ABSTRACT

Communicable disease is that type of disease that can easily be transferred from
one person to another. It is also referred to as transmissible or contagious disease.
This work thus evaluated the effects of communicable diseases among Senior
secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers
State. The objective of the study was to determine the causes of communicable
disease among Senior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local
Government Area of Rivers State amongst other things. The research questions
the effect and causes of communicable disease among Senior secondary school
students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State. Various
concepts that are in line with the study were defined and clarified. The research
was guided theoretically with the One Health concept as propounded by Rudolf
Virchow. The survey research was used for the research design. The research
revolved around Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State Local
Government Area. The population for the study comprises the Students of Port
Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State, with an estimated figure of
600. Purposive Convenient Sampling Method was used to select the sample size.
The major instrument for data collection was questionnaire. . Descriptive
statistics (common percentage) was used to analyse the research questions. The
effects of communicable diseases are Disease, Death , Epidemic, Measles.
Controlling of communicable disease include Personal hygiene, Hand Washing,
Isolation , Treatment of disease , Sexual cautions, Passenger caution,
Prevention , Household items control, Control flies around the house, Protection
from disease and Proper Counseling. The study concludes that there is urgent
need to enlighten parents and equally set up programs that will boost their
knowledge about communicable disease. Communicable diseases such as the
Intestinal helianthus control programme should embark more on health education,
the need for proper disposal of faeces and good toilet facilities.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Communicable disease is that type of disease that can easily be transferred from

one person to another. It is also referred to as transmissible or contagious disease.

This disease could emanate from virus and/or bacteria. According to Ewuzie

(2015), these ailments are certainly triggered by organisms such as viruses and

worms upon finding its way into the human body. Most of these organisms could

be transmissible from infected person to another person and this is what is called

contagious diseases. Examples of communicable diseases are cold, measles,

mumps and gonorrhoea.

Communicable diseases are also illnesses caused by viruses or bacteria that

people spread to one another through contact with contaminated surfaces, bodily

fluids, blood products, insect bites, or through the air.(Wang , 2019) . it is is an

illness caused by a specific infectious agent or its toxic products (Heymann,

2014). It arises through transmission of that agent or its products from an infected

person or animal to a susceptible host either direct or indirectly through an

intermediate plant or animal host, vector or the inanimate environment (London,

2019). Infectious disease can be a major cause of illness among children,

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especially within the age brackets 0-12 years and can affect a child's schooling by

causing absenteeism. They may in turn, affect other children and staff, and can

prevent parents’ careers ability to work, especially where both parents work

(Crosson, 2010).

Communicable diseases spread quickly among children in the classroom, there

must be gathered printable and advise for germ prevention in school (Crosson,

2019). Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in public concern about

communicable diseases in the schools all over the world. School administrations

must find ways to strike a balance between protecting the general school . It is

important to recognize when someone in a group setting is sick with a

communicable disease so steps can be taken to obtain medical care and prevent

the spread of disease to others, Ewuzie (2019).

There are many examples of communicable diseases, some of which require

reporting to appropriate health departments or government agencies in the locality

of the outbreak. Some examples of the communicable disease include HIV,

hepatitis A, B and C, measles, salmonella, measles and blood-borne illnesses.

Most common forms of spread include fecal-oral, food, sexual intercourse, insect

bites, contact with contaminated fomites, droplets, or skin contact

(McNamara ,2014).

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It is recognized that certain factors play important roles which include: the strain

and number of the parasites, age and level of immunity at the time of infestation,

immune responses to the infestations, presence of co-existing diseases or

conditions which reduce immune responses, malnutritional undertone due to iron

deficiency, folic acid and protein deficiency. This could occur singly or in

combination with other causative agents (McGregor, Williams, Brilleanien and

Thompson, 2016). When Students and teens are together in group settings such as

s, child care facilities, camps, and sporting activities, some disease-causing germs

are easily spread among them.

Among all groups of people worldwide, the primary, middle, and high school

students form a special group. They are at the stage of body growth, characterized

by tender immune function and low ability to resist communicable diseases

(Bygbjerg, 2012) and their campus environment features high population density,

close contact, and frequent communicable diseases communication, outbreaks

and epidemics (Fendrick, 2013)

In Nigeria, more than 70% of the public health emergencies occur in schools, and

more than 80% of public health emergencies are communicable disease

epidemics ((McNamara ,2014). The transmission of these communicable diseases

(Intestinal infection) has behavioral, environmental and biological bases (Michael

et al., 2010). For instance, children tend to be more active in infected environment
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and rarely employ good sanitary behaviour; also these potential carriers are

crowded together for a long period of time (e.g. in school, orphanage or slum); in

addition helminthes are masterful immunoregulators and able to elicit a complex

and mixed Th1/Th2 response that both ward off and subverts an immune response

from the host. In Nigeria, many intervention schemes which were attempted to

control these infections did not yield much successes, many are still heavily

infected particularly children (Ijagbone and Olagunju, 2016).

According to White, (2014) National Internet-based Infectious Disease Reporting

System, 4.02% of TB patients are students. The outbreak and epidemic of

communicable diseases in schools threaten the health and quality of life of

students. Moreover, such an event will disrupt the teaching and learning

activities, affect the happiness of the students’ families, and damage the stability

and harmony of society (Onubgu, 2018) . Therefore, considerable attention must

be directed toward the communicable diseases issues among senior secondary

school students to prevent and control the spread of communicable diseases in

school campuses.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Illnesses caused by communicable disease are common in children in schools and

other childcare settings. Socioeconomic factors can increase the risk of outbreaks

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among children and adolescents in these settings. Some communicable disease

are communicable, i.e. can be transmitted from one person to another, for

example, via droplets, air suspensions, faeces, urine or skin-contact. Optimal

control of communicable diseases requires information on the incubation period

and period of infectiousness, to inform operative measures such as temporary

exclusion from the community to prevent further exposure. The National

Insurance Health scheme has recommended the following measure to curb the

pervallence of communicable disease:

 Keep immunizations up to date.

 Wash your hands often. Washing with regular soap and rinsing with

running water, followed by thorough drying, is considered the most

important way to prevent disease transmission. Routine consumer use of

residue-producing antibacterial products, such as those containing the

chemical triclosan, have not been proven to confer health benefits and may

actually contribute to antibiotic resistance.

 Prepare and handle food carefully.

 Use antibiotics only for infections caused by bacteria. Viral infections

cannot be treated with antibiotics. Your doctor may prescribe an antiviral

medication if your condition warrants it.

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 Report to your doctor any rapidly worsening infection or any infection that

does not get better after taking a course of antibiotics, if prescribed.

 Be careful around all wild animals and unfamiliar domestic animals. After

any animal bite, cleanse the wound with soap and water and consult a

clinician for further evaluation. Enjoy wild animals with your eyes, not by

touching them.

 Avoid insect bites whenever possible by using insect repellent and wearing

long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and a hat outdoors.

 Protect yourself by using safe sex practices. You and your partner should

be tested for sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV, if there has been

any risk of exposure. Consistently and correctly use condoms when having

sex with a partner of unknown status. Avoid sex with an injecting drug

user.

 Stay alert to disease threats when traveling or visiting underdeveloped

countries. Seek advice from a reliable source, such as the WHO or the

CDC, if you are going to areas of moderate-to-high disease risk.

 Acquire healthy habits such as eating well, getting enough sleep,

exercising, and avoiding tobacco and illegal drug use.

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Also many intervention schemes which were attempted to control these infections

did not yield much successes, many are still heavily infected particularly senior

secondary school students. In view of this, the researcher tends to evaluate the

effects of communicable disease amongst Senior secondary school students in

Port Harcourt Local Government Area, Rivers State.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to determine the effect of communicable

diseases among Senior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local

Government Area of Rivers State. Specifically, the objectives of the study were:

1. Determine the causes of communicable disease among Senior secondary

school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State.

2. Ascertain the effect of communicable disease among Senior secondary

school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State.

3. Determine effect of poor homes on the spread of communicable diseases

among Senior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local

Government Area of Rivers State.

4. Identify ways to address the issues of communicable disease among Senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of

Rivers State.
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1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1. What are the causes of communicable disease among Senior secondary

school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State?

2. What are the physical effects of communicable disease among Senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of

Rivers State?

3. What are the social effects of communicable disease among Senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of

Rivers State?

4. To what extent does poor homes lead to spread of communicable diseases

among Senior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local

Government Area of Rivers State?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The findings of the study “ effect of communicable disease among senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers

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State Local Government, Rivers State, Nigeria, if accepted will be of great value

to pupils and students, teachers and lecturers, parents and guidance, management

and administrators, textbook authors, government and Nigeria in general, even

researchers.

Pupils and students: the findings of this study will enable pupils and students to

have an instinct knowledge of communicable disease, its mode of transmission

and possible ways of prevention thereby serving as an educating medium to them.

Teachers and lecturers: the study will enlighten the teachers and lectures on the

subject matter thereby adding to their knowledge and giving them prior

knowledge of prevention of communicable disease amongst students.

Parents and guidance: It would help educate parents on how to handle their

environment and the health of their Students. Moreover it is hoped that it would

help parents to know how to handle such Students when they experience

difficulties.

Management and administrators: This study will help management in preventing

the spread of communicable disease in the environment and how to help Students

suffering from such problems.

Textbook authors: authors will see this work useful as its findings can be used as

guards and source of data while writing on the subject matter.

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Government and Nigeria in general: the federal government of Nigeria that has

been imputing various means and strategy towards the combating of

communicable disease will see this work as a useful material to that effect. This is

because the findings of the research will serve as a guard towards the combating

of communicable disease in Nigeria

Researchers: the researchers on the other hand will find this work useful as it will

serve as a reference source to them and also contribute to their existing

knowledge

1.6 Scope of the Study/Delimitation of the Study

This study was delimited to the effects of communicable disease among Senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers

State. It however explores the frequently experienced symptoms of

communicable disease, causes, physical effects, social effect and spread of

communicable diseases among Students in senior secondary schools.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Bacteria: Constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a

few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from

sphere to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on

earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacterial inhabit soil, water, acidic
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hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of earth’s crust. Bacteria also

live in symbiotic and parasitic relationship with plants and animals. They are also

known to have flourished in manned spacecraft.

Communicable disease: are illnesses caused by viruses or bacteria that people

spread to one another through contact with contaminated surfaces, bodily fluids,

blood products, insect bites, or through the air.

Disease: A disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant,

especially one that produces specific symptoms or that affects a specific location

and is not simply a direct result of physical injury. A disease is a particular

abnormal, pathological condition that affects part or all of an organism. It is often

construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It

may be caused by factors originally from an external source, such as infectious

disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune

diseases. In humans, “disease” is often used more broadly to refer to any

condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the

person afflicted, or similar problems for t hose in contact with the person.

Endemic: in epidemiology, an infections is said to be endemic in a population

when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external

inputs. For example, chickenpox is endemic (steady state) in the UK, but malaria

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is not. Every year, there are a few cases of malaria acquired in the UK, but these

do not lead to sustained transmission in the population due to the lack of a

suitable vector.

Hazard: A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health,

property, or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a

theoretical risk of harm, however, once a hazard becomes “active”, it can create

an emergency situation. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an

incident. Hazard and possibility interact together to create risk.

Sporadic: Appearing or happening at irregular intervals in time, occasional,

sporadic renewals of enthusiasms. Appearing in scattered or isolated instances, as

a disease, isolated as a single instance of something, being or occurring apart

from others occurring singly or widely apart in locality; the sporadic growth of

plants.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the works of previous scholars were reviewed, the review was

organized under the following subheadings: conceptual review, theoretical

framework, empirical review and summary of literature review

2.1Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Concept of communicable disease

A communicable disease is one that is spread from one person to another through

a variety of ways that include: contact with blood and bodily fluids, breathing in

an airborne virus; or by being bitten by an insect (Qureshi, Painter, Sales and

Pazol 2019). According to Aldakhil, (2018), A communicable disease is any

disease that passes between people or animals. People sometimes refer to

communicable diseases as “infectious” or “transmissible” diseases.

Pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, cause communicable

diseases, communicable diseases can be transmitted through contact with bodily

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fluids, insect bites, contaminated surfaces, water, and foods, or through the air.

Once a pathogen has entered a person’s body, it often will begin replicating. The

individual may then begin to experience symptoms.

Symptoms will vary depending on the disease. Some people will not experience

any symptoms. However, they can still transmit the pathogen. Some symptoms

are a direct result of the pathogen damaging the body’s cells. Others are due to

the body’s immune response to the infection.

Some communicable diseases may be mild, and symptoms pass after a few days.

However, some can be serious and potentially life threatening. Symptom severity

may vary depending on a person’s overall health and immune function.

Types and symptoms of communicable disease

Batool, Agbolade , Akinboye and Awolaja (2019), has identified four main types

of pathogens cause infection: Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.

Viruses

Viruses are tiny pathogens that contain genetic material. Unlike other pathogens,

they lack the complex structure of a cell. Viruses typically enter the body, hijack

host cells' machinery, and replicate inside them, leading to illness. Once inside,

they use the cell’s machinery to make copies of themselves,

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Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that play a significant role in

communicable diseases. They can cause a wide range of infections in humans,

ranging from mild to severe and sometimes life-threatening.

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They exist in almost every

environment on earth, including inside the human body.

Many bacteria are harmless, and some help the body to function. However,

bacteria can also cause infections that damage the body.

Fungi

Fungi are a type of organism that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. There

are millions Trusted Source of different fungi. However, only around 300 cause

harmful illnesses. Fungi can cause communicable diseases, but they are less

common than bacterial or viral infections. Fungal communicable diseases

typically involve the transmission of fungal spores or fungal elements from an

infected individual to another person. Examples of fungal communicable diseases

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include ringworm (which can spread through direct skin-to-skin contact), fungal

nail infections, and some forms of fungal pneumonia. Fungal infections can occur

anywhere in the body. However, they commonly affect the skin and mucus

membranes.

Protozoa

Protozoa are microscopic organisms that typically consist of a single cell.

Some protozoa are parasitic, meaning they live on or inside another organism and

use the organism’s nutrients for their own survival. Parasitic protozoa can cause

various diseases. Protozoa have a diverse range of life cycles and can infect

various parts of the body, leading to diseases such as malaria (transmitted by

Anopheles mosquitoes), amoebic dysentery (from contaminated water or food),

and trypanosomiasis (spread by tsetse flies).

Common communicable diseases: These are illnesses that can be transmitted

from one person to another or from animals to humans. They are caused by

various pathogens including, bacterial, fungal, and protozoa diseases include:

Rhinoviruses

Rhinoviruses are a group of viruses that primarily cause the common cold, a

widespread respiratory illness. These viruses belong to the Enterovirus genus

within the Picornaviridae family. Rhinoviruses are highly contagious and are
17
responsible for a significant portion of cold-like illnesses throughout the year,

especially during the rain fall and spring seasons synthons include:

 a stuffy or runny nose

 sore throat

 headache

A person can catch a rhinovirus by inhaling contaminated droplets from the

cough or sneeze of another person. Similarly Majeed (2020), rhinoviruses are

spread by people touching their nose, eyes, or mouth after touching items or

surfaces that have come into contact with the virus.

Coronaviruses

Coronaviruses are a large group of viruses that affect the respiratory system. This

family includes the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This coronavirus is responsible for the

COVID-19 pandemic, which began in late 2019. COVID-19 is a highly

contagious disease that can range from mild respiratory symptoms to severe

pneumonia and can be fatal, particularly in older adults and individuals with

underlying health conditions. SARS-CoV-2 spreads primarily through respiratory

droplets and has had a profound global impact. Some coronaviruses can cause

common cold and flu symptoms, while others can cause more severe outcomes,

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Influenza

Influenza viruses are infections that attack the respiratory system. Some potential

symptoms Trusted Source according to (Naz, 2020) include:

 fever or chills

 stuffy or runny nose

 sore throat

 cough

 headaches

 muscle or body aches

 fatigue

A person can catch influenza viruses in the same way they may catch

rhinoviruses.

HIV

HIV attacks the immune system of its host. This makes the person vulnerable to

other infections and diseases. A person can contract HIV as a result of contact

with blood or other body fluids containing the virus. The symptoms of HIV

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may develop gradually Trusted Source and in stages. They can include (Naz,

2019):

 fever

 chills

 rash

 mouth sores

 sore throat

 swollen lymph nodes

 night sweats

 muscle aches

 fatigue

The only way a person can be certain they have HIV is to have an HIV test.

Although there is no cure for HIV, medications can help to keep the virus under

control or make it undetectable. Without such treatment, HIV can develop

into AIDS. Reporting of cases of communicable disease is important in the

planning and evaluation of disease prevention and control programs, in the

assurance of appropriate medical therapy, and in the detection of common-source

20
outbreaks. California law mandates healthcare providers and laboratories to report

over 80 diseases or conditions to their local health department. Some examples of

the reportable communicable diseases include Hepatitis A, B & C, influenza,

measles, and salmonella and other food borne illnesses (Naz, 2019).

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection that primarily attacks the lungs. It may

cause the following symptoms:

 a cough continuing for more than 3 weeks

 loss of appetite

 unintentional weight loss

 fever

 chills

 night sweats

A person can catch TB by inhaling tiny droplets or “aerosols” from the cough or

sneeze of a person who has the infection.

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Ringworm

Ringworm is a common fungal infection of the skin. The characteristic symptom

of ringworm is a ring-shaped rash. It may be dry, scaly, or itchy.

People may contract ringworm through:

 close contact with a person who has ringworm

 sharing towels, bedding, or other personal items with a person who has

ringworm

 close contact with animals with ringworm, typically cats

Without treatment, ringworm may spread to other parts of the body.

Athlete’s foot

Athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection that affects the skin on the feet. It

typically causes sore or itchy white patches between the toes.

People can contract athlete’s foot through direct contact with someone who has

the fungus or surfaces that have been in contact with the fungus. For example, an

individual might contract athlete’s foot after walking barefoot in locker rooms,

showers, or swimming pools.

Plasmodium

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The protozoa Plasmodium genus causes the tropical disease malaria. The parasite

primarily transmits Trusted Source through mosquito bites.

Malaria causes symptoms such as:

 fever and chills

 headaches

 vomiting

 diarrhea

 muscle pains

Without proper treatment, malaria can be life threatening. Vaccination programs

are also effectively protecting people from malaria fatalities.

Lyme disease

Lyme disease is a potentially serious infection that black-legged ticks can pass to

humans. It is the most common Trusted Source carrier-spread disease in the

United States. The bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi causes the majority of Lyme

disease cases. However, the bacteria Borrelia mayonii may also cause the disease.

Symptoms of Lym disease include:

 headache

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  fatigue

 fever

 skin rash

Lyme disease can spread to the joints, heart, and nervous system if a person does

not treat it.

2.1.2 How communicable diseases spread

Rasli, (2018) refers to the mechanisms by which an infectious agent is transferred

from one person to another or from a reservoir to a new host. Transmission may

be direct or indirect.

Direct transmission: Consists of essentially immediate transfer of infectious

agents from an infected host or reservoir to an appropriate portal of entry. This

could be:

a. Direct Vertical Such as: transplacental transmission of syphilis, HIV, etc.

b. Direct horizontal Direct touching, biting, kissing, sexual intercourse, droplet

spread onto the conjunctiva or onto mucus membrane of eye, nose or mouth

during sneezing coughing, spitting or talking; Usually limited to a distance of

about one meter or less.

2. Indirect transmission
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a. Vehicle-borne transmission: Indirect contact through contaminated inanimate

objects (fomites) like: ƒ Bedding, toys, handkerchiefs, soiled clothes, cooking or

eating utensils, surgical instruments. ƒ Contaminated food and water ƒ Biological

products like blood, serum, plasma or IV-fluids or any substance serving as

intermediate means by which an infectious agent is transported and introduced

into a susceptible host through a suitable portal of entry. The agent may or may

not multiply or develop in the vehicle before it is introduced into man.

b. Vector-borne transmission: Occurs when the infectious agent is conveyed by

an arthropod (insect) to a susceptible host.

1. Mechanical transmission: The arthropod transports the agent by soiling its feet

or proboscis, in which case multiplication of the agent in the vector does not

occur. (e.g. common house fly.)

2. Biological transmission: This is when the agent multiplies in the arthropod

before it is transmitted, such as the transmission of malaria by mosquito.

C. Air-borne transmission: Dissemination of microbial agent by air to a suitable

portal of entry, usually the respiratory tract. Two types of particles are implicated

in this kind of spread: dusts and droplet nuclei.

Dust: small infectious particles of widely varying size that may arise from soil,

clothes, bedding or contaminated floors and be resuspended by air currents.

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Dust: small infectious particles of widely varying size that may arise from soil,

clothes, bedding or contaminated floors and be resuspended by air currents.

e. Portal of entry: The site in which the infectious agent enters to the susceptible

host. For example: Mucus membrane, Skin, Respiratory tract

f. Susceptible host (host factors): A person or animal lacking sufficient

resistance to a particular pathogenic agent to prevent disease if or when exposed.

Occurrence of infection and its outcome are in part determined by host factors.

The term “immunity” is used to describe the ability of the host to resist infection.

2.1.3 Chain of Disease Transmission

This refers to a logical sequence of factors or links of a chain that are essential to

the development of the infectious agent and propagation of disease. The six

factors involved in the chain of disease transmission are according to Zaman,

(2019):

a. Infectious agent (etiology or causative agent)

b. Reservoir

c. Portal of exit

d. Mode of transmission

e. Portal of entry
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f. Susceptible host

a. Infectious agent: An organism that is capable of producing infection or

infectious disease. On the basis of their size, etiological agents are generally

classified into:Metazoa (multicellular organisms). (E.g. Helminths). Protozoa

(Unicellular organisms) (e.g. Ameobae) Bacteria (e.g. Treponema pallidum,

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, etc.) Fungus (e.g. Candida albicans) Virus (e.g.

Chickenpox, polio, etc.)Bites from insects or animals capable of transmitting the

disease (mosquito: malaria and yellow fever; flea: plague); and travel through the

air, such as tuberculosis or measles.

b. Reservoir of infection:

Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil or substance (or combination of these)

in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies, on which it depends

primarily for survival and where it reproduces itself in such a manner that it can

be transmitted to a susceptible host

Types of Reservoirs.

According to Adlakha, (2019) the types of reservoirs are:

1. Man: There are a number of important pathogens that are specifically adapted

to man, such as: measles, smallpox, typhoid, meningococcal meningitis,

gonorrhea and syphilis. The cycle of transmission is from human to human.

27
2. Animals: Some infective agents that affect man have their reservoir in animals.

The term “zoonosis” is applied to disease transmission from animals to man

under natural conditions. For example: Bovine tuberculosis - cow to man

Brucellosis - Cows, pigs and goats to man, Anthrax - Cattle, sheep, goats, horses

to man, Rabies - Dogs, foxes and other wild animals to man, Man is not an

essential part (usual reservoir) of the life cycle of the agent. Animal ……..

Animal…………Animal ↓ Human

3. Non-living things as reservoir: Many of the agents are basically saprophytes

living in soil and fully adapted to live freely in nature. Biologically, they are

usually equipped to withstand marked environmental changes in temperature and

humidity. E.g. Clostridium botulinum etiologic agent of Botulism Clostridium

tetani etiologic agent of Tetanus Clostridium welchi etiologic agent of gas

gangrene.

c. Portal of exit (mode of escape from the reservoir): This is the site through

which the agent escapes from the reservoir. Examples include: GIT: typhoid

fever, bacillary dysentery, amoebic dysentery, cholera, and ascariasis, etc.

Respiratory: tuberculosis, common cold, etc.

Skin and mucus membranes: Syphilis

2.1.4 Carrier and Its Type

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According to (Kolata, 2020) carrier is an infected person or animal who does not

have apparent clinical disease but is a potential source of infection to others. a.

Healthy or asymptomatic carriers: These are persons whose infection remains

unapparent. For example, in poliovirus, meningococcus and hepatitis virus

infections, there is a high carrier rate. b. Incubatory or precocious carriers: These

are individuals or persons who excrete the pathogen during the incubation period

(i.e. before the onset of symptoms or before the characteristic features of the

disease are manifested). E.g. Measles, mumps, chickenpox and hepatitis. c.

Convalescent Carriers: These are those who continue to harbor the infective agent

after recovering from the illness. E.g. Diphtheria, Hepatitis B virus. d. Chronic

Carriers: The carrier state persists for a long period of time. E.g. Typhoid fever,

Hepatitis B virus infection.

2.1.5 Levels of Prevention

McDonough, (2020) has identified the following points in the progression of a

disease at which one can intervene can be classified according to three levels of

prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

a. Primary prevention: The objectives here are to promote health, prevent

exposure, and prevent disease.

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Health promotion: This consists of general non-specific interventions that

enhance health and the body’s ability to resist disease, such as measures aimed at

the improvement of socio-economic status through the provision of adequately

paid jobs, education and vocational training, affordable and adequate housing,

clothing, and food, old-age pension benefits; emotional and social support, relief

of stress, etc. In short it is any intervention that promotes a healthier and happier

life.

Prevention of exposure:- This includes actions such as the provision of safe and

adequate water, proper excreta disposal, vector control, safe environment at home

(e.g., proper storage of insecticides and medicines, out of Students ’s reach), at

and at work (e.g., proper ventilation, monitoring of harmful substances in

factories), and on the streets (e.g., driver licensing laws).

Prevention of disease:-This occurs during the latency period between exposure

and the biological onset of disease. An example for this is immunization.

Immunization against an infectious organism does not prevent it from invading

the immunized host, but prevents it from establishing an infection. Active

immunization means exposing the host to a specific antigen against which it will

manufacture its own protective antibodies after an interval of about three weeks

(during which the immunized person remains susceptible to the disease). Passive

immunization means providing the host with the antibodies necessary to fight
30
against disease. Both forms of immunization act after exposure. However, for

active immunization to be protective, the timing of its administration must be at

least three weeks prior to exposure. Passive immunization, on the other hand, is

commonly given after exposure has occurred (as in the case of exposure to rabies

or tetanus), or shortly before an exposure is expected, as in the administration of

immune globulin to prevent viral hepatitis A). Breastfeeding is an example of an

intervention that acts at all three levels of primary prevention: Health promotion:

by providing optimal nutrition for a young child, either as the sole diet up to four

months of age, or as a supplement in later months. Prevention of exposure: by

reducing exposure of the child to contaminated milk. Prevention of disease after

exposure: by the provision of anti-infective factors, including antibodies, white

blood cells, and others.

Secondary prevention: A After the biological onset of disease, but before

permanent damage sets in, we speak of secondary prevention. The objective here

is to stop or slow the progression of disease so as to prevent or limit permanent

damage, through the early detection and treatment of disease. (E.g. breast cancer

(prevention of the invasive stage of the disease), trachoma (prevention of

blindness), and syphilis (prevention of tertiary or congenital syphilis))

c. Tertiary prevention: After permanent damage has set in, the objective of

tertiary prevention is to limit the impact of that damage. The impact can be
31
physical, psychological, social (social stigma or avoidance by others), and

financial. Rehabilitation refers to the retraining of remaining functions for

maximum effectiveness, and should be seen in a very broad sense, not simply

limited to the physical aspect. Thus the provision of special disability pensions

would be a form of tertiary prevention.

According to the World Health Organization “over 13 million people die each

year from infectious and Parasitic Diseases: One in two deaths in some

developing countries. Poor people, women, Students, and the elderly are the most

vulnerable. Communicable disease continue to be the world’s leading killer of

young adults and Students” (Neiderud, 2015).

Socioeconomic, environmental and behavioural factors, as well as international

travel and migration, foster and increase the spread of Communicable

Diseases. Vaccine-preventable, foodborne, zoonotic, health care-related and

communicable diseases pose significant threats to human health and may

sometimes threaten international health security (Carey, 2015).

According to Lindahl and Grace (2015), communicable diseases have had

civilization-altering consequences throughout history. An estimated 50–100

million humans worldwide succumbed to infection during the

Spanish Flu Pandemic in 1918–1920 while rinderpest was in part responsible for

32
death by starvation of almost two-thirds of the East African Massai population

after it caused massive death to livestock. [3]

As a result of better living conditions, increased access to health care including

better vaccines, advent of antibiotics and improved surveillance and monitoring in

relation to public health, the proportion of communicable disease was trending

downwards during the early Twentieth Century. However, an increase in the

emergence and re-emergence of communicable disease became evident in many

parts of the world towards the later part of the Twentieth Century (Gordon, 2020)

Weiss & McMichael (2015) highlight that over 30 new, emerging diseases have

been identified, including COVID 19, Legionnaires' Disease, Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

(AIDS), Hepatitis C, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) / Variant

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD), several Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers and, most

recently, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Avian

Influenza, Ebola and Zika Virus. The authors in part relate the emergence of these

diseases and the resurgence of old ones such as Tuberculosis and Cholera to

various changes in human ecology including;

 rural-to-urban migration resulting in high-density peri-urban slums

 increasing long-distance mobility and trade

33
  the social disruption of war and conflict

 changes in personal behavior

 Human-induced global changes, including widespread forest clearance and

climate change.

According to Boundless (2016), the spread and severity of the infectious disease

is influenced by many predisposing factors. Some of these are more general and

apply to many infectious agents, while others are disease specific. Some

predisposing factors of contracting communicable disease can be anatomical,

genetic, general and disease-specific. Climate and weather, and other

environmental factors that are affected by them, can also predispose people to

infectious agents. Other factors such as overall health, age, and diet are also

important considerations in the prevention of spreading communicable disease.

Lindahl and Grace (2015) considered the factors that impact the number of

individuals susceptible to infection, the factors leading to increased exposure and

the factors related to increased risk of infectivity. A new population can become

at risk for an infection if a new pathogen is transferred to a previously uninfected

area. This both can occur as a result of migration or travel over a distance where a

pathogen is brought by an infected individual, in a vector, or in contaminated

34
products, and it can be a slow progression into neighbouring areas, by animal,

human or vector movements.

2.1.6 Communicable Disease Control

This refers to the reduction of the incidence and prevalence of communicable

disease to a level where it cannot be a major public health problem. Methods of

Communicable Disease Control There are three main methods of controlling

communicable diseases (Aldakhil, 2019).

1. Elimination of the Reservoir

a. Man as reservoir: When man is the reservoir, eradication of an infected host is

not a viable option. Instead, the following options are considered: Detection and

adequate treatment of cases: arrests the communicability of the disease (e.g.

Treatment of active pulmonary tuberculosis). Isolation: separation of infected

persons for a period of communicability of the disease. Isolation is indicated for

infectious disease with the following features: - High morbidity and mortality -

High infectivity Quarantine: limitation of the movement of apparently well

person or animal who has been exposed to the infectious disease for a duration of

the maximum incubation period of the disease.

35
b. Animals as reservoir: Action will be determined by the usefulness of the

animals, how intimately they are associated to man and the feasibility of

protecting susceptible animals. For example: Plague: The rat is regarded as a pest

and the objective would be to destroy the rat and exclude it from human

habitation. Rabies: Pet dogs can be protected by vaccination but stray dogs are

destroyed. Infected animals used for food are examined and destroyed. Reservoir

in non-living things: Possible to limit man’s exposure to the affected area (e.g.

Soil, water, forest, etc.).

2.2 Theoretical Review

One Health concept as propounded by Rudolf Virchow: The One Health concept

recognizes that the health of people is closely linked to the health of animals and

the environment. It means that health and wealth of all living things on the planet

is inter connected. The One Health approach encourages the collaborative efforts

of the human health, veterinary health, and environmental health communities

working locally, nationally, and globally, to achieve optimal health for people,

animals, and our environment. The One Health concept has become more

important in recent years because many factors such as population growth,

36
globalization of commerce, finance, production, and services, environmental

changes such as climate change and deforestation, ever-increasing movement of

people, animals, plants, food, and feed have altered the interactions among

humans, animals, and the environment. These changes have caused the

emergence and re-emergence of many diseases.

2.3 Empirical Study

Miguel and Kremer (2004) used a cluster-randomized design to evaluate the

impact of a deworming program and found that deworming substantially

improved health and school participation among untreated children in both

treatment schools and neighboring schools and that these externalities are large

enough to justify fully subsidizing mass deworming programs.

A study from rural India estimated that three-fourth of benefits of improved

sanitation are due to externalities (Andrés, Briceño, Chase, & Echenique, 2017).

Coverage expansion of seasonal influenza vaccination led to substantial external

benefits to older adults in Ontario, Canada, and was cost saving when considering

hospitalization costs and productivity losses (Ward, 2014).

Manli, Xuemei ,and Fang (2018) analysed the Impact of Health Education on

Knowledge and Behaviors toward Communicable disease among Students in

Gansu Province, China. The result of the study indicated that Health education

37
contributes to student knowledge and behaviors toward communicable disease.

Students in the control group need intensified health education on communicable

disease. Health education needs to pay particular attention to rural students, all

male students, and students at senior high school level living on campus

Yang, (2015) carried a research on Prevention and strategies of public health

emergency in schools. The Studies showed that more than 70% of public health

emergencies in China occur in schools, with most emergencies being infectious

disease events. Therefore, strengthening the attention of students and schools

presents significance in preventing and treating communicable disease.

Jedrzejewska , Kalinowski , Stachowicz (2015) researched on the Knowledge of

healthy behaviours among teenagers attending selected schools of the Lublin

region. Health education effectively slows spread of communicable disease, and

conducting school health education programs not only provides students with

proper knowledge and behavior toward communicable disease but also benefits

the comprehensive development of schools. Therefore, health education must be

strengthened to improve health literacy of students.

Li. (2018) studied influenza A (H1N1) awareness among medical college students

before and after a health education program and observed that health education is

38
the main approach for medical college students to accept scientific and specific

knowledge on influenza A (H1N1) prevention.

Mohammadi, Wilches , and Juniarti (2010) explained and affirmed effects of

educational program on knowledge attitudes and preventive behaviors toward TB

among students and adults.

Luo (2013) studied changes in awareness in measles, rubella, and mumps among

middle school students in Tianjin before and after health education intervention

and confirmed that health education can improve cognitive level and prevention

awareness of communicable disease, such as mumps.

Yue (2015) discussed impacts of face-to-face health education on knowledge of

primary school students on mumps and observed that health education can

significantly improve mumps awareness of primary school students. Numerous

empirical studies also showed that health education can change unhealthy

attitudes and behaviors, effectively curbing communicable disease and epidemics.

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

This chapter reviewed works of previous scholars, communicable disease was

defined as a disease that is spread from one person to another through a variety of

ways that include: contact with blood and bodily fluids; breathing in an airborne

virus; or by being bitten by an insect. Types and symptoms of communicable

39
disease were revealed. Various means of the spread of communicable disease

were identified and discussed. The chain of disease transmission was also

discussed. The review sees carrier as an infected person or animal who does not

have apparent clinical disease but is a potential source of infection to others. a.

Healthy or asymptomatic carriers. Communicable disease control was seen as

reduction of the incidence and prevalence of communicable disease to a level

where it cannot be a major public health problem, its method was also revealed.

The One Health concept as propounded by Rudolf Virchow was used for

theoretical justification: The One Health concept recognizes that the health of

people is closely linked to the health of animals and the environment. Various

empirical review were also made.

40
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter is concerned with the method and procedures that were adopted in

the course of this research. These includes area of the study, population of the

study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validity of

the instrument, reliability of the instrument, procedure for data collection and

method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This is a Cross Sectional survey structured to explore the effects of

communicable disease among senior secondary school Students in Port Harcourt

Local Government Area of Rivers State. Being one of the basic types of
41
descriptive research as outlined by Hale J. (2011), the survey research involves

getting responses from participants via questionnaire. In this case, the

questionnaire method was employed.

3.2 Area of the Study

The study was carried out in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers

State is a local government area of Rivers State is in southern Nigeria. It is one of

the 23 local government areas created for the state. Its administrative seat is

located in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State. Although the

local government consists of two different ethnic groups the Ikwerre and Obulom

(Abuloma). Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State local

government area is included in the Greater Port Harcourt Local Government Area

of Rivers State region. It is situated 52 kilometres (32 mi) southeast of Ahoada

and about 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Bori. It is bounded to the south by

Okrika, to the east by Eleme, to the north by Obio-Akpor and to the west by

Degema. It has a total size of 109 square kilometres (42 sq mi).

3.3 Population of the Study

According to Nworgu (2015) population is used for items or elements that is of

interest to the researcher in the undertaking of its research

42
The population for the study comprises all the senior secondary school students in

Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State, with an estimated figure of

6000 students (Rivers State ministry of education 2023) see appeendix from the

20 secondary schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process by which a subset of persons or observations from a large

set is drawn and studied in order to make inferences about the characteristics of a

larger group. A sample occurs when a number of sampling units fewer than the

aggregated is drawn from a population and examined in some detail.

A sample of four schools was randomly selected from the senior secondary

schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State and 60 students

from each selected school were randomly selected for the purpose of this study.

Therefore the sample of the study was 240 students from the selected schools

below.

Names of schools Population

Community Secondary 60

School, Akpautong

Community 60

comprehensive

secondary school

43
 UST International 60

Secondary School

Olive comprehensive 60

school

Total 240

Source field survey, 2023

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

This is used to describe the choice of instrument used in data collection.

Questionnaire was the main instrument for data generation for the study. The

questionnaire was carefully designed by the research to have part A and B. Part A

contains personal details of the respondents, while part B contains the relevant

questions carefully designed to elicit response from the respondents which was

analyzed for decision making. The questionnaire was also accompanied by an

introductory letter administered to the respondents in the schools the

questionnaire was titled “effects of communicable disease among senior

44
secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers

State”.

3.6 Validity of the Instrument

Validity of instrument refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it

was designed to measure. A copy of the structured instrument was presented to

two lecturers and the supervisor who are experts in the area being studied for

perusal and correction. Their comments and suggestions were used to review the

instrument in order to ensure its content validity.

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability of instrument refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it

was designed to measure consistently. The test-retest method was used. This

implies that the questionnaire was administered first to the sample elements and

retrieved; later on, the researcher administered the questionnaire to another group

to compare the consistency (if any) between the two. This was done within an

interval of two weeks. The scores obtained were correlated using Pearson

Moment Correlation Coefficient(r). The correlation coefficient score was 0.81

45
 3.8 Procedure for Data Collection:

The major instrument for data collection was questionnaire. The instrument was

known as effects of communicable disease among Students in the Port Harcourt

Local Government Area of Rivers State. The design of the questionnaire was a

modified simple percentage. Copies of the questionnaires were administered to

the respondents alongside with an introduction letter explaining the purpose of the

questionnaire

3.9 Method of Data Analysis.

This subsection describes how data from the field was arranged and analyzed for

decision-making. Descriptive statistics (common percentage) was used to analyse

the research questions.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF

RESULTS

This chapter dealt with the presentation of data, analysis, presentation of results

and as well as the discussion of findings in the study.

4.1 Data Distribution and Retrieval

Table 4.1: Distribution and Retrieval of Instrument

S/ Sample No. No. No.

46
 Distribute Retrieve Percentag

N d d e

Parents of the Students 240 201 84%

Total 240 201 84%

Source: Field Survey, 2023

Table 4.1 as shown above indicates that out of two hundred and forty (240)

copies of the questionnaire distributed to the parents of the selected Students in

the Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State, a total of two hundred

and one (201) copies were successfully retrieved representing 84% of the total

copies distributed.

4. 2 Presentation and analysis of Data

Table 4.2 Analysis of Demographic information of informant

s/n Question No. of No. of percentage

questionnaire respondent

1. Gender

Male 201 90 45%

Female 201 111 55%

47
 2 Age

20 and below 201 109 54%

Above twenty 201 92 46%

3 Economic status of family

Average status 201 150 75%

Below average 51 25%

4 Religion

Christian 201 198 98%

Muslim 201 3 2%

From the table above the responses from the respondents indicated that the

Gender of the respondents are mostly female. This shows that female respondents

participated more on the research survey. As regards the age of respondent, it was

indicated that were below the age 20. This shows that majority of the senior

secondary students are under 20. The findings of the research to this regard could

be traced to age below 20. Most of the respondent indicated that the

Economic status of family are on Average status. Under the religious status, most

of the students interviewed were Christian

48
Question: Have you been hearing about communicable diseases?

Yes 201 100 50%

No 201 49 24%

Nil 201 52 26%

The responses above indicated that half of the respondents have knowledge of

communicable disease, 24% of the respondents are unaware while some

respondent were neutral to the question. This indicated that most students in the

senior secondary schools in Port Harcourt, Rivers State have knowledge of

communicable disease.

Question: Could you give examples of diseases that are communicable among

students?

s/n Question No. of No. of percentage

questionnaire respondent

8 Measles 201 109 54%

9 Smallpox 201 99 49%

10 Chicken pox 201 150 75%

11 Cholera 201 201 100%

49
12 Whopping Cough 201 123 61%

13 Tuberculosis 201 144 61%

14 Mumps 201 Nil 0%

15 Hepatitis 201 99 49%

16 Malaria 201 105 52%

From the given data above on table 4.3 examples of diseases that are

communicable among students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of

Rivers State are as follows: Measles55%, Smallpox 48%, Chicken pox100%,

upper and lower limbs 72%, Cholera 54%, Whopping Cough99%,

Tuberculosis62%, Hip pain 46%,Mumps, Hepatitis and Malaria59%.

Table 4.3 effects of communicable disease among senior secondary school

students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State

s/n Question No. of No. of Percentage

questionnaire responden

It causes pain among the students 201 111 55%

It leads to dysfunction amongst 201 97 48%

the students

50
 It leads to distress amongst the 201 201 100%

students

It makes the child not to be 201 144 72%

socially active

It leads to unhealthy living 201 108 54%

conditions

Feelings of helplessness and 201 201 99%

lack of control.

Embarrassment 201 125 62%

Despair 201 93 46%

Worry 201 119 59%

The analyzed 3effects of communicable disease among Senior secondary school

students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State were as

follows It causes pain among the students 34%, It leads to dysfunction amongst

the students 18%, It leads to distress amongst the students 52%, makes the child

not to be socially active 6%. Embarrassment 34% it leads to unhealthy living

conditions 26%, low back pain 6%, eye pain 4% feelings of helplessness and lack

of control. 10% Despair 37% worry46%.

51
18. Causes of communicable disease among senior secondary school students in

Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State

s/n Question No. of No. of Percentage

questionnaire responden

Are you aware of the various

modes of transmission of

communicable diseases

Kindly identify some of these

modes of transmission of

communicable disease.

Sneezing 201 104 52%

Cough 201 11 6%

Blood 201 104 52%

Respiration 201 40 20%

Air 201 106 52%

Water 201 45 22%

Foods 210 10 6%

Preventing measures of communicable diseases

s/n Question No. of No. of Percentage

52
 questionnaire responden

Have you been involved in any 201 111 55%

activity about prevention of C.D

in your home

Mention these activities involved

in controlling communicable

disease

Personal hygiene , Hand 201 201 100%

Washing,

Isolation 201 144 72%

Control flies around the house 201 108 54%

Household items control 201 201 99%

This table reveals that (82.1%) of the respondents accepted to have been engaged

in various activities aimed at controlling and preventing communicable diseases

in either their classrooms or at homes while only about 17.9% disagreed to have

been involved into such similar activities. Again, from the analysis on the table,

the highest were focusing on personal hygiene which represents (72.7%) This

shows that some of the respondents believes that personal hygiene significantly

53
controls the prevalence of communicable diseases and if maintained to a high

degree can reduce the effects to the nearest minimal.

The analysis of data grouped the ages of Students into two via 1 year and below =

54%, above 1 year = 46%. This means that out of 201 successfully retrieved

questionnaire, 54% of the Students are 20 years and below while 46% of the

Students are above 20 years. The raw data collect shows that those that are

twenty years and below experienced musculoskeletal and visual disorder less than

those that are above twenty. The rate of most frequently affected musculoskeletal

disorder among those that are below twenty years are neck pain 28%, wrist pain

100%, blurred vision 52% and headache 90%.

4.2 Discussions on the findings

The findings of the study among others revealed that the majority of the

respondents were mixed between students of varying age, their responses

regarding most of the items were very poor and disappointing. While (66%) of

them posited that they heard about communicable diseases, there are some of

them their answers were not related to communicable disease, some believed that

hypertension, malaria, cancer, asthma and psychological disorder is considering

54
as communicable disease (table 1, and 2). mothers are considered the major

source of information for their students and would appear to be suitable as health

educators (McGovern and Barry, 2010). Parents's education is considered a major

factor in the effective implementation of comprehensive health. Table 3 shows

that (68.9%) of the participants know the mode of transmission of communicable

disease, and (28.3%) believed that the household items such as towels, linen,

beds, and tooth brush are the main significant factors that are responsible for

causing the communicable disease and in the less degree are the other factors like

air, sneezing, food, water respiration, and sexual intercourse. The majority of the

parents had mixed thoughts between the direct and indirect transmission of the

disease because they didn't know what are the major differences (Henry, 2014),

and some of the parents who provided key responses were considering heredity as

one of the factors that transmit diseases; which means they lack the appropriate

information regarding communicable disease. Table 4 reveals that the majority of

the respondents believed that the environment had the main factors which causes

communicable diseases, at the same time their answers about it were not valid,

(22.6%) of them believed that respiration is considered one of the most important

environmental factors, and few of them considered shaking of hands also as

environmental factors causing communicable diseases. At the same time (20.8%)

of them were considered overcrowding index as the main indicator for

55
environmental factors that causes communicable diseases. Based on these mixed

thoughts, and health professionals should continue to advocate - wide policies and

programs that support both students and parents if the goal of an integrated

healthy environment is to be realized (Hessel, 2017). Health services

concentrated with the early detection of physical, intellectual and emotional

abnormalities in students and their subsequent treatment and surveillance, it has

now been changed to a system of selective examination based on

recommendations by parents (Martin, 2011).

Table 5 shows that the slightly majority of the parents knows the risks of

communicable diseases, (17%) of them believed it cause death, and (14%) of

them said it causes other variant diseases, and some of the respondents posits that

risks are related to epidemic without really knowing what particular ailment that

could cause. This result is not in accordance with a study conducted in Nigeria by

Painter, Sales and Pazol, who found that the majority of parents were unable to

know the consequences of not controlling communicable disease in our society

(Painter, Sales and Pazol, 2010).

Development efforts by parents, including training and ongoing reinforcement to

increase their sense of preparedness, have significant effects in the classroom

(Jansson, 2017). In Nigeria most parents felt that health education was important

and should be an integral part of the curriculum (Kubik, 2012). Table 7 shows
56
some of the activities put up by the parents in their classes that enhances control

of communicable diseases, the majority of it centered on personal hygiene,

instruction to prevent buying from seller rover, use hand washing techniques and

procedure for isolation in communicable disease, and there are less focusing on

sexual transmission disease. Parents’ perceptions of health, their attitudes and

practices and their knowledge of common health problems could be essential

factors in optimizing their roles as health educators in society. Many adult

behavior patterns and attitudes develop in early childhood. In addition, there is

growing acceptance of the need for health education at primary age (Hausman

and Ruzek, 2010).

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

57
The researcher found out that Economic status of family is a great factor that

influence communicable diseases, common communicable diseases among

students are Measles, Smallpox, Chicken pox, Cholera, Whopping Cough,

Tuberculosis, Mumps, Hepatitis, HIV, Flu, Malaria, and Asthma.

Modes of transmission of communicable disease are Sneezing , Cough , Blood,

Kiss, Respiration, Cash , From mother, Air , Sexual, Animal , Water, Dentist tool,

Foods, Heredity, Virus.

The effects of communicable diseases are Disease, Death, Epidemic, and

Measles.

Controlling of communicable disease include Personal hygiene, Hand Washing,

Isolation , Treatment of disease , Sexual cautions, Passenger caution,

Prevention , Household items control, Control flies around the house, Protection

from disease and Proper Counseling.

5.2 Conclusion

The study concludes that there is urgent need to enlighten parents and equally set

up programs that will boost their knowledge about communicable disease.

Majority of the parent's awareness level were poor and deteriorating from their

responses, however, they need continuing education programs about common

communicable disease in the study area and ways of preventing them especially

within the early stages of growth. In conclusion, furthermore, a lack of sanitation

58
facilities will exert a greater magnitude in terms of influencing communicable

diseases, which will increase healthcare expenditures across countries. It is

sensible to be vigilant and keep yourself against danger rather than be casual.

5.3 Recommendation

Based on the findings of this work, it is hereby recommended as follows:

Screening, deworming and health education should necessarily be a component of

the primary health care programme with a focus on students mostly between 0-12

years; an extensive screening programme will make available baseline data.

For efficient health programming and disease surveillance.

Communicable diseases such as the Intestinal helianthus control programme

should embark more on health education, the need for proper disposal of faeces

and good toilet facilities. The Federal and State governments should provide pipe-

borne water to both rural and urban areas and anti-helminthic drug to the

community at large.

Again, in line with afore mentioned, the following recommendations were made

by the researcher. Encouragement should be given to educational program for

both parents and students, to focus on factors that cause infectious disease and

accurate scientific facts, understanding of the environment that affects the spread

59
of the diseases, understanding of the cultural practices influencing health and

common communicable diseases and ways of their preventions.

Parents and guidance should understand that everyone is responsible for

prevention of the spread of an infectious disease such as oneself, parents, s,

community members, etc. Both parents and guidance should express various

personal habits and actions that help promote health as well as understanding the

importance of accessing reliable health information.

Educational health packages could be developed with collaboration between

ministry of education, ministry of higher education, and health professionals who

are fully aware of health problems.

5.4 Suggestion for Further Study

Since this work is limited to the effect of communicable disease among Senior

secondary school students in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers

State, further studies should be carried on control and prevention of

communicable disease among students in Nigeria and Africa at large.

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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Department of Biology,

Faculty of Education,

National Open University of Nigeria,

Port Harcourt Study Centre,

Dear Respondent,

REQUEST FOR COMPLETION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a final year student of the above mentioned institution carrying out a research on the topic

“effects of communicable disease among senior secondary student in Port Harcourt, Rivers

State Bachelors of science in Biology Education

In this regard, I guarantee you that we will not disturb the schedule of your activities. I am

hoping for your kind approval and support regarding this undertaking.

Thanks.

Yours faithfully,

Rukaiya Idris
(Researcher)

65
Appendix B

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EMPLOYEES

INSTRUCTION: Please tick (√) appropriately and fill the space

provided where necessary.

SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA

1. Gender

o Male

o Female

Gender Male Female

Age 20 and below Above twenty

Economic status of family : Average status Below average

Religion: Christian Muslim

66
  Have you been hearing about communicable diseases

 Could you give examples of diseases that are communicable among

students

1………………………………………………………………………….

2………………………………………………………………………….

3………………………………………………………………………….

4………………………………………………………………………….

5………………………………………………………………………….

6………………………………………………………………………….

 What are the effects of communicable disease among Senior secondary

school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A of Rivers State

7………………………………………………………………………….

8………………………………………………………………………….

9………………………………………………………………………….
67
10………………………………………………………………………….

11………………………………………………………………………….

 What are the causes of communicable disease among Senior secondary

school students in Port Harcourt L.G.A of Rivers State

12………………………………………………………………………….

13………………………………………………………………………….

14………………………………………………………………………….

15………………………………………………………………………….

16………………………………………………………………………….

17………………………………………………………………………….

18………………………………………………………………………….

68