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Đề cương giữa kì ngôn ngữ học
Đề cương giữa kì ngôn ngữ học
★ Articulators
- Larynx (the voice box / the Adam’s apple)
+ a tube-shaped organ in the neck containing
vocal cords
+ located between the pharynx and the
trachea
- Vocal cords
+ 2 small bands of elastic tissue; which can
be thought of as 2 flat strips or rubber,
lying opposite each other across the air
passage in the larynx.
+ The inner edges of the vocal cords can be
moved towards each other
=> They completely cover the top of the windpipe (the trachea), or can be
drawn apart so that there is a gap between them
- Pharynx
+ The space behind the tongue, immediately above the larynx, reaching up
towards the nasal cavity
- Palate
+ Forms the roof of the mouth
+ Separates the mouth/oral cavity from the nose/nasal cavity
+ The front part is hard while the back part is soft
+ The soft palate(velum) can be raised so it can make a firm contact with the
back wall of the pharynx
- Teeth
+ The lower front teeth are not very important in speech
+ The upper front teeth are more frequent used in English
- Tongue
+ Divided into the tip (or apex), and moving backwards, the blade (or lamina),
the front, the back or dorsum, and the root
+ The tongue modifies the shape of the cavity, acts as a valve by touching parts
of the mouth to stop the flow of air, and is shaped in various ways to direct the
flow of air.
+ The most important of the speech organs
- Lips
+ Consist of the upper lip and lower lip.
+ Can take various different positions:
1. brought firmly together so that they completely block the mouth.
2. The lower lip can be drawn inwards to touch the upper front teeth.
3. kept apart either flat or with different amounts of rounding.
4. pushed forward to a greater or lesser extent.
C. Consonants vs vowels
Consonant Vowel
Production - 2 articulators come together => obstruct the - no obstruction to the flow
air-stream, the air-stream can’t get out free of air => the air can get out
=> consonant sounds freely => vowel sounds
- some consonants don’t obstruct the flow of
air more than vowels do (the beginning
sound of ‘hay’ and ‘way’) => base on their
distribution in the syllable
Example /k/, /f/, /b/, /m/…. /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /ə/ /e/ /ɒ/ /ʌ/ /æ/ /iː/
/uː/ /ɑː/ /ɔː/ /ɜː/ /eɪ/ /aɪ//ɔɪ/
/əʊ/ /aʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/
Production - The air-stream goes through the - The air stream goes through the
vocal cords. vocal cords.
- The vocal cords come together - The vocal cords come apart
(=obstruct the air-stream) => Vocal (=open) => Do not obstruct the
cords vibrate => Voiced sounds air-stream => Vocal cords do not
vibrate => Voiceless sounds
Example /d/, /v/, /m/, /b/, /g/, /ð, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /θ/
/ŋ/, /n/, /l/, /r/
c. According to voicing
- Voiced consonants:
E.g. /b/, /v/, /d/, /z/
- Voiceless consonants:
E.g. /p/, /f/, /t/, /s/
II. Vowels
1. Definition
- The sounds which none of the articulators come very close together so the air
can get out freely
- Depends mainly on the positions of the tongue, normally voiced
2. Cardinal vowels
- Represent the range of vowels that articulators can make
3. Classification
● In a phonetic transcription, the symbols are used to represent precise phonetic values,
not just to represent phonemes.
LECTURE 4 - SYLLABLE STRUCTURE & SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
I. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
1. Definition: A syllable is a unit consisting of a vowel as the center (nucleus) and/or
consonant(s) before and after it.
2. The nature of syllables:
- A minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation
- Some syllables have an onset
- Some syllables may have no onset but have a coda (termination)
- Some syllables have both an onset and a coda
Syllable
Rhyme
3. Syllable division
- Maximum Onset Principle: consonants are assigned to the right-hand syllable as far as
possible within the restrictions governing syllable onsets and codas
- Restrictions:
+ Begins < 3 consonants
+ End < 4 consonants
+ No one-syllable word ends with a short vowel
- Ambisyllabicity: when a consonant stands between vowels and it is difficult to assign
the consonant to one syllable or the other.
2. Intonation
- Definition: the patterns of pitch variation in a sentence
- Functions: a meaningful suprasegmental feature of speech
+ affect the meaning of the sentence
+ indicate the attitude or relation of the speaker to the hearer
+ show various contextual features
- Common intonation patterns:
+ Long falling: finality, conclusion, affirmation, agreement
eg: I am going shopping.
This chapter is about intonation.
+ Short falling: attenuated or qualified conclusion
eg: The Earth is under threat due to human activities.
+ Long rising: questioning and lack of finality
eg: Did you enjoy the performance?
+ Short rising: some degree of reservation or a signal of attentiveness
(continuation marker)
eg: “You left?”
+ Rising-falling: finality with added emotion
eg: I was astonished by her action at the party.
+ Falling-rising: querulousness, skepticism, reservation
eg: “Is what you’ve told me the truth?”
➢ Tone Group
- Definition: the part of a sentence over which a particular intonation pattern extends.
- Nature:
+ Corresponds to a unit of information.
+ There may be more than 1 tone group per sentence.
+ A short utterance without any pause forms 1 tone group and a longer one with
pauses forms 2 or more tone groups.
+ Punctuation helps in determining tone groups.
+ Tone group boundary is indicated by a double slash (//).
E.g.: She sat by the window // in the late afternoon, // reading a letter.
➢ Tonic Syllable
- Definition: one syllable in a tone group that sounds more prominent.
- Nature:
+ Is stressed and carries a major pitch change.
+ Expresses the information that the speaker considers new and most
important.
+ Normally falls on the last new information.
A. MORPHEMES
1. Types of morphemes:
1.1. Definition of morphemes:
*Definition:
- the morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language
- Like the phoneme, the morpheme refers to either a class of forms or an abstraction
from the concrete forms of language
Eg:
- book, run, cat
- unhappiness ( composed of the free morphemes "un," "happi," and "ness")
- Toothbrush (combining "tooth" and "brush")
*Characteristics:
- Internally indivisible: it can’t be further subdivided or analyzed into smaller
meaningful units.
- Internally stable: nothing can be interposed in a morpheme
- externally transportable: it has positional mobility or free distribution, occurring in
various contexts.
*Eg:
Identify the morphemes in the following sentence:
"Happily, he walked quickly to school."
1. Happi- (morpheme) - A root morpheme indicating a positive feeling.
2. -ly (morpheme) - A suffix indicating manner.
3. he (morpheme) - A free morpheme, a pronoun.
4. walk (morpheme) - A free morpheme, a verb.
5. -ed (morpheme) - A suffix indicating past tense.
6. quick (morpheme) - A free morpheme, an adjective.
7. -ly (morpheme) - Another instance of the suffix indicating manner.
8. to (morpheme) - A free morpheme, a preposition.
9. school (morpheme) - A free morpheme, a noun.
B. MORPHS
1. Definition
- A morph: concrete realization of a morpheme
- classification: based primarily on word forms or phonetic forms
2. Types=> classification: based primarily on form
a. Free morph, Bound morph
3.
Free morphs Bound morphs
may attach to other free or bound roots: occasionally bound morphs (bound
morphemes roots)
e.g: reclassify, overgrown e.g: ceive: receive, perceive
vert: convert, revert
mit
Example: undercooked
under- cook -ed
may attach to only a limited number of roots attach to all or most members of a certain
word class
c. Enclitic
● Definition: a kind of contraction, a bound form which derives from an independent
word and must be attached to the preceding word
● Types
- Auxiliaries: attached to the preceding subject (you’re, I’d, he’ll)
- Negative: attached to the preceding auxiliary (won’t, mustn’t, hasn’t)
=> classification: based primarily on meaning
d. Root, stem, base
- Stem: ROOT + associated derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added
- Base: ROOT + associated derivational affixes, to which derivational affixes are
added
e.g: engagements => root: gage
base: engage
stem: engagement
Note: If a morpheme is postulated for singular, we can account for number systematically
ADJECTIVES
VERBS
Note:
● -ing verbal forms can be analyzed as present participle or gerund.
● Since gerunds are functioning as nouns, they may be pluralized.
Note:
Nomn = nominative case
Obj = objective case
Morphemes combine and are realized by one of 4 morphological realization rules
1. agglutinative rule - 2 morphemes are realized by morphs which remain distinct and
are simply “glued” together, e.g., {WRITER} + {pl} > writers
2. fusional rule - 2 morphemes are realized by morphs which do not remain distinct but
are fused together, e.g./ {TOOTH} + {pl} > teeth
3. null realization rule - a morpheme is never realized as a morph in any word of the
relevant class, e.g, {sg} on nouns, which never has concrete realization in English.
4. zero rule - a morpheme is realized as a zero morph in particular members of a word
class , e.g., {SHEEP} + {pl} > sheep. Note that in most other members of the class
noun, {pl} has concrete realization as -s.
Examples:
agglutinative: {WORK} + {past} > worked
fusional: {WRITE} + {past} > wrote
null: {WORK} + {pres} > work
zero: {PUT} + {past} > put, {PUT} + {pstprt} > put
Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation
1. Phrasal Structure
2. Verb complementation: