Table of Contents

Struggle For Swaraj......................................................................................................................... 2

Next Phase of National Movement ........................................................................................................... 2
Impact of the First World War ................................................................................................................................... 2
Betrayal by Allied Nations ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Half-hearted Constitutional Reform ........................................................................................................................... 3
Russian Revolution .................................................................................................................................................... 3

Response of Government .......................................................................................................................... 3

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms ................................................................................................................................... 3
Government of India Act of 1919 ............................................................................................................................... 4
Rowlatt Act ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Rowlatt satyagraha ................................................................................................................................................. 10
Aftermath of the Massacre ...................................................................................................................................... 12

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-22) ............................................................................... 14

Background ............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Issue of Khilafat ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Towards Non-Cooperation ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Spread of Movement ............................................................................................................................................... 17
Government Response ............................................................................................................................................. 20
The Last Phase ......................................................................................................................................................... 20
Gandhi’s Arrest ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
End of Khilafat ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Contribution of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement ...................................................................................... 22

Author: Vishwajeet Kawar

Protégé of PMF IAS

Suggestions / Feedback: vishwjeethistory@gmail.com | t.me/vishwjeetkawar | t.me/pmfiashistory

 Struggle For Swaraj

Next Phase of National Movement

• With Gandhi’s entry into Indian politics, the national movement entered its third and final phase in
1919, marking the beginning of popular mass movements. People from different backgrounds, like
farmers, tribals, students, and women, joined in large numbers, and sometimes even factory workers
got involved.
• After the end of the First World War, the condition in India was ready for the next phase of national
movement. It was because of the following reasons.
1. Impact of the First World War
2. Half-hearted constitutional reform
3. Russian revolution

Impact of the First World War

• The First World War gave a tremendous impetus to nationalism all over Asia and Africa.

Post-war Economic Hardship

• In the post-war years, all sections of Indian society suffered economic hardships because of high
prices, high taxation, growing unemployment and economic depression.
❖ The urban, educated Indians faced increasing unemployment.
❖ The peasantry was groaning under deepening poverty and high taxation.
❖ The workers faced unemployment and high prices and lived in great poverty.
❖ Indian industries, which had prospered during the war, now faced losses and closure. Foreign
capital began to be invested in India on a large scale.
✓ The Indian industrialists wanted the protection of their industries through the imposition of
high customs duties and the grant of government aid. They realised that a strong nationalist
movement and an independent Indian Government alone could secure these.
• All these sections turned actively towards the nationalist movement.

Domestic Industrial Growth

• The demand for industrial goods such as jute bags, cloth, and rails increased during the war. This
led to the expansion of Indian industries as the imports from other countries declined.

Erosion of White Man’s Prestige

• From the beginning, the European powers utilised the notion of racial and cultural superiority to
maintain their imperialism.
• However, during the war, both sides (European powers) carried on intense propaganda against each
other, exposing the opponent‘s brutal and uncivilised colonial record. Consequently, the notion of the
white man's racial superiority began to diminish among the populace.

Betrayal by Allied Nations

• During World War I, the Allied nations, including Britain, the United States, France, Italy, and Japan,
promised to usher in a new era of democracy and national self-determination for all people worldwide
to gain popular support for their war effort.
• However, after their victory, they failed to fulfil their promises. Instead, they divided the ex-colonies
of the defeated powers, Germany and Turkey, in Africa, West Asia, and East Asia among themselves,
causing despair among the people of Asia and Africa who had high hopes for a better future.

Half-hearted Constitutional Reform

• Nationalists supported British war efforts with expectations of political gains after the war. However,
the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms failed to meet their expectations, and Congress demanded self-
government.

Russian Revolution
• The Russian Revolution gave a major impetus to the national movements. On 7 November 1917, the
Bolshevik (Communist) Party, led by Lenin, overthrew the Czarist regime in Russia and declared the
formation of the Soviet Union, the first socialist state in the history of the world.
• The Russian Revolution demonstrated that the common people could overthrow even the mighty
Czarist government, a despotic and formidable regime. It gave people self-confidence and indicated
to the leaders of the national movement that they should rely on the strength of the common people.

Response of Government

• The Government, aware of the rising tide of nationalist and anti-government sentiments, once again
decided to follow the policy of the carrot and the stick, in other words, of concessions and repression.
• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were offered as a concession, while the Rowlatt Act represented
the government's repression.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
• In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, produced their
scheme of constitutional reforms, which led to the enactment of the Government of India Act of
1919.
Circumstances Leading to Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
• By 1916, all parties in India, as well as Britain, began to think that some changes in the structure of
government were necessary. This was because of the following reasons.
1. Aspirations of Indians: In the expectation of political gain after the war, India supported the
British war with manpower, money, and materials.
2. Activities of Home Rule Leagues: The Home Rule Leagues of Tilak and Besant conducted intense
propaganda favouring Home Rule or self-government for India.
3. Strained Relations Between Muslims and the Government: After the Morley-Minto Reforms,
Muslims did not become supporters of the Government. The gulf between the Muslims and the
government has become steadily wider.
❖ Gradually, under the dynamic and liberal leadership of men like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat
Ali, the Muslim League accepted the goal of self-government for India. Muslim League
decided to negotiate with Congress to formulate a scheme for India's future government.
 Gokhale and Sir William Wedderburn, the then president of INC, organized a Hindu-Muslim
conference in Allahabad in 1910. This conference paved the way for future reconciliation between
the Congress and the Muslim League.
4. Lucknow Session of Congress (1916): At Lucknow session of the Congress:
❖ The Moderates and the Extremists came together.
❖ The Congress and the Muslim League came together and jointly prepared a scheme of
constitutional reforms.

Montagu Declaration (1917)

• As a response to the political pressure in India and to buy the support of Indians in the War, on 20
August 1917, Lord Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, made the following statement in the
British Parliament: “The policy of His Majesty's government was to increase the association of Indians
in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions
with the ultimate goal of responsible government in India.”

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1918)

• In November 1917, Lord Montagu visited India and discussed with Lord Chelmsford, the officials of
the central and provincial governments, and Indian leaders. Based on these deliberations, the
Montagu-Chelmsford Report (Montford Report) was published in July 1918.

Government of India Act of 1919

• Government of India Act of 1919 marked the beginning of responsible government in India. This
Act had a separate preamble, which declared that its objective was the gradual introduction of a
responsible government in India.
• The Act introduced bicameralism in the centre and direct elections for the first time in the country.

Bicameral Legislature at the Centre

• The Act provided for a bicameral legislature at the centre.
1. Legislative Assembly (lower house): Consisted of 145 members serving three-year terms.
❖ The seats were distributed amongst the provinces not based on their population but on their
importance in the eyes of the government.
2. Council of State (upper house): Consisted of 60 members serving five-year terms
• The majority of members of both the Houses were chosen by direct election.

Unicameral Legislature in the Province

• The Act was originally applied to eight provinces: Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United Provinces, Punjab,
Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, and Assam. In 1923, its provisions were extended to Burma and,
sometime later, to North Western Frontier Province.
• In each of these provinces, a unicameral legislature called the Legislative Council, was created. It
consisted of the Governor's Executive Council, elected and nominated members.
• The size of these legislative councils varied from province to province. However, the elected members
were in the majority (at least 70 per cent of the members of a Council)
• The elected members were to be elected by direct election, i.e. the primary voters elected the member.

No Universal Adult Franchise

• Under the Act, voting rights (Franchise) were restricted to only a limited number of people. The
franchise was not universal and not extended to women.
 The Act gave provincial councils the freedom to choose to give Indian women the vote.
• The right to vote was granted only to those who met certain criteria such as property ownership, tax
payment or education.
❖ Those with property, taxable income, or paid land revenue of Rs. 3000 were entitled to vote.
❖ The members of the university senate were given the right to vote.
 In 1918, women in Britain were given the right to vote. The Representation of the People Act (1918)
allowed women over the age of 30 who met a property qualification to vote.

Extension of Communal Electorates

• Other than Muslims, the minorities, including Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and
Europeans, were given the right of a separate electorate.
Division of the Central and provincial subjects
• The central and provincial legislatures were given the authority to make laws on their respective
subjects.
1. Central List: Foreign and political relations, public debt, tariffs and customs, patents, currency,
communications, etc.
2. Provincial List: Local self-government, health, sanitation, education, public works. agriculture, forests,
law and order, etc.
❖ Transferred Subjects: Local self-government, health, education and some departments relating
to agriculture.
❖ Reserved Subjects: Police, justice, control over printing presses, irrigation, land revenue, factories
etc.
• The residual powers were vested in the Governor-General in Council.

Dyarchy at the Provincial Level

• The Act introduced the dyarchy (Diarchy) at the provincial level, i.e. dual government in the provinces.
Under this, the provincial administration was divided between reserved and transferred subjects.
❖ Reserved List: The councillors nominated by the Governor controlled reserved subjects and
were not responsible to the provincial legislature. It included key subjects such as defence (the
military), foreign affairs, and communications.
❖ Transferred List: Transferred subjects were controlled by the ministers responsible to the
provincial legislature. It included agriculture, supervision of local government, health, and education.
• Under the Act, the partially responsible government was introduced in the provinces. The minister
was responsible to the legislature, whereas the governor was exempt from such responsibility.

Extension of Power of Governor-General

• The power of the Governor-General was extended.
❖ Every bill passed by the Central Legislature required the Governor-General's consent. However,
the Governor-General could enact a bill without the legislature's assent.
❖ Any bill relating to matters enumerated in the provincial list required the previous sanction of the
Governor-General before it could be introduced in the Central Legislature.
❖ In addition to the power to veto any bill, the Governor-General was also given the power of
certification, i.e., he could secure the enactment of a bill that was refused by the legislature. The
Governor-General could exercise this power by certifying that the bill was essential for the safety,
tranquillity, or interests of British India or any part thereof.
❖ The Governor General could overrule the decisions of his Executive Council.
 ❖ The Governor General had full control over foreign and political departments (departments
dealing with princely States in India).

Governor-General's Executive Council

• To involve more Indians in the government, it was provided that three out of the six members of the
Governor-General's Executive Council would be Indians.
• However, these Indian members were assigned less important portfolios, like Law, Education, Labour,
Health, or Industry. They reported to the Governor-General, who, in turn, reported to the Secretary of
State, not the Legislature.

Council of the Secretary of State

• The Council of the Secretary of State was to have eight to twelve members, with three Indian
Members.
• The Secretary of the state was to follow the advice rendered by the Council.
• The Secretary of State was not allowed to interfere in the administrative matters of the provinces
concerning transferred subjects.

Finance
• The Act provided the complete separation of the sources of revenue between the central and
provincial governments.
• It separated provincial budgets from the central budget for the first time and authorised the
provincial legislatures to enact their budgets.

Other Provisions
• Relaxation of Control: The British parliament's control over the Indian government was relaxed, and
that of the Central government over the provincial government was reduced.
• Enlargement of Functions of Councils: The right to ask supplementary questions was extended to
all members.
• Office of the High Commissioner: The Act established a new office of the High Commissioner for
India in London and granted him some of the functions that were previously performed by the
Secretary of State for India.
• Statutory Commission: The Act provided for the appointment of a statutory commission at the end
of ten years after the act was passed to inquire into and report on the working system of the
government. The Simon Commission of 1927 was an outcome of this provision.

Limitations
➢ No Responsible Government in the Centre: The chief executive authority remained vested in the
Governor-General, who remained responsible to the British Parliament through the Secretary of State
 and not to the Indian Legislature. Thus, the Governor General had too many powers and was not
responsible to the Legislature.
➢ The Central Government was more representative and responsive but not responsible.
➢ The central legislature had no control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council.
➢ The experiment of diarchy failed. The excessive control of the finance department (reserved subject)
over the administration of transferred subjects affected their smooth functioning. Transferred subjects
starved financially as they needed more money for development.
➢ The reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council. They were
appointed by the British Government and were jointly responsible to the Governor-General and the
Secretary of State for India.
➢ The Governor exercised effective powers over the whole administration through the Instrument of
Instruction and Executive Business Rules.
➢ The powers of the legislature were limited or restricted.
➢ The Governor could overrule the Ministers on any grounds which he considered special.
➢ The central government had unrestricted control over the provincial governments.

Positive Developments
✓ Dyarchy failed, but it showed the way for further reform—a federal government that should be more
representative and responsive.
✓ It created a parliamentary atmosphere in the legislature and gave people an opportunity to have a
look at the administration.
✓ During this period, some major reforms pertaining to local government (Bombay, Bengal) and
education and social welfare (Madras) were carried out.
✓ Almost in every province, the right to vote was extended to women.

INC’s Stand
• The Indian National Congress (INC) met in a special session in Bombay in August 1918 under the
presidentship of Hasan Imam to consider the reform proposals. INC condemned the reform as
disappointing and unsatisfactory and demanded effective self-government instead.
• The INC was unsatisfied with the reforms and rejected the Act. It boycotted the first elections (1920).
Gandhi's call for boycotting elections received a massive response, resulting in a significantly low voter
turnout.
• However, some INC leaders, such as Annie Besant, Bipin Chandra Pal, Surendranath Banerjee, and Tej
Bahadur Sapru, accepted the Act and were ready to cooperate with the government. They left the
Congress.
• Surendranath Banerjee and Tej Bahadur Sapru formed the Indian Liberal Federation (1919). They
became known as Liberals and played a minor role in Indian politics thereafter. Surendranath Banerjee,
Tej Bahadur Sapru, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri and M. R. Jayakar were some of its prominent leaders.
• Madan Mohan Malaviya supported the reforms, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from the Indian
National Congress.

[UPSC CSE 2003] When Congress leaders condemned the Montagu-Chelmsford Report,
many moderates left the party to form which of the following
a) Swaraj Party
b) Indian Freedom Party
c) Independence Federation of India
d) Indian Liberal Federation
Answer: D

Rowlatt Act
• During World War I, the British administration faced a political crisis due to the rising nationalism and
the intensification of the struggle for independence. To counter this, the Government of India
appointed a Sedition Committee headed by Justice Sydney Rowlatt to investigate "revolutionary
crime" in the country.
• Based on the recommendations, the Government of India drafted two bills and presented them to the
Imperial Legislative Council on 6 February 1919. These bills sought to criminalise dissent and
empowered the government to suppress political activities.
• The nationalist leaders considered the bills an attempt to appease the official and non-official white
opinion that had opposed Montagu's Reform proposals.
• Repressive provisions of the bills were:
❖ No appeal: The offences were to be tried by a special court of three high court judges without
provision for appeal.
❖ Evidence: The court could consider evidence not admissible under the Indian Evidence Act.
❖ Arrest without a warrant: The government could search a place and arrest a person without a
warrant.
❖ Detention without trial: The government could detain individuals for up to two years without
trial.
❖ Suspension of Habeas Corpus: The government could suspend the rights of the Habeas Corpus.

[UPSC CSE 2012] The Rowlatt Act aimed at

a) Compulsory economic support to war efforts.
b) Imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial.
 c) Suppression of the Khilafat Movement.
d) Imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press.
Answer: B

Rowlatt satyagraha
• The Rowlatt Bills were widely condemned throughout the country. Mahatma Gandhi vehemently
opposed their provisions, referring to them as a “Black Law.”
• M.A. Jinnah also opposed the Rowlatt Bills and warned the Government of the dangerous
consequences if it persisted in clamping down on the people of India with "lawless law.”
• Gandhiji formed a Satyagraha Sabha on 24th February 1919 in Bombay to protest against the
Rowlatt Bills. Its members took a pledge to disobey the Act and thus to court arrest and
imprisonment.
• The Satyagraha Sabha was mainly composed of young and radical members of the Home Rule League.
In addition, some Pan-Islamic leaders, like Abdul Bari, and some radical members of the Muslim
League joined the Satyagraha Sabha.
• The forms of protest included hartals, strikes, civil disobedience against specific laws, and courting
arrest and imprisonment. Four books, including Hind Swaraj of Gandhi, which were prohibited by
the Bombay Government in 1910, were chosen for sale as an action of defiance against the
government.
• In March and April of 1919, there were hartals, strikes, processions, and demonstrations. Slogans
promoting Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air, and the entire country was electrified.
• The Government was determined to suppress the mass agitation. It repeatedly lathi-charged and
fired upon unarmed demonstrators.

Opposition to Gandhi’s Move

• Liberal leaders, like Sir D.E. Wacha, Surendranath Banerjee, T.B. Sapru, and Srinivas Sastri, opposed
Gandhi's move to start Satyagraha. They believed that it would hinder the ongoing reforms.
• Annie Besant also condemned the Satyagraha on the grounds that there was nothing in the Act to
resist civilly, and that to break laws at the dictate of others was exceedingly dangerous.
• One of the two bills was dropped due to strong opposition, while the other was passed in March 1919
as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 (Rowlatt Act).
• Every member of the Imperial Legislative Council from India opposed the Rowlatt Act. In protest,
many leaders, including Madan Mohan Malviya, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and Mazhar ul Haq,
resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council.
• The Rowlatt Act came as a sudden blow. Instead of extending democracy as promised during the war,
it further limited civil liberties.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• Gandhiji called for a mighty hartal on 6 April 1919 against the Rowlatt Act. The people responded
with unprecedented enthusiasm.
• On April 7, 1919, Gandhi published an article called Satyagrahi, describing ways to oppose the
Rowlatt Act.
• Sir Michael O'Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab (1912- 1919), suggested that Gandhi be
deported to Burma, but his fellow officials opposed this as they felt it might instigate the public.
• Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal, two prominent leaders who were a symbol of Hindu-Muslim
unity, organised a peaceful protest against the Rowlatt Act in Amritsar on April 9, 1919. Sir Michael
O'Dwyer arrested them, which caused resentment among the people of Amritsar.
• On April 10, 1919, the protestors marched to the Deputy Commissioner's residence to demand the
release of their two leaders. Here, they were fired upon without any provocation. Many people were
wounded and killed. This led to mob violence. Government buildings were set on fire, five Englishmen
were murdered, and a woman was assaulted.
• The civil authority lost its control of the city, and General Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar,
issued a proclamation forbidding people from:
❖ Leaving the city without a pass
❖ Organising demonstrations or processions
❖ Assembling in a group of more than three people
• On Baisakhi day, 13 April, a large crowd of people, mostly from neighbouring villages, gathered in
the Jallianwala Bagh to celebrate the Baisakhi festival. Most of the people were not aware of the
ban on meetings.
• Local leaders had also called for a protest meeting at the Jallianwala Bagh to discuss two resolutions:
1. Condemning the firing of April 10.
2. Requesting the authorities to release their leaders.
• General Dyer surrounded the Bagh (garden) with his army unit and closed the exit with his troops.
He then ordered his men to shoot into the trapped crowd. The firing continued for 10-15 minutes.
1650 rounds were fired. The firing ceased only after the ammunition had run out. According to the
official estimates, 379 people were killed, and thousands were wounded.
• After this massacre, martial law was proclaimed throughout the Punjab, and the people were
subjected to most uncivilised atrocities.
• The entire nation was stunned. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Due to
the widespread violence, Gandhiji withdrew the movement on April 18, 1919.

Closer Examination
• The agitation was not properly organised and the Congress as an organisation was hardly in the picture.
• The movement was more intense in cities than in rural areas.
• Satyagraha Sabha concentrated mainly on publishing propaganda literature and collecting signatures
on the Satyagraha pledge.
• Gandhi confessed publically that he committed a 'Himalayan blunder' by offering civil disobedience to
people who were insufficiently prepared for the discipline of Satyagraha.

Significance
✓ The Rowlatt Satyagraha was the first all-India struggle against the British government.
✓ Gandhiji emerged as an all-India leader.
✓ The participants ensured the Hindus-Muslims unity.

[UPSC CSE 2015] With reference to Rowlatt Satyagraha, which of the following statements
is/are correct?
1. The Rowlatt Act was based on the recommendations of the ‘Sedition Committee’.
2. In Rowlatt Satyagraha Gandhiji tried to use the Home Rule League.
3. Demonstrations against the Simon Commission coincided with the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B

Aftermath of the Massacre

Amritsar Session of the INC, 1919
• The Congress decided to hold the annual session 1919 at Amritsar to express its solidarity with the
people. Pandit Motilal Nehru presided over the session.
• The session condemned the act and mourned the massacre in Jallianwala Bagh.
• The resolutions were passed demanding:
❖ Withdrawal of Viceroy Lord Chelmsford from India
❖ Action against Michael O’Dwyer and General R. Dyer
❖ The boycott of the Hunter Commission.
• Gandhi moved a resolution to express regret over the excesses caused by mobs in Punjab and Gujarat.
• The session also demanded the repeal of the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Press Act of 1910 and
protested against the British Ministers’ hostility to the Khilafat issue.
• The session also passed resolutions to promote Swadeshi and support the formation of Labour
Unions.
  At the Amritsar session of the Congress in 1919, Gandhi proposed that the Indians should
cooperate in the working of reforms despite some inadequacies. But in September 1920 Gandhi
reversed his policy of cooperation and decided to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Hunter Commission (1919)

• The strong public outcry, both nationally and internationally, following the Jallianwala Bagh
Massacre led the Punjab Government to form an Inquiry Committee.
• On October 14, 1919, to inquire about the massacre, the government formed the Disorders Inquiry
Committee, commonly known as the Hunter Commission.
• There were three Indians in this eight-member Hunter Commission.
1. Chimanlal Setalvad (vice-chancellor of Bombay University)
2. Jagat Narayan (lawyer and public prosecutor representing the British in the Kakori conspiracy case)
3. Sultan Ahmed Khan (lawyer)
• Each of the eight members cross-examined the accused officers. The Indian members were
unsparing, detailed, and rigorous in their cross-examination of Dyer. Eventually, they disagreed with
the opinion of the five British members and submitted their minority report.
• In 1920, the Hunter Commission censured Dyer for his actions but did not impose any penal or
disciplinary action against General Dyer.
• The Committee indicated the massacre as one of the darkest episodes of the British Administration.
• The Commander-in-Chief directed Brigadier-General Dyer to resign from his appointment as Brigade
Commander and informed him that he would receive no further employment in India as mentioned
in the letter by Montagu to his Excellency.

No universal condemnation
• Though condemned by the Hunter Commission, Viceroy Chelmsford, and the House of Commons,
Dyer was greeted as a hero by the House of Lords and several well-known British personalities, such
as Rudyard Kipling.
• The Morning Post initiated a fundraising campaign supported by various British Indian newspapers,
such as the Calcutta Statesman, Rangoon Times and Press, and Madras Mail. Together, they raised
28,000 pounds for him. Rudyard Kipling was one of the famous contributors.
• Winston Churchill strongly condemned the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and described the day as
"monstrous." However, the majority of the Rajas, Maharajas, and top Sikh leadership, who sought to
preserve their position by aligning with the British, refused to condemn the massacre, with some even
praising the British for the brutal killings.
 Dyer died of cerebral haemorrhage and arteriosclerosis in 1927.

Congress Report on the Punjab Disorders, 1920

• The INC did not trust a British-instituted inquiry and set up a sub-committee in 1919 to investigate
the events leading up to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. By 25th March 1920, they sent their findings to
a printing press in the Mumbai city district as a ground-breaking report titled ‘The Congress Punjab
Inquiry.'
• Primarily drafted by Mahatma Gandhi, it was signed by notable leaders like C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji,
and M.R. Jayakar.
• The report called for action against the guilty officials — including General Dyer, M. O'Dwyer, and then
Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford. It also refuted the official death toll (379), claiming that nearly 1200 lives
were lost and 3600 were wounded.

Later developments
Surprising Honor

• Soon after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Arur Singh (then caretaker of the Golden Temple)
presented Dyer with a siropa (robe of honour). This act triggered the Gurdwara reform movement.

O'Dwyer’s assassination
• On March 13, 1940, at Caxton Hall in London, Udham Singh, an Indian freedom fighter,
assassinated Michael O'Dwyer, who endorsed General Dyer's actions and was believed to have been
the main planner.
• Gandhi disapproved of Udham Singh's act, describing it as an "act of insanity." He further stated,
"We have no desire for revenge. We want to change the system which produced Dyer."

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-22)

• During 1920-21, the Indian National Movement entered a new phase, i.e. a phase of mass politics
and mass mobilisation. British rule was opposed by two mass movements, Khilafat and Non-
Cooperation. Though the two movements emerged from separate issues, they adopted a common
programme of action, i.e. non-violent non-cooperation.

Background
• The impact of the First World War, the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and the Montagu-
Chelmsford Reforms provided the background to the movements.
1. First World War: Almost all sections of society suffered economic hardship due to the war,
strengthening the anti-British attitude.
2. Rowlatt Act: In 1919, the Government of India enacted the Rowlatt Act to control the activities of
Indian Revolutionaries. People strongly protested against the law and organised strikes and hartals.
 3. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: There was a nationwide protest against this massacre, and
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest. It gave a tremendous impetus to
the freedom struggle.
4. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The introduction of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms further
disillusioned the nationalists. The reform proposals failed to satisfy the rising demand of the
Indians for self-government. The majority of the leaders condemned it as "disappointing and
unsatisfactory."
• All these developments set the stage for an uprising against the British Government, with the Khilafat
issue as the immediate backdrop to the movement.

Issue of Khilafat
• During the First World War, Turkey allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian
Muslims considered the Sultan of Turkey their spiritual leader (Khalifa or Caliph), so they naturally
sympathised with Turkey.
• After the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power in Turkey. The politically aware Muslims
criticised Britain's treatment of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. They demanded that:
❖ The Turkish Sultan (Khalifa) must retain control over the Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile
Ottoman empire.
❖ The Khalifa must be left with sufficient territory to defend the Islamic faith.
• In 1919, A Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay under the leadership of the Ali brothers
(Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani, to force the
government to change its attitude towards Turkey and the countrywide agitation was organised.
• At an All-India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi (22-23 November 1919), the Khilafat leaders
advocated non-cooperation with the British Government in India. They decided to withdraw all
cooperation from the Government if their demands were not met.
• Congress leaders, including Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, viewed the Khilafat agitation as
a golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and bring the Muslim masses into the national
movement.
• In early 1920, Gandhi declared that he would lead a movement of non-cooperation if the terms of
peace with Turkey did not satisfy the Indian Muslims.
 Although Gandhi supported the Khilafat issue and served as the president of the All India Khilafat
Committee, he had taken a moderate stance until May 1920.
 However, the harsh terms of the Treaty with Turkey, along with the publication of the Hunter
committee report on 'Punjab disturbances' in May 1920, enraged the Indian people. As a result,
Gandhi took a more open and forceful position on these issues.
• In June 1920, an all-party conference at Allahabad approved a programme of boycotting schools,
colleges, law courts, government jobs, and titles conferred by the government.
• Finally, the Khilafat Committee launched a non-cooperation movement on 31 August 1920. Gandhi
was the first to join it. As a part of his support for the Khilafat movement, Gandhi returned:
1. The Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal: Granted for his humanitarian work in South Africa.
2. The Boer War Medal: Granted for serving as Assistant Superintendent of the Indian Volunteer
Stretcher Bearer Corps during the Boer War of 1899-1900.
3. The Zulu War Medal: Granted for his services as Officer in Charge of the Indian Volunteer
Ambulance Corps in 1906.
 Lokmanya Tilak passed away on August 1, 1920. However, soon after, his place was taken by
Gandhi, C.R. Das, and Motilal Nehru.

Towards Non-Cooperation
Special Session of Congress (September 1920)
• A special session of Congress presided by Lala Lajpat Rai was held at Calcutta in September 1920.
• The people were asked:
❖ To boycott government educational institutions, law courts, and legislatures
❖ To boycott foreign clothes and practise hand-spinning and hand-weaving to produce khadi.
❖ To surrender officially conferred honours and titles.
• The Congress supported Gandhi’s plan for non-cooperation with the Government till the Punjab and
Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj was established.
• The final decision on the non-cooperation movement was left for the Nagpur session of the
Congress, which was to be held in December 1920.
Constructive Programme Non-constructive Programme
Establishment of national school and colleges Boycott of government educational institutions, law
courts, and legislatures
Promotion of indigenous goods Boycott of foreign clothes
Practising hand-spinning and hand-weaving Surrender of officially conferred honours and titles
Popularisation of Charkha and Khadi

Nagpur Session of Congress (1920)

• In December 1920, the Nagpur Session of Congress was presided over by C. Vijayaraghavachariar.
• C.R. Das moved the resolution of non-cooperation, and it was subsequently approved. This was the
significant shift of C.R. Das from being a critic of Gandhi's programme to the proponent of the non-
cooperation resolution at Nagpur.
• The session also brought a revolutionary change in the congress organisation. The changes were:
 1. Congress Working Committee: The committee of fifteen members, including the president and
the secretaries, was formed. This would enable the Congress to function as a continuous political
organisation and provide it with the machinery for implementing its resolutions.
2. All India Committee: The formation of an All India Committee of 350 members.
3. Provincial Congress Committees: Reorganisation of Provincial Congress Committees on a
linguistic basis.
4. Congress membership: Opening of Congress membership to all men and women aged 21 or
more on payment of 4 annas as an annual subscription. In 1921, the age limit for membership
was reduced to 18.
• The Nagpur session transformed the Congress into the organiser and leader of the masses in their
national struggle for freedom from foreign rule.

Inception of Working Committee

• In the early days of Congress, the press and annual sessions played crucial roles in its activities. Since
Congress sessions were limited to just three days a year, the press became the sole channel for
the propagation of Congress propaganda throughout the year.
• Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal criticized the Congress's method of working. Tilak once said, “We will
not achieve any success in our labours if we croak once a year like a frog.”
• Tilak proposed the creation of a Working Committee during the 1916 Lucknow session. The
Committee would oversee the day-to-day affairs of the Congress and be responsible for
implementing the resolutions passed at the annual sessions. He hoped this would transform the
Congress from a deliberative body into one capable of leading a sustained movement. Unfortunately,
the proposal was quashed by Moderate opposition.
• Recognising the importance of a working committee to sustain the movement, Gandhiji reformed
the constitution of Congress and established the working committee in 1920.

Departure of Senior Leaders from Congress

• At this stage, some leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, G.S. Kharpade and B.C. Pal left
Congress as they believed in a constitutional and lawful struggle. They opposed the organisation of
the masses, hartals, strikes, satyagraha, breaking of laws, courting imprisonment, and other forms of
militant struggle.

Spread of Movement
• The years 1921 and 1922 witnessed an unprecedented movement. Thousands of students left
government schools and colleges and joined national schools and colleges. It was at this time that
the following educational institutions came into existence:
❖ Jamia Milia Islamia (National Muslim University) of Aligarh (later shifted to Delhi).
 ❖ Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith.
• Hundreds of lawyers, including Chittaranjan Das (Deshbandhu), Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad,
gave up their legal practice.
• Women also came forward. They joined the movement in large numbers and actively participated in
picketing before the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. They gave up Purdah and offered their
jewellery to the Tilak Fund.
• Huge bonfires of foreign cloth were organised all over the country. Khadi soon became a symbol of
freedom.
• The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the non-cooperation movement, and within six
months, over one crore rupees were subscribed.
• Mahatma Gandhi, with the charkha, became the most abiding image of Indian nationalism. Gandhi
spent part of each day working on the charkha and encouraged other nationalists to do likewise.
Spinning allowed Gandhiji to break the boundaries that prevailed within the traditional caste system,
between mental labour and manual labour.

Gandhi on Charkha and Modern Industries

• Mahatma Gandhi strongly opposed the modern age, where machines were taking over jobs and
exploiting human labour.
• According to Gandhi, the charkha symbolised a human society that did not depend on machines
and technology. He believed that this simple tool could help the poor earn additional income and
become self-sufficient.
• In May 1921, the All-India Khilafat Committee passed a resolution declaring that no Muslim should
serve in the British Indian army. The Ali brothers were arrested for this in September.
• Immediately, Gandhiji called for this resolution to be repeated at hundreds of meetings. Fifty
members of the All-India Congress Committee issued a similar declaration that no Indian should
serve a government which degraded India socially, economically, and politically. The Congress Working
Committee issued a similar statement.
• The Congress now decided to raise the movement to a higher level. It permitted the Congress
Committee of a province to start civil disobedience or disobedience of British laws, including non-
payment of taxes, if the people were ready for it.

Gandhi's Shift to Simple Attire

• Gandhi, on his way from Madras to Madurai by train, noticed that the people in his train
compartment were wearing foreign clothes. When he asked them about promoting Khadi
(homespun cloth), they said that they were too poor to afford it.
 • Witnessing this, Gandhi decided to align himself more closely with the masses. On 22nd September
1921, Gandhi made a momentous decision to change his attire from the elaborate Gujarati attire
to a simple dhoti and shawl.
• By shedding his formal clothing and adopting simpler attire, Gandhi aimed to better connect with
the millions of impoverished people who, in their simple clothing, reflected the truth of their poverty.

People's Initiatives
• Although the Congress leadership was against class war, the masses broke this restraint. In rural areas,
the peasants turned against the landlords and the traders. This gave a new dimension to the
movement of 1921-22.
• In many cases, people interpreted Gandhiji's call in their own manner, linked their movements to local
grievances and resisted British rule non-violently.
1. In Punjab, the Sikhs led the Akali movement to remove corrupt Mahantas from the Gurudwaras,
their places of worship. The movement was closely identified with the non-cooperation movement.
2. In Malabar (Northern Kerala), the Moplah or Muslim peasants created a powerful anti-zamindar
movement.
3. In Assam, tea garden labourers organised a strike, shouting "Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai" and
demanding a wage increase. In the Assamese Vaishnava songs, the reference to Krishna was
substituted by "Gandhi Raja".
4. In Andhra, the grievances of tribal and other peasants against forest laws were linked to the Non-
Cooperation Movement.
❖ In the Guntur district, tribals and poor peasants staged "forest satyagrahas", sometimes
grazing their cattle in forests without paying fees.
❖ Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those
of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
5. In the U.P. and Bihar, peasants' grievances were linked to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Despite the repeated appeal for non-violence from the congress leadership, the peasants rose in
revolt against Talukdars and merchants.
❖ Kisan Movement: Between January and March 1921, many districts witnessed widespread
agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra. The major demands were:
✓ Abolition of Nazrana (extra premium on rent)
✓ No eviction from holdings
✓ No begar (forced labour)
✓ No rasad (forced supplies)
❖ Eka (Unity) Movement: In late 1921, a radical peasant leader named Madari Pasi led a strong
peasant movement in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur.
 People’s Mahatma
• People sometimes saw Gandhiji as a messiah who could help them overcome their misery and
poverty.
• On certain occasions, ordinary individuals attributed their own accomplishments to Gandhiji. For
instance, at the end of a powerful movement, peasants of Pratapgarh in the United Provinces
managed to stop the illegal eviction of tenants, but they felt it was Gandhiji who had won this demand
for them.
• However, there were also instances where people invoking Gandhiji's name took actions that didn't
align with Gandhian ideals.

Gandhiji's Miraculous Aura

• As Gandhiji travelled, rumours about his miraculous powers circulated widely. Some believed he
was sent by the King to address farmers' grievances and had the authority to override local officials.
In other places, it was said that Gandhiji's power surpassed the English monarch’s, and his presence
would make colonial rulers leave the district.
• There were also stories reporting dire consequences for those who opposed Gandhi, with stories of
villagers facing mysterious house damage or crop failures if they criticised Gandhiji.

Government Response
• The government again took recourse to repression.
❖ The Congress and the Khilafat volunteer organisations were declared unlawful.
❖ Public assemblies and processions were banned.
❖ At many places, the police fired on the satyagrahis.
❖ Arrests and Lathi charges became a common scene.
• By the end of 1921, all important leaders except Gandhi were imprisoned. Thus, the Government
machinery was fully geared to crush the movement.

The Last Phase

• On 1 February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi sent an ultimatum to the viceroy that he would start mass civil
disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, if within seven days:
❖ The political prisoners were not released.
❖ The press was not freed from government control.
• Since the whole country was not fit for civil disobedience, Gandhi decided to launch in Bardoli.

Chauri-Chaura Incident
• On 5 February 1922, a Congress procession of 3,000 peasants at Chauri Chaura was fired upon by
the police. The angry crowd attacked and burnt the police station, causing the death of 22
policemen.
• Gandhi worried that the movement could become violent due to the high public enthusiasm. He was
convinced that the nationalist workers had not yet properly learnt the practice of non-violence,
without which civil disobedience could not succeed.
• Gandhi thought that if the movement turned violent, the British could easily suppress it. Therefore,
he decided to suspend the nationalist campaign. He also postponed the proposed civil
disobedience.

Bardoli Resolution
• The Congress Working Committee (CWC) met at Bardoli in Gujarat on 12 February 1922 and passed
a resolution stopping all activities which would lead to the breaking of laws.
• CWC urged Congressmen to donate their time to constructive programmes - the popularisation of
the khadi, national schools and temperance, promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity, and removal of
untouchability.
• The Bardoli resolution stunned the country. Some believed that the retreat was a part of the Gandhian
strategy of struggle, while others, including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose and Jawaharlal
Nehru, resented this decision. Subhas Chandra Bose referred to it as a "national calamity," while
Jawaharlal Nehru expressed his "amazement and consternation" at the decision.
• However, both the people and the leaders had faith in Gandhi and did not oppose him in public. They
accepted his decision without open opposition. Thus, the first non-cooperation and civil disobedience
movement virtually came to an end.
 On 12 February Gandhi started his five-day fast as a penance.

Causes of Withdrawal
• Gandhi felt that people had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence.
• The movement was turning violent, which the British could easily suppress.
• The movement was showing signs of fatigue. This was natural, as any movement maintained at a high
intensity for a prolonged period is unsustainable.
• The movement was gradually turning into a no-rent movement against the Zamindars. If the
movement had not been suspended, it might have led to chaos because the leaders had no control
over local movements.
• The government was not ready for negotiations.

Gandhi’s Arrest
• The government arrested Mahatma Gandhi on 10 March 1922 and charged him with spreading
disaffection against the Government.
• Following a historic trial, Gandhi was sentenced to six years in prison. During the trial, he declared that
"non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty as cooperation with good."

End of Khilafat
• Very soon, the Khilafat question also lost relevance. The people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal
Pasha, who:
❖ Deprived the Sultan of his political power in November 1922
❖ Took many measures to modernise Turkey and to make it a secular state.
❖ Abolished the Caliphate (or the institution of the Caliph) in 1924. He separated the state from
religion by eliminating Islam from the Constitution.
❖ Nationalised education, granted women extensive rights, introduced legal codes based on
European models and took steps to develop agriculture and to introduce modern industries.
 Some historians have criticised the Khilafat movement for mixing religion with politics. As a result,
they claim that religious sentiments spread to politics, which ultimately strengthened communal
forces.
 However, it is important to note that the Khilafat movement in India represented much wider
feelings of the Muslims than their concern for the Caliph. It also reflected a broader anti-imperialist
sentiment among Muslims. After all, there was no protest in India when Kamal Pasha abolished
the Caliphate in 1924.

Contribution of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement

✓ The movement showed remarkable unity between Hindus and Muslims.
✓ It brought urban Muslims into the national movement.
✓ Students, women and peasants (through local agitation) participated in large numbers.
✓ Nationalist sentiments reached every nook and corner of the country.
✓ It politicised every stratum of the population - the artisans, peasants, urban poor, women, traders, etc.
✓ It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardship and make sacrifices.
✓ Gandhi's emphasis on removing evils like caste barriers, communalism, untouchability, etc.,
weakened caste separateness and accelerated the pace of social mobility and reform.
✓ It developed tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem among Indian people.
✓ Indian textile industry had benefited from the boycott of foreign goods.