which
the force is distributed.
● Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume (d=m/V).
● Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance, typically water at
4oC.
● Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
○ Lactometers, which are used to determine the purity of a sample of milk.
○ Hydrometers used for determining density of liquids are based on this principle.
● Pascal's law is a fundamental principle in fluid mechanics that states that pressure applied to a confined fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
● Surface tension is the property of a liquid that allows it to resist external forces and minimize the surface area of the
liquid.
● Viscosity is a physical property of a fluid that measures its internal resistance to flow.
● Superconductivity is a phenomenon where certain materials exhibit zero electrical resistance at extremely low
temperatures.
● Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.
1.10. Nuclear:
● An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged.
● A nucleus contains a neutral particle called a neutron. Its mass is almost the same as that of protons.
● A. H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 purely by accident.
● Radioactivity studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds irradiated
● with visible light.
● Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature:
(i) α-decay in which a helium nucleus Helium is emitted;
(ii) β-decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass
as electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of electron) are emitted;
(iii) γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted.
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● Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass-energy into other forms of energy,
say kinetic energy and vice-versa.
● Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation: (E = mc2).
● Nuclear Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei and energy is released.
● Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light atomic nuclei fuse to form a single heavier one, generating a massive
release of energy.
1.11. Instruments and their Use

Instrument/Device Used For
Accelerometer It measures physical acceleration
Alcoholmeter It measures the alcoholic strength of liquids
Altimeter It measures altitude sand is used in aircrafts
Ammeter It measures the strength of the electric current.
Anemometer It measures the speed and velocity of the wind.
Audiometer It measures the intensity of sound
Audiophone It is used for improving the imperfect sense of hearing
Barograph It measures continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
Barometer It measures the atmospheric pressure
Bevameter It measures the mechanical properties of soil
Calorimeter It measures the quantity of heat
Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart. Recorded on a cardiograph
Colorimeter It measures color
Compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.
Creepmeter It measures the slow surface displacement of an active geologic fault in the earth
Crescograph It measures the growth in plants
Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator can accelerate charged particles high energies
Declinometer It measures magnetic declination
Diffractometer It measures the structure of crystals
Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electricity Meter It measures electrical energy
Electroscope The device that confirms/detects the presence of electric charge.
Endoscope It examines the internal parts of the body.
Fathometer It measures the depth of the sea and or any other deep water bodies.
Fuel Gauge It measures fuel levels
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Galvanometer It is for the measurement of electric current.

Geiger Counter It measures ionizing radiation
Glucometer It measures blood glucose
Hydrophone It measures sound underwater
Hygrometer It measures humidity in the air
Infrared Thermometer It measures heat radiated
Kymograph It graphically records the physical movements of cells.
Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.
Light meter It measures light in photography.
Lux meter It measures the intensity of light.
Magnetometer It measures the strength of magnetic fields
Manometer It measures the pressure of fluids.
Mass Spectrometer It measures masses of ions, used to identify chemical substances through their
mass spectra
Microphone It converts the sound waves into electrical vibrations and magnifies the sound.
Microscope It is used to obtain a magnified view of a small object.
Multimeter It measures electrical potential, resistance, and current
Nephelometer It measures intensity of scattered light
Odometer It measures the distance covered by wheeled vehicles.
Oximeter It used to measure the oxygen level (oxygen saturation) of the blood.
Periscope It is used to view object above sea level (used in submarines)
Photometer It measures the strength of electromagnetic radiation in the range from ultraviolet
to infrared and including the visible spectrum. .
Polarimeter It measures the rotation of polarized light
Potentiometer It measures voltage (the term is also used to refer to a variable resistor)
Pycnometer It measures the fluid density
Pyrometer It measures a very high temperature.
Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy.
Rheometer It measures response to applied forces
Rain Gauge An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.
Refractometer It measures the refractive index.
Saccharometer It measures the amount of sugar in a solution
Salinometer It determines the salinity of the solution.
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Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.

Sextant This is used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by measuring the elevation
above the horizon of the sun or another star.
Spectrometer It measures the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.
Speedometer It records the speed of a vehicle.
Spherometer It measures the curvatures of the surface.
Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure
Stethoscope Medical device used for listening sound of heart
Strainmeter It measures seismic strain
SWR meter It measures the standing wave ratio
Tachometer This instrument is used in measuring the speed of airplanes and motorboats.
Taximeter It measures distance traveled, displacement
Telescope It views distant objects in space.
Tensiometer It measures the surface tension of a liquid
Thermometer It measures temperature
Thermostat This device regulates the temperature at a particular point.
Viscometer It measures the viscosity of liquids.
Voltmeter It measures the electric potential difference between two points.
Wind Vane It measures wind direction
Zymometer It measures the degree of fermentation.
1.12. Scientists and their Contribution:

Name Major Contribution/Discovery
Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever
Galileo Galilei Law of inertia
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light
Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; Reflecting telescope
Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction
James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves
J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves
W.K. Roentgen X-rays
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J.J Thomson Discovery of electron

Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on natural radioactivity
Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Theory of relativity
Name Major Contribution/Discovery

Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation; Measurement of electronic charge
R.A. Millikan Determination of the electronic charge of a single electron
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom; Inelastic scattering of light by molecules
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter
M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission
Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle
Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; Quantum statistics
Edwin Hubble Expanding universe
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Invention of the cyclotron
James Chadwick Discovery of neutron
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces
Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation
Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit; Structure and evolution of stars
John Bardeen Invention of the transistor; Theory of superconductivity
C.H. Townes Invention of the maser and laser
Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions
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2. CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the composition of matter and also with the physical and chemical
characteristics associated with the different materials of an object.
A French chemist, Antoine Laviosier is regarded as the father of modern chemistry.
2.1. Important Terms

● Plasma, the fourth state of matter (beyond the conventional solids, liquids and gases), is an ionized gas consisting
of approximately equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles.
● Bose-Einstein Condensates is the 5th state of matter. It is formed when particles (dilute gas of bosons) are cooled
to near absolute zero, causing them to coalesce into a single quantum object that acts as a wave in a relatively large
packet.
● Sublimation, a substance changes from a solid to a gas without ever passing through a liquid phase.
● Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down
the concentration gradient.
● Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement or diffusion of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable
membrane from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential
● Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
● Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
● Freezing: The change of state from a liquid to a solid is called freezing.
● Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting.
● Deposition: The state change from gas to solid (without going through the liquid state) is called deposition.
● Compound: A term used generally to indicate a definite combination of elements into a more complex structure (a
molecule) but it is also applied to systems with non-stoichiometric proportions of elements.
● Distillation is the process of separating the components of a liquid mixture through selective evaporation and
condensation.
● Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions.
● Decantation is the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible (non-mixing) liquids, by removing
the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid or liquid below.
● A heterogeneous mixture consists of substances which remain physically separate.
● A homogeneous mixture is a gaseous, liquid or solid mixture that has the same proportions of its components
throughout a given sample.
● Chromatography is a technique that enables the separation, identification, and purification of the components of a
mixture for qualitative and quantitative analysis.
● Phosphorescence is a phenomenon where a substance absorbs energy, such as light, and then emits light over an
extended period after the energy source has been removed.
● Fluorescence is a process in which a substance absorbs light energy at a specific wavelength and then re-emits the
energy as light at a longer wavelength.
● Luminescence: Any source that gives the light.
● Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by living organisms, such as fireflies, jellyfish, and certain
bacteria and fungi, through a chemical reaction.
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2.2. Discoveries, Theories and Laws

● Joseph John Thomson is recognized as the discoverer of the electron.
● Eugene Goldstein discovered Proton.
● Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons.
● “Gases of equal volume at the same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules.”is known as
Avogadro's hypothesis law.
● The law of constant proportions also known as “the law of definite proportions” or “Proust’s law states that:
“Individual elements constituting a particular chemical compound are present in a fixed ratio (in terms of their mass),
regardless of their source.”
● Boyle’s Law- “At constant temperature, the pressure exerted by a given quantity of gas varies inversely with the
volume occupied by it.”
● Charles’ Law- “The volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, if
the pressure remains constant.”
● Gay-Lussac’s Law- “Both the pressure and the temperature of an ideal gas are directly proportional, assuming
constant mass and volume.”
● Ideal Gas Law- “For a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the pressure exerted on the sides of its
container is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”
● Who propounded 'Atomic Theory of Matter' → Dalton
● Chemical reactions should be balanced to demonstrate the law of conservation of mass.
● Newlands' Law of Octaves is based on → On increasing order of atomic masses
● Moungi G. Bawendi, Louis E. Brus and Aleksey Yekimov are awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2023 for the
discovery and development of quantum dots.
2.3. Atomic Structure

● Matter is composed of small indivisible particles called ‘atoms.
● Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
● Boson is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value.
● Fermion is a member of a group of subatomic particles having odd half-integral angular momentum.
● Quarks and gluons are the building blocks of protons and neutrons, which in turn are the building blocks of atomic
nuclei.
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● The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of protons in its and it is always equals the number
of electrons in orbit about that nucleus (in a nonionized atom).
● Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different mass number.
● Isobars are atoms of different elements that have the same mass number but different atomic number.
● The first model of an atom was given by J.J. Thomson. According to him, an atom consists of a sphere of positive
charge with negatively charged electrons embedded in it.
● Rutherford's atomic model became known as the nuclear model. In the nuclear atom, the protons and neutrons,
which comprise nearly all of the mass of the atom, are located in the nucleus at the center of the atom. The electrons
are distributed around the nucleus and occupy most of the volume of the atom.
● In Neil Bhor’s model, electrons revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits
or shells.
● Heavy water is a type of water that contains → Deuterium
● What controls the arrangement of molecular orbitals → Magnetic quantum number
● The azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular
momentum and describes the shape of the orbital.
● Which nuclear particle has no mass and no charge, but has spin → Neutrino
● What is the atomic number of a neutral element equal to → proton number
● Which element has 3 shells and 2 valency → Mg
● How many electron shells are present in carbon → 2
● Which is the most electropositive element → Cesium
● Who has greater atomic radius among O, F, CI and Iodine → Iodine
● Radioactivity involves the spontaneous emission of radiation, like alpha, beta, or gamma rays, from an atom's nucleus.
2.4. Periodic Classification of Elements

● The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as "groups" and 7 horizontal rows known as "periods".
● There are 118 elements in the modern periodic table.
● Inert gases, also known as noble gases, are a group of chemical elements that have a full valence electron shell, which
makes them very stable and unreactive under normal conditions. Example- helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radon.
● Who discovered element 106 → Albert Ghiorso
● When was Mendeleev periodic table published → 1872
● On what basis is the periodic table arranged → Atomic number
● Atomic element no. 29 is related to → d-block
● As we move from lithium to fluorine in the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge increases, and the atomic radius
→ decreases
● Which was the first and last element in Newlands Law of Octaves → Hydrogen and Thorium
● According to Henry Moseley, which property of an element is more fundamental than atomic mass → Atomic number
● Mendeleev's periodic table is based on → On the increasing order of atomic mass
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● Which has maximum non-metallic properties in 16th group → Oxygen

● In the periodic table, metallic properties decrease in the period and increase in the group
● Which group did not exist at the time of Mendeleev's classification and was discovered later → Inert gas
● What is group 2 called in the modern periodic table → Alkaline Earth Metals
● Which element is not in Group 11 in the periodic table (Cu, Ag, Au, Hg) → Hg
● Which group of elements has 7 electrons in their outer orbit → Halogen
● What is the effect on the energy or size of the elements as we move from top to bottom in the group in the periodic
table → size increases, effective nuclear charge decreases
● Which is the most reactive element among Cu, Mg, Zn, Pb → Mg
● Which metalloid is in the 14th group of the periodic table → Si (Silicon)
● What effect does metallic properties have on moving from left to right in the periodic table → Decreases
● If all the elements in a group have the same valence electrons then their → electronic configuration will also be the
same
● Elements of which group in the periodic table form acidic oxides → 16th
2.5. Chemical Reactions and Bondings

● Combination Reaction: It is a reaction in which two reactants combine to form one product.
● Decomposition Reactions: The reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products is called a
decomposition reaction.
● Neutralization Reaction: A Neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to give salt and water as
the products.
● Displacement Reactions: Those reactions in which more reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from its salt
solution.
● Exothermic Reactions: Chemical reactions in which heat energy is released are known as exothermic reactions. All
the combustion reactions are exothermic in nature.
● Endothermic Reaction: Chemical reactions that involve the absorption of energy are known as endothermic reactions.
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● Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of positively and
negatively charged ions.
● Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond formed between two atoms by sharing one or more pairs
of valence electrons.
● Hydrogen Bonds: It is a type of chemical bond in which a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom in a different molecule or in a different part of the
same molecule.
● Metallic Bonds: It is formed between metal atoms, in which the electrons in the outermost energy level of the metal
atoms are shared by all the atoms in the metal.
● Rusting of iron is a → chemical reaction
● Which of the following decides the chemical properties of an element → Number of electrons
● Which element in the homologous series replaces → Hydrogen
● Most organic compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity because they have no free electrons and form
covalent bonds.
● Reactions in which ions are exchanged between reactants → Double displacement reactions
● What will be obtained in the reaction of barium chloride and aluminum sulphate → Solid precipitate of barium sulphate
● Which of the following does not have ionic bond (NaCl, CaCl2, CO2, CaO) → CO2
● Zinc (Zn) reacts with dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to form products → hydrogen gas and zinc sulphate and hydrogen
gas burns with a pop sound
● How many bonds are there in Nitrogen (N) → 3
● Which reaction will occur by adding aluminum particles to copper sulphate solution → displacement reaction
● What will happen if Ca(OH)2 is left open in air → it will convert into calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
● When magnesium ribbon is burnt in the presence of air, what is the name of the white colored powder that is formed
→ Magnesium Oxide
● What happens when sodium reacts with ethanol → H gas is liberated + sodium ethoxide
2.6. Compounds, Solutions and Mixtures

● A compound is a substance made up of two or more different chemical elements combined in a fixed ratio.
● A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the components are uniformly distributed
at the molecular or ionic level.
● Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of known as a substance.
● The substance that dissolves is called the solute, while the substance that does the dissolving is called the solvent.
● An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to
liquid-liquid phase separation.
● A colloid is a mixture in which one substance of dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another
substance.
● The phase that is dispersed or present in colloidal particle shape is called the dispersed phase. The medium the
colloidal particles are distributed is called the medium of dispersion.
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● Aqua regia is a highly corrosive mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) and concentrated nitric acid (HNO3)
in a ratio of 3:1.
● Solute can be separated from solution → by evaporation
● What is Air → Heterogeneous Mixture
● Washing Soda Formula → Na2CO3.10H2O
● Bleaching powder is denoted → CaOCl2
● Urea is a nitrogen-containing organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2.
● Which solvent is used in white and black photography → Silver Bromide
● Plaster of Paris is formed by heating gypsum at how many °C → 373K
● What is called a colloid solution which represents a solid phase attached to a liquid (gel, emulsion, foam, liquid crystal)
→ Liquid crystal
● What is an alkane with 5 carbons called → Pentane
● Compounds having double bond are called unsaturated
● In which method, solvent particles flow from a lower concentration solution to a higher concentration solution through
a semipermeable membrane → Osmosis
● Why Plaster of Paris is not left open → Plaster of Paris is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. When plaster of Paris is kept
in the presence of moisture, it absorbs water molecules and forms a hard substance called gypsum.
● Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in → Glass, soap and paper industries
● Which compound is used to purify water → Bleaching powder
● What is formed when ferrous sulphate is heated → Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
● Which product will be obtained in solid state on heating lead nitrate → Lead oxide
● What is obtained by reacting chlorine with slaked lime → Bleaching powder
● What is the common name of calcium sulphate hemihydrate → Plaster of Paris
● Artificial rain is produced by seeding clouds with Silver Iodide.
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Chemical compound Common Name Chemical formula

Copper sulphate pentahydrate Blue vitriol CuSO4.5H2O
Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium carbonate decahydrate Washing soda Na2CO3.10H2O
Calcium sulphate hemihydrate Plaster of Paris CaSO4.1/2 H2O
Calcium sulphate dihydrate Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
2.7. Acids, Bases & Salts

● An acid is a substance which can accept an electron Acidic nature of a substance is due to the formation of H+ (aq)
ions in solution. Acids are sour in taste and change the colour of blue litmus to red.
● According to the Bronsted-Lowrey concept, An acid is a molecule or ion which is capable of donating a proton.
● Base is a substance which donates an electron Formation of OH–(aq) ions in solution is responsible for the basic nature
of a substance. Bases are bitter and change the colour of the red litmus to blue.
● According to the Bronsted-Lowrey concept, A base is a molecule or ion which is capable of accepting a proton.
● A salt consists of the positive ion (cation) of a base and the negative ion (anion) of an acid.
● A pH scale is a tool for determining acid and base concentrations.
● The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH- ions produced, respectively.
● What is the scientific name of common salt → Sodium chloride

● What will the salt whose pH value of aqueous solution is less than 7 be called → Acidic salt
● Plaster of Paris is obtained from → heating of gypsum
● The elements that form a basic oxide with oxygen → Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium
● Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions.
● Red litmus paper turns blue under basic or alkaline conditions.
● Which color is given to Bunsen flame by strontium salt → Crimson red
● Yellow clouds on Venus are caused by the presence of → Sulfuric acid
● What is the nature of the substance in the precipitate of the reaction → Solid
● In which reaction a substance insoluble in water is formed →Precipitation
● Which solution can turn phenolphthalein pink → alkaline
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Substance Acid present Substance Acid present
Orange, lemon Citric acid Gastric juice Hydrochloric acid
Tea Tannic acid Soft drinks Carbonic acid
Wheat Glutamic acid Apples Malic acid
Tamarind, Grapes Tartaric acid Grass Benzoic acid
Vinegar Acetic acid Citrus fruits Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Curd Lactic acid Urine Uric acid
2.8. Gases
● Synthesis gas (also known as syngas) is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2).
● Producer Gas: It mainly consists of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), as well as substantial amounts of nitrogen
(N2).
● The two most commonly used tear gases are ω-chloroacetophenone, or CN, and o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile,
or CS.
● Exposure to carbon monoxide impedes the blood's ability to carry oxygen to body tissues and vital organs and form
Carboxyhemoglobin.
● Which gas is released when lime is mixed with water → Carbon dioxide
● When you add lemon juice to soda water, bubbles start coming out because it contains → Carbon dioxide
● Which gas is known as laughing gas → Nitrous Oxide
● CO2 is generally found in the atmosphere → 0.03%
● The noble gas which is not found in atmosphere→ Radon
● Which gas is released when potassium chlorate is heated→ potassium chloride and oxygen
● ‘The main component of bio gas is → Methane
● Which gas is used to purify pond water in cities →chlorine
● HCI reacts with what to give a gas which turns lime → water milky → CaCO3
● Which gas is formed when sodium nitrate is heated → oxygen and nitrogen dioxide
● What is the main component of biogas and CNG → Methane
● Which is the main constituent of LPG → Butane
2.9. Ions
● Cations are ions that are positively charged. Anions are ions that are negatively charged.
● Electrolysis is defined as a process of decomposing ionic compounds into their elements by passing a direct electric
current through the compound in a fluid form.
● The reaction in which both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously is known as Redox reaction.
● Gain of electrons is known as reduction.
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● Loss of electrons is known as oxidation.

● The substance which gives oxygen or substance which removes hydrogen or The substance which gets reduced is
Oxidizing Agent.
● The substance which gives hydrogen or removes oxygen or The substance which gets oxidized is called Reducing
Agent.
● What are the carriers of electricity in copper sulphate solution → Ions
● The cause of permanent hardness in water is → chloride and sulphate ions
● Formation of magnesium oxide from magnesium in the presence of air is an example of → Oxidation and combination
reaction
● What happens in redox reaction → both oxidation and reduction
● What is the increase of hydrogen in a chemical reaction called → Reduction
● What is the removal of oxygen and addition of hydrogen called → Reduction
2.10. Carbon and its Compounds

● Carbon has three isotopes: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14.
● Carbon-12 is the most common isotope of carbon found on Earth, making up almost 99% of all carbon.
● Carbon-14 is unstable or radioactive and it decays over time.
● Carbon main allotropes → Diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene (C60).
● Thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon → Graphite

● Thin layer of pure carbon is known as Graphene.
● All organic compounds are mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen.
● Dry ice is solid is known as → Solid Carbon Dioxide
● What is the difference in molecular mass number of two consecutive homogeneous series →14 amu or (CH2 )group
● What is the property of carbon → covalent bond formation, has 4 valence electrons etc.
● The natural allotrope of carbon is the hardest → Diamond
● Which is the compound having ketone group containing 3 carbons → Acetone
● Which allotrope of carbon is a good conductor of electricity → graphite
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● C3H4 is an example of → alkene

● What is the characteristic of saturated hydrocarbon → single bond
● Why does carbon easily form compounds → covalent bonds
● What are naphthalene tablets made of → Coal tar
2.11. Metallurgy
● Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in their pure form.
● A flux is a substance that is added to the charge in a furnace to remove the gangue.
● Gangue is earthly impurities including silica, mud associated with the ore.
● Slag is the fusible product formed when flux reacts with impurities during the extraction of metals.
● Pig iron is the product of smelting iron ore (also ilmenite) with a high-carbon fuel and reductant such as coke.
● Wrought iron is a soft, ductile, fibrous variety that is produced from a semi fused mass of relatively pure iron globules
partially surrounded by slag.
● Cast iron is harder, more brittle, and less malleable than wrought iron. Cast iron typically contains more than 2 percent
carbon.
● Calcination is a process in which ore is heated in the absence of air or air might be supplied in a limited quantity.
● Roasting involves the heating of ore lower than its melting point in the presence of air or oxygen.
● Anodising is the process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium to protect from corrosion.
● Cathodic protection: This method involves connecting the metal to be protected to a sacrificial anode made of a more
reactive metal, such as zinc or magnesium.
● Whose ore is Carnotite → Uranium
● The iron pipes through which water is supplied are coated with zinc (Zn) so that they do not rust. This process of
coating is called. Galvanization
● Oxygen and water is the main factor causing rusting of iron.
● Stainless steel is an alloy of → Iron, nickel, chromium and copper
● From which mineral is aluminum obtained → Bauxite
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2.12. Metals and Non-metals

● Metals are elements that generally have a shiny appearance, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are
malleable and ductile, sonorous.
● Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by accepting or gaining electrons. They are not conducting
heat and electricity, they are good insulators of heat and electricity. They are not ductile.
● Which metal is found in blood → Iron
● Which is the lightest metal → Lithium
● When a metal is heated its density → decreases
● What is the filament of electric bulb made of → tungsten
● Which metal is the best conductor of heat → Silver
● Which metal can be easily cut with a knife → Sodium
● Pure Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
● Osmium is the heaviest metal and platinum is the hardest.
● Which heavy metal is found in modern tanning industries, which is toxic → Chromium (III) sulfate, Cr2(SO4)3
● The nature of metallic oxide is → alkaline
● Bromine is only non-metal liquid at room temperature.
● Which is the most reactive metal among calcium, magnesium, aluminum and lead → Calcium
● In which of the following Argon, Helium, Bromine and Magnesium will electric current flow → Magnesium
● Bleaching powder is the oxychloride of → Calcium
● Which can come out in all the three forms solid, liquid and gas → non-metal
● Which is the non-metal in K, Na, Cl, Li → Cl
● Mercury is liquid at temperature. A heavy, silvery d-block component, mercury is the only metal that's liquid at
customary conditions for temperature and pressure.
● Metalloids can be defined as chemical elements whose physical and chemical properties fall in between the metal and
non-metal categories. Boron, germanium, silicon, antimony, arsenic, tellurium and polonium are the seven most widely
recognized metalloids.
● Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal and cannot be separated into their components
by physical methods.
Alloys Compositions
Brass Cu + Zn
Bronze Cu + Sn
German Silver Cu + Zn + Ni
Duralumin Al + Cu + Mg + Mn
Magnalium Al + Mg
Solder Pb + Sn
Stainless steel Fe + Cr + Ni + C
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Alloys Compositions
Brass Cu + Zn
Bronze Cu + Sn
German Silver Cu + Zn + Ni
Duralumin Al + Cu + Mg + Mn
Magnalium Al + Mg
Solder Pb + Sn
Constantan Cu+ Ni
Nickel steel Fe + Ni
Reactivity series of metals
2.13. Environmental Chemistry

● Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in water, air, terrestrial and living environments,
and the effects of human activity on them.
● How can the thickness of ozone layer be increased → By increasing oxygen
● What is harmful chemicals entering the food chain and increasing with the trophic level called → Biomagnification
● Eutrophication is the process by which an entire body of water, or parts of it, becomes progressively enriched with
minerals and nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.
● By which process surface water, rainwater and snowmelt seep into the ground → Infiltration.
● Gaseous air pollutants: These include oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide,
ozone, and other oxidants.
● Particulate pollutants: This includes dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.
● Non-biodegradable substances remain in the environment for extended periods and can enter the food chain, posing
health risks to animals and causing pollution of air, soil and water.
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● Acid rain is defined as rainwater with a pH level below 5.6, caused by the deposition of acidic substances from the
atmosphere onto the Earth's surface. It is majorily caused by oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
● Photochemical smog, a type of air pollution, originates from vehicle emissions and the burning of agricultural waste.
These emissions react with sunlight to create secondary pollutants.
● Secondary pollutants, such as Peroxylacyl nitrates (PAN), aldehydes, and ozone (O3), combine with primary
emissions like toxic gases and sulfur oxides.
● The gas, which is emitted in the paddy fields and increases the earth's temperature is Methane.
● BOD is the amount of oxygen that will be consumed by aerobic microorganisms or bacteria while decomposing
organic matter under aerobic conditions.
● Dissolved Oxygen indicates the actual amount of free oxygen dissolved in water.
● COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is a measure of the amount of organic pollutants present in water.
● Eutrophication is a phenomenon where natural water bodies are enriched with inorganic nutrients leading to the
proliferation of algae. This, in turn, depletes the oxygen concentration in water, leading to the death of aquatic animals
and plants, and eventually loss of biodiversity.
● Which country contributes the most to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions these days → United States of America (USA).
● Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a non-biodegradable substance used as insecticide, which causes
pollution and further results in bio-accumulation.
2.14. Polymers
● They are large molecules composed of repeating structural units of monomers.
● Natural polymers: These are polymers that occur naturally and are derived from living organisms. Examples include
proteins, cellulose, DNA, and rubber.
● Semi-synthetic polymers: These are polymers that are derived from natural sources but have been chemically
modified. Examples include cellulose derivatives such as rayon and cellulose nitrate.
● Synthetic polymers: These are polymers that are artificially created in a laboratory. Examples include polyethylene,
polypropylene, nylon, and PVC.
● Branched polymers: These are polymers where the monomer units are linked together in a branched structure.
Examples include low-density polyethylene.
● Cross-linked polymers: These are polymers where the monomer units are linked together in a three-dimensional
network, forming a rigid structure. Examples include Bakelite, etc.
● Elastomers are polymers with the weakest intermolecular force of attraction. They exhibit high elasticity and can be
stretched and returned to their original shape. Examples of elastomers include Buna-S, Buna-N, neoprene, and
vulcanized rubber.
● Fibers are polymers with the strongest intermolecular forces of attraction, including hydrogen bonding and dipole-
dipole interactions. Examples-Nylon 6,6.
● Thermosetting polymers are cross-linked or heavily branched molecules that undergo cross-linking when heated in
molds.
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● Thermoplastic polymers are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules with intermediate intermolecular forces
of attraction between elastomers and fibers. Example- polystyrene, polyethylene, and PVC.
● Neoprene is a synthetic rubber made from the monomer 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene. It is used in the manufacture of
products such as wetsuits, hoses, and gaskets due to its resistance to oils, chemicals, and extreme temperatures.
● Buna-N is a synthetic rubber made from the copolymerization of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile, in the presence of a
peroxide catalyst. It is used in the manufacture of oil seals, tank linings, and other products that require resistance to
oils and chemicals.
● Silicone rubber is a synthetic rubber made from the polymerization of siloxane monomers.
● Buna-S is a type of synthetic rubber which is made from styrene and butadiene monomers through copolymerization
● Kevlar is a heat-resistant, synthetic, lightweight fiber.
2.15. Chemistry in Everyday Life

Chemicals in Drugs
● Antacids: Chemical substances that neutralize excess acid in the stomach and provide relief from acid-related
problems. Examples include ENO, ranitidine.
● Antihistamines: Chemical substances that reduce or eliminate the effects of histamine, which can cause allergies such
as itching, sneezing, and watery eyes. Examples include Seldane, and Dimetapp.
● Tranquilizers: Chemical substances used to treat stress and mental illnesses. Examples include Veronal, equanil, and
valium.
● Analgesics: These chemical substances are used to relieve pain without impairing the nervous system. Examples
include aspirin, Novalgin, and Analgin.
● Non-narcotic analgesics: Non-addictive pain relievers such as Aspirin, Ibuprofen, and Naproxen.
● Narcotic analgesics: Pain relievers that can cause addiction, such as Morphine and its derivatives.
● Antiseptics: Chemical substances that kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms on living tissues, such as cuts and
wounds. Examples include Soframycin and Dettole.
● Disinfectants: These chemical substances that kill microorganisms but cannot be used on living tissues, such as
Chlorine and Bithional.
● Antibiotics: These chemical substances produced by microorganisms that kill or prevent the growth of other microbes.
Chemicals in sweeteners
● Saccharin, also known as ortho-sulfabenzamide, was the first popular artificial sweetener.
● Aspartame is another widely used artificial sweetener and is approximately 100 times sweeter than cane sugar. It is a
methyl ester of dipeptide that is formed from phenylalanine and aspartic acid.
● Alitame is a high potency sweetener, and although it is more stable than aspartame, controlling the sweetness of food
while using it can be difficult.
● Sucralose is a trichloro derivative of sucrose and has a similar appearance and taste to sugar. It is stable at cooking
temperatures and does not provide calories.
Chemicals in Soaps and Detergents
● Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids and used for cleaning purposes. Formed by saponification
of fat with aqueous sodium or potassium hydroxide.
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Example-stearic, oleic and palmitic acids.

● Anionic detergents: Sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons, used for household work and
toothpastes.
● Cationic detergents: They are quaternary ammonium salts of amines with positive charge on nitrogen, expensive and
have germicidal properties.
● Non-ionic detergents: They do not contain any ion in their constitution, used in liquid dishwashing detergent.
2.16. Miscellaneous
● What is the purest form of water → Rain water
● The color of a cut apple turns brown after some time because it reacts with air to form → iron oxide
● What is the amount of helium in the Sun → 27.4% (by mass)
● What is the central part of the Sun called → Core
● Marble is formed from which rock due to pressure and temperature → LimeStone
● By increasing the pressure on ice, its melting point → will decrease.
● Bleaching powder is used in the textile industry and to disinfect water.
● Which chemical is used when ant bites → Baking soda
● What is added to food to cook it quickly → Baking Soda
● When iodine solution is poured on potato, the part which comes in contact with iodine solution will turn blue black
due to the presence Starch.
● Which types of glass can cut off ultraviolet rays →Crookes glass
● Aspartame is a Synthetic sweetener
● Lithium bicarbonate (LiHCO3) treats rheumatism.
● Denaturation is a process of modifying the molecular structure of a protein by breaking many of the weak bonds
within a protein molecule that is responsible for the highly ordered structure of the protein in its natural state.
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3. BIOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It encompasses a wide range of topics, including genetics,
ecology, anatomy, and evolution. Biology seeks to understand how living things function, interact with each other and their
environment, and evolve over time.
Who first used the word ‘Biology’ → Lamarck and Treviranus
Known as the father of biology → Aristotle
3.2. Cytology
● Cytology is the study of cells
● Where did the first cell originate → in water
● The smallest living cell is → Mycoplasma
● The longest cell of the body is → Nerve cells
● The word cell was coined by Robert Hooke.
● The genetic material of the cell is → DNA
● Which cells of the human body have the least regenerative power → Brain cells
● Which cell organelle plays a major role in protein synthesis → Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosome
● What does the cell mostly use to produce energy → Glucose
● DNA was discovered by → Watson and Crick
● The units of DNA are → Nucleotides
● Mitosis occurs → in somatic cells
● Meiosis occurs → in sexually reproducing cells
● Virus grows → in living cell
● Who first outlined the structure of DNA → Watson and Crick
● What is called the suicide bag of the cell → Lysosome
● Lysosome discovered by de Duve in 1949
● Ribosomes are called protein factories.
● Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes
3.3. Botany
● Botany is a natural science concerned with the study of plants.
● Theophrastus is known as the father of Botany.
● The word Botany has originated from the Greek language.
● The color of leaves is yellow due to the formation of xanthophyll and carotenoid.
● Vegetative reproduction is found in Potato
● Corn is Unisexual flower.
● Edible parts of a cauliflower are Inflorescence.
● Pomology is the study of fruits.
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● Gymnosperms are the plants on which seeds are formed but flowers do not grow.
● Stomata exist for the exchange of gases in plants.
● Dendrology is related to the study of shrubs.
● Study of flowers is called Anthology.
● Spermology is the study of seeds.
● Plant taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming plants.
● Who is called the father of taxonomy → Carl Linnaeus
● What is sago made from?
● Sago is a type of starch that's commonly extracted from Metroxylon sagu.
● Study of fruits is called Pomology
● Edible parts of ginger and potato are stem
● By Diffusion oxygen reaches the cells from the external environment in plants.
● Sucrose is the main form of transfer of food substances in plants.
● Plants that grow in shade are called Cycas.
● Mustard is a biosexual flower.
● Study of fungi is called Mycology
● Study of algae is called Phycology
● Plants absorb nitrogen → in the form of nitrate
● Carrots are orange in color because of → β carotene.
● Lycopene is the cause of red color in tomatoes.
● The cause of yellow color in turmeric is → Curcumin.
● Which is the tallest tree in the world → Redwood
● Which part of xylem does not perform the function of water transport → Xylem fiber
● Parasitic plant is → Amarbel
● In what form do autotrophs store their food → starch
● Which are examples of unisexual flowers → Papaya and watermelon
● Which process takes place in the guard cell → transpiration
● What is transported in the plant through phloem tissue → Nutrients
33
Photosynthesis
○ The process of preparing food by trees and plants is called Photosynthesis.
○ Required for photosynthesis → Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight
○ The process of photosynthesis is maximum in red light.
○ In photosynthesis, oxygen is released (oxidized) from → water
○ By which process is excess water taken out in plants → Transpiration
○ Which of the following is called photosynthetic organelle → leaf
○ When do plants emit oxygen → By photosynthesis during day time
3.4. Zoology
● Which hormone is injected into the udders of cow and buffalo to extract milk → Oxytocin
● Scientific study of birds is called → Ornithology
● Beekeeping is called → Apiculture
● The color of cow's milk is slightly yellow due to the presence of → Carotene
● Single circulatory system is found in → Fishes
● Which creature has a three chambered heart → Amphibian
● Who has a 2 chambered heart → Fish
● Among fish, snake, frog and eagle, which one does not have double circulation → Fish
34
3.5. Reproduction
● Reproduction is the biological process by which organisms produce offspring.
● Asexual reproduction is the process of producing offspring without the involvement of gametes or fertilization.
● Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes from two different individuals, usually of the opposite sex.
● Sex of which animal is not determined genetically → Snail
● The stamen is the male reproductive part in plants. It consists of anther and a long supporting filament.
● The pistil is a plant's female reproductive part. It consists of a stigma, style and ovary.
● Name the floral genitalia → Stamens and Carpel
Human Reproduction System, Genetics and Sex Determination
○ In the human reproduction system, it involves producing and transporting gametes (sperm in males, eggs in
females) that can fertilize to form a zygote, which will develop into a fetus.
○ By which structure does the fetus developing in the uterus get nutrition → Placenta
○ What is used to know the development of the baby in the uterus → Ultrasound
○ Which organ provides food for the development of the embryo → Placenta
○ What is sterilization of men called → Vasectomy
○ Helpful in proving parentage → DNA and fingerprinting test
○ Male and female gene composition is → XY and XX
○ Hargobind Khorana was the first to synthesize “gene” in the laboratory.
○ A boy inherits “chromosomes” from his father → 22+Y
○ The sex of the child is determined → by the father's chromosome (XY).
○ The combination of male and female gametes is called → fertilization
○ Fertilization of the egg occurs in the fallopian tube.
○ Which hormone are present if females→ estrogen and progesterone
○ The term chromosome was coined by →W Waldeyer in 1888
○ Number of chromosomes in humans → 46 (23 pairs)
○ Chromosomes are formed by a substance called chromatin.
○ The word “gene” was first used by → Wilhelm Johannsen
○ The principle of “one gene, one enzyme” was propounded by → George Beadle and Edward Tatum
○ Mechanical contraceptive device is → condom
○ Which Contraceptive increases phagocytosis of sperms inside the uterus → IUD (Intrauterine Devices)
○ Birth control pills restrict pregnancy by suppressing the formation of estrogen and progesterone hormone
formation.
○ The testicles in men are positioned outside the body because a temperature approximately 2-3 degrees Celsius
lower than the body temperature is necessary.
35
3.6. Blood
● Blood is one of the connective tissues.
● How long does it take for blood to circulate within the body → approximately 20 seconds
● Blood pressure decreases while sleeping.
● What is the PH value of human blood → 7.4
● The graveyard of RBC is → Spleen
● What is the main purpose of white blood cells in blood → to fight infection
● The liquid portion of blood without corpuscles is called → Plasma
● The color of human blood is red → due to hemoglobin
● Inadequate supply of blood in the human body is called → Ischemia
● Which is the anticoagulant substance in blood → Heparin
● What is the blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood to the liver → Hepatic artery
● Another name for blood cancer is → Leukemia
● Approximately how long is the average lifespan of red blood cells → 100-120 days
● Which enzyme helps in blood clotting → Thrombin
● The function of hemoglobin is to carry oxygen.
● Which metal is found in blood → Iron
● What is the blood pressure of a normal human → 120/80mmHg
● Which type of white blood cells is present in abundance in human blood → Neutrophils
● Where are most nutrients absorbed into the blood → small intestine
● The amount of glucose in the blood remains controlled due to insulin.
● What percentage of body weight is blood volume → 7-8%
● What is the amount of blood in a human being → 5 to 5.5 liters
● Which organ purifies blood → Kidney
● How many days does a white blood cell live →12-20 days
● Which is the universal recipient blood group → AB+
● Which blood group is the universal donor → O+
● Blood plasma contains approximately 90% water.
● Anemia is a problem of not having enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the body's tissues.
● At very high altitude the number of red blood cells in humans increases.
● Who performs the function of ‘blood bank’ in the human body → Spleen
● Who produces antibodies in blood plasma → Lymphocyte
● By what name are red blood cells (RBC) known → Erythrocytes
● Who organ produces red blood cells → Bone marrow
● What is the name Rh Factor related to → Rhesus monkey.
● Hemoglobin is a compound of iron.
36
● Hemoglobin forms higher bonds with which gas → Oxygen

● Which blood cell is colorless → WBC
● Which protein helps in blood clotting → Fibrinogen
● Which cell can change its shape → WBC
Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor's Group
A A anti-B A, O
B B anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O nil anti-A, B O
3.7. Human Body

● Where is the largest bone found in the human body → Femur (in the thigh)
● Largest organ of the body → Skin
● The color of human skin is formed from melanin
● Which is the hardest element in the body? Enamel
● Where is the smallest bone of the human body → stapes (in the middle ear)
● The study of human beauty is called → Kelology
● Calcium is an essential element in the formation and maintenance of cartilage and bones.
● Study of internal organs is called → Angiology
● Important Facts:
○ Largest artery - Abdominal aorta
○ Largest bone - Femur
○ Largest heterocrine organ - Alimentary canal
○ Largest endocrine gland - Thyroid
○ Largest gland - Liver
○ Largest salivary gland - Parotid gland
○ Largest vein - Inferior Vena cava
○ Least regenerative capacity - Brain
○ Longest cell in the body - Neuron
○ Longest cranial nerve - Vagus
○ Muscles: Number - 639
○ Number of cranial nerves - 12 pairs
37
○ Number of spinal nerves - 31 pairs

○ Smallest cranial nerve - Abducens
○ Smallest bone - Stapes (2.6 – 3.4 mm)
○ Smallest endocrine gland - Pituitary
○ Spinal cord: Weight - 35g. Length - 42-45 cm
3.8. Human Body System

Digestive System
● Where does digestion process begin in humans → mouth
● What substance do proteins convert into during digestion → Amino acids
● Saliva released from mouth digests → starch
● Enzyme found in saliva → Ptyalin
● Through what medium is food digested in the stomach → Through acidic medium
● Which organ converts glycogen into glucose and purifies the blood → Liver
● What type of reaction is digestion of food → Decomposition reaction
● Bile is secreted → by the liver
● Which of the following is especially required to digest food in the stomach → Enzymes
● Starch is digested into sugar in the mouth by what → Tylin
● The enzyme found in human saliva is → Amylase
● Which is the largest gland of the body → Liver
● Where does the digestion process of food begin → large intestine
● In which intestine the digested food is absorbed → Large intestine
● By which organ is bile secreted → By liver
● Where in the human body is the maximum absorption of food into the blood → small intestine
● Which organ absorbs toxic substances present in digested food? → liver
● pH value of bile is → 7.7
● Protein is digested → in the small intestine
● The end products of digestion of starch in the alimentary canal are → maltose
● Diabetes occurs due to lack of insulin
● Insulin was discovered by Wetting and Best
● Insulin is produced in the body → by pancreas
● Which base digests carbohydrates → Bile juice secreted from the liver
● Which enzyme present in saliva breaks down starch → Amylase
● Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats takes place in → small intestine.
● Where does emulsification of fat take place (stomach, liver, small intestine, pancreas) → small intestine
● What is the correct sequence of digestion, ingestion, elimination, absorption and assimilation → Ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and elimination
38
● The pH of gastric juice is approximately → 1.2

● Bile is essential in the emulsification of fats.
● Which enzyme digests protein? Pepsin
Circulatory System
(Four Parts - Heart, Arteries, Veins and Blood)
● It is a compact, battery-operated device designed to prevent the heart from beating too slowly (regulating heartbeat).
→ Pacemaker
● What is the heart beat rate of an adult → 70-80 times per minute
● Which activity is represented by ECG → heart activities
● When the left ventricle contracts in the human heart, where does the blood flow → Aorta
● Jarvik-7 is → Artificial Heart
● The first heart replacement was performed by→ Dr. Christian Bernard
● The amount of glucose in the blood remains controlled → due to insulin
● How many times does the human heart beat → 72 times/minute
● How much time does it take for the heart to beat once in the human body → 0.8 seconds
● Approximately how many times does a human heart beat during a normal life → 2 billion
● Which mineral is necessary to control heartbeat → Potassium
Excretory System
● Urine smells bad due to urea.
● Urea is found in maximum quantity in urine.
● When nitrogenous waste accumulates in the blood, which organ is not functioning → Kidneys
● Which tissue protects the kidney → Adipose Tissue
Nervous System
● Which part of the brain detects the pungent smell or aroma of perfume → Cerebrum
● Who controls voluntary movements in humans → Cerebrum
● Where is body temperature controlled → Hypothalamus
● The outermost membrane of the human brain is → Dura mater
● Controls human ability to smell → Olfactory lobe
● Cerebrum is the center of intelligence and cleverness in humans.
● How much does the brain weigh → 1350 to 1400 grams
● Which cells of the human body have the least regenerative power → Brain cells
● Which organ controls the human and animal body → central nervous system
Endocrine System
● Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones.
● Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products into ducts that lead to a surface or cavity, rather than directly
into the bloodstream.
● Who named the word hormone → Bayliss and Starling
39
● Which endocrine hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine → TSH
● Which hormone controls the amount of sugar in the blood → Insulin
● Life saving hormone is called → Adrenal
● Who controls blood pressure → Adrenal gland
● Enzymes are proteins.
● Source of the diastase enzyme is salivary glands.
● Enzymes are especially required to digest food in the stomach.
● oxygen is an enzyme.
● Which gland of the human body works as both endocrine and exocrine simultaneously → Pancreas
● The “trace” metal present in insulin is Zinc.
● The enzyme that coagulates milk into curd is Rennin.
● Enzymes are composed of amino acids.
Respiratory System
● What is the average percentage of oxygen element in the human body → 65 percent
● Respiration produces energy.
● Oxidation of sugar occurs in respiration.
● The process by which humans breathe exhales is exhalation.
● What is the result of food items in the reaction of respiration → Decomposition.
● What is the main respiratory organ in humans → Lungs
● Normal respiratory rate of an adult human is about 16 - 18 breaths per minute.
● The shape of the lung is conical.
● By which process gases enter the blood during respiration and then leave it → Osmosis
● Respiration is an exothermic reaction.
● We take air through our nose and mouth.
3.9. Nutrients
Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates are naturally occurring organic compounds that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the
ratio of 1:2:1.
● Carbohydrates are commonly known as sugars due to their sweet taste.
● Carbohydrates are classified into four main types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides based on their structure and behavior on hydrolysis.
● Iodine test is used to check the presence of Carbohydrates.
● Plants are the primary source of carbohydrates.
● The main function of insulin in the human body is to control the sugar level in the body.
● Five calories of energy is there in “Sweetex” used by diabetic patients.
40
Classification of Carbohydrates
Vitamins
● Water soluble vitamins are → Vitamin B and C.
● What is Vitamin E especially important for → vision, reproduction, and the health of your blood, brain and skin.
● Deficiency of Vitamin B causes anemia in men.
● Riboflavin is the name of which vitamin → Vitamin B2
● Which vitamin is in human urine → Vitamin C
● Name of that vitamin, which is not found in any non-vegetarian food → Vitamin C
● Deficiency of which vitamin causes blindness → Vitamin A
● Stored in the liver for future use → Vitamin A
● Due to deficiency of which vitamin gums bleed and teeth start moving→Vitamin C
● Which vitamin is more in orange → Vitamin C
● Which vitamin forms blood clot in human body → Vitamin K
● Vitamin B deficiency causes → Beri-Beri
● Which metal is a component of Vitamin B12 → Cobalt
● The function of “Trypsin” is to dissolve proteins.
● The vitamin that cannot be obtained from any vegetable is Vitamin D.
● Fat soluble vitamins are→ Vitamins A, D, E, and K
SI. No. Name of Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases
1. Vitamin A (Retinol) Fish liver oil, carrots, butter and Xerophthalmia (hardening of cornea of
milk eye), Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Yeast, milk, green vegetables Beri beri (loss of appetite, retarded
and cereals growth)
41
3. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, egg white, liver, kidney Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
mouth and lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation of the skin.
4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Cereals, Green leafy vegetables Pellagra
5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Yeast, milk, egg yolk, cereals Convulsions

and grams
6. Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Liver, kidney, milk Depression, Hair loss
7. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient in
haemoglobin)
8. Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits, amla and green Scurvy (bleeding gums)
leafy vegetables
9. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol- Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities in children)

D3) (Ergocalciferol-D2) fish and egg yolk and osteomalacia (soft bones and
joint pain in adults)
10. Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Vegetable oils like wheat germ Increased fragility of RBCs and
oil, sunflower oil, etc. muscular weakness
11. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time
3.10. Human Diseases, Instruments, Vaccine and Drugs

● Newcastle disease (ND), also known as Ranikhet disease, is a highly contagious avian viral illness that impact various
domestic avian species as well as wild birds.
● Rheumatic heart disease is treated with the help of Aspirin.
● Itai-itai disease is caused by Cadmium metal.
● The disease caused by thyroxine deficiency is goiter.
● Another name for blood cancer is Leukemia.
● Anemia disease is caused by iron deficiency.
● The instrument used to measure blood pressure is called Sphygmomanometer.
● Kala-azar fever is transmitted by the bite of a tsetse fly.
● The full name of infectious disease SARS is Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome.
● Plasmodium is a parasite that causes malaria.
● Goitre is caused due to deficiency of Iodine.
● Pneumonia is related to the respiratory system.
42
● Hypertension is the condition of high blood pressure.

● Malaria is caused by the Anopheles mosquito bites.
● Diabetes occurs due to lack of insulin.
● Robert Koch discovered the germs of cholera.
● Roundworm is a human parasite found in the small intestine.
● Taenia solium (tapeworm) lives as a parasite in the intestine.
● Scurvy disease occurs in Skin organ.
● Nipah virus is a zoonotic virus (transmitted from animals to humans) and also transmitted through contaminated food.
● Athlete Foot and Ringworm disease is caused by Fungi.
● The medical term used for sleep disorder is Insomnia.
● Microbial-type culture collection Centre is situated in Chandigarh.
● Full form of AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
● Stiffness in muscles is one of the symptoms of beriberi disease.
● HIV is harmful because it can be passed from parent to child.
● Formation of lactic acid due to anaerobic respiration (due to lack of O2) causes cramps in the body.
● HIV AIDS affects the Immune system.
● Plasmodium is a parasite that causes malaria.
● Skin cancer will be the effect of ozone layer depletion.
● Simplex Virus causes herpes disease.
● 28th February is Rare Disease Day.
● Ashwagandha is used to treat blood pressure.
● “Hypoglycemia” means low sugar level in blood
43
Viral Diseases:
Disease Causative Agent Site of Infection Mode of Symptoms
Transmission
Common cold Rhino viruses Respiratory tract Droplet infection Nasal congestion and discharge,
sore throat, cough and headache
Mumps Mumps virus (RNA Salivary glands Saliva and droplet Enlargement of the parotid
virus) infection glands
Measles Rubella virus (RNA Skin and respiratory Droplet infection Sore throat, running nose,
virus), Paramyxovirus tract cough and fever, reddish rashes
on the skin, neck, and ears
Viral hepatitis Hepatitis-B virus Liver Parenteral route, Liver damage, jaundice, nausea,
blood transfusion yellowish eyes, fever, and pain
in the abdomen
Chicken pox Varicella-Zoster virus Respiratory tract, skin, Droplet infection Mild fever with itchy skin, rash,
(DNA Virus) and nervous system and direct contact and blisters
Poliomyelitis Polio virus (RNA Intestine, brain, spinal Droplet infection Fever, muscular stiffness and
virus) cord through faecal oral weakness, paralysis, and
route respiratory failure
Dengue fever Dengue virus or Flavi Skin and blood Mosquito vector Severe flu-like illness with a
(Break bone virus (DENV 1-4 (Aedes aegypti) sudden onset of fever and
fever) virus) painful headache, muscle and
joint pain
Chikungunya Alpha virus (Toga Nervous system Mosquito vector Fever and joint pain, headache,
virus) (Aedes aegypti) and joint swelling
Bacterial Diseases:
● Leuven Hawk first discovered bacteria.

Diseases Causative agent Site of infection Mode of transmission Symptoms
Bubonic plague Yersinia pestis Lymph nodes Rat flea vector Fever, headache, and
(Black death) Xenopsylla cheopis swollen lymph nodes
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Larynx, skin, nasal Droplet infection Fever, sore throat,
diphtheriae and genital passage hoarseness and difficulty in
breathing
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine Contaminated food Severe diarrhoea and

and water/ faecal oral dehydration
route
44
Tetanus (Lock Clostridium tetani Spasm of muscles Through wound Rigidity of jaw muscle,
jaw) infection increased heart beat rate and
spasm of the muscles of the
jaw and face
Typhoid (Enteric Salmonella typhi Intestine Through contaminated Headache, abdominal
fever) food and water discomfort, fever and
diarrhoea
Pneumonia Streptococcus Lungs Droplet infection Fever, cough, painful
pneumoniae breathing and brown
sputum
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Droplet infection Thick mucopurulent nasal

tuberculosis discharge
Protozoan Diseases:
Disease Causative agent Fly vector
Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histolytica None
Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Trypanosoma brucei Tsetse fly

Disease)
Kala - azar Leishmania donovani Sand fly
Malaria Plasmodium malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, Anopheles

Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium ovale mosquito
Important Vaccines
45
3.11. Ecology
● Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to their environment.
● Environmental pollution can be controlled by stopping nuclear explosions and by manufacturing electric vehicles.
● Through the Red color, endangered species are shown in the Data Book.
● Porcupine creature is protected under the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972.
● Lichen is a pollution indicator.
● Dodo birds of the animal species are extinct.
● Cow dung comes under saprophytes.
● Saprophyte type of fungus is present in mushroom,
● Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and its excessive amounts in the atmosphere result in global warming and hence,
CO2 is known as a pollutant.
● R5 in Waste Management is → Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle
● Pollution happens from non biodegradable plastic.
● Agriculture is the branch of science related to plant cultivation.
● Grasses is studied in agroecology.
● Soil is studied in pedology.
● In Biomagnification, harmful chemicals entering the food chain increases with the trophic level.
3.12. Miscellaneous
● Lactose is found in milk.
● Paramecium is a unicellular organism.
● In1993, the only Central Agricultural University (CAU-Central Agricultural University) - was established in Imphal
(Manipur).
● Earthworms respire through their skin.
● West Bengal is the state with highest productivity of sesame in India.
● In the world, India ranks second in sesame production (after China).
● The literal meaning of the term “Homo Sapiens” is Human-intelligence.

46
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1.1. Unit and Dimension

There are two types of units:

Kinematic viscosity square metre per second m²/s or m² s⁻¹

SI derived units with Special Names

1.3. Work, Energy and Power

1.4. Thermal Properties

1.7. Electromagnetic Waves

Gamma rays <10–3 nm

1.9. Fluid Mechanics

1.11. Instruments and their Use

Galvanometer It is for the measurement of electric current.

Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.

1.12. Scientists and their Contribution:

J.J Thomson Discovery of electron

Name Major Contribution/Discovery

2.1. Important Terms

2.2. Discoveries, Theories and Laws

2.3. Atomic Structure

2.4. Periodic Classification of Elements

● Which has maximum non-metallic properties in 16th group → Oxygen

2.5. Chemical Reactions and Bondings

2.6. Compounds, Solutions and Mixtures

Chemical compound Common Name Chemical formula

2.7. Acids, Bases & Salts

● What is the scientific name of common salt → Sodium chloride

Substance Acid present Substance Acid present

Orange, lemon Citric acid Gastric juice Hydrochloric acid

Tea Tannic acid Soft drinks Carbonic acid

Wheat Glutamic acid Apples Malic acid

Tamarind, Grapes Tartaric acid Grass Benzoic acid

Vinegar Acetic acid Citrus fruits Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Curd Lactic acid Urine Uric acid

● Loss of electrons is known as oxidation.

2.10. Carbon and its Compounds

● Thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon → Graphite

● C3H4 is an example of → alkene

2.12. Metals and Non-metals

2.13. Environmental Chemistry

2.15. Chemistry in Everyday Life

Example-stearic, oleic and palmitic acids.

● Hemoglobin forms higher bonds with which gas → Oxygen

Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor's Group

3.7. Human Body

○ Number of spinal nerves - 31 pairs

3.8. Human Body System

● The pH of gastric juice is approximately → 1.2

SI. No. Name of Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Cereals, Green leafy vegetables Pellagra

5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Yeast, milk, egg yolk, cereals Convulsions

6. Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Liver, kidney, milk Depression, Hair loss

9. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol- Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities in children)

3.10. Human Diseases, Instruments, Vaccine and Drugs

● Hypertension is the condition of high blood pressure.

● Leuven Hawk first discovered bacteria.

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine Contaminated food Severe diarrhoea and

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Droplet infection Thick mucopurulent nasal

Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histolytica None

Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Trypanosoma brucei Tsetse fly

Kala - azar Leishmania donovani Sand fly

Malaria Plasmodium malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, Anopheles

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