Foundry Theory N1 Book 2

FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 10
GATING AND FEEDING OF CASTINGS (continued)
Gating terms
In the first section of this subject we discussed the general rules of gating and this section will now set
out details and illustrations of the wide variety of gates from which the Foundryman can select the
best for his particular type of job.
Some time ago a committee of the American Foundrymen’s society endeavoured to standardize
gating terms. Their designations have been used as a basis for the following descriptions.
a) Top gate
b) Joint or parting gates, and
c) Bottom gates
All gates should be arranged, if possible, so that the metal reaches the deepest part of the mould
without touching any other part of the mould or cores. These terms are given in Table 1 in which the
numbers refer to various parts of the gating syst4ems shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
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TABLE 1
COMPONENT PARTS OF GATING SYSTEMS ILLUSTRATED IN FIGS. 1, 2 AND 3
No. Name of part
1 Runner cup, sprue cup
2 Cup strainer core
3 Downgate or sprue
4 Pouring basin or runner basin
5 Pencil gates, pencil runners, pop gates
6 Wedge gates
7 Choke
8 Finger gate (vertical)
9 Ring gate
10 Skim bob (cope) or (drag)
11 Ingate
12 Relief sprue
13 Pouring basin
14 Pouring basin with dam
15 Shrink bob
16 Strainer gate (cope)
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17 Strainer gate core
18 Strainer gate (drag)
19 Splash core
20 Pouring box or runner box
21 Cross runner
22 Finger gate (horizontal)
23 Flat gate
24 Whirlgate pool
25 Riser or feeder heads supply liquid metal to thick sections: must be
sufficiently large so that the metal in them will remain fluid until the metal in
the casting has solidified. The riser openings also serve to permit mould
gases and steam to escape as the mould is being filled
26 Bottom gate
27 Horngate
28 Core for bottom gate
29 Draw-in bottom gate
a) Top Gates
Figure 1 shows six examples of top gates. These gates are sometimes called drop gates,
because the metal drops on the sand in the bottom of the mould. It would not be wise to run a
green-sand mould having a large flat area with such gates: while the metal was spreading to
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cover the large area on the bottom of the mould, fresh metal would be dropping continuously
on one part of the mould; the cutting action would lift portions of the surface, and cause scabs.
On the other hand, castings with heavy bosses, such as locomotive wheels, in which a pool of
metal is soon formed in the lowest part of the mould and hollow cylinders cast vertically, are
often run with pop gates or pencil gates (see Fig A3). Figure A1 shows the top-running
method used for casting ingots direct from a ladle, or through a runner dish. In order to break
the force of the stream and to keep the slag floating in the pouring basing, a cup strainer core
may be employed as shown in A2. The pencil gate (A3) consists of a series of small holes
leading from the bottom of the pouring basin to the top of the casting; it effectively keeps out
the slag, and for casting liners the inlets are placed so that the metal falls exactly between the
mould and the core. Pencil gates consist of very small inlets, and were suggested by the
French Foundryman, Ronceray, for casting quite massive iron castings with a minimum weight
of head. The thin streams of metal fall to the bottom of the mould, solidifying rapidly; as more
metal streams fall the surface of the metal is continually broken to permit the slag to float, then
when the mould is nearly full the remaining hot metal from the ladle passing through the
superheated pouring system is sufficient to feed the casting with a relatively small amount of
top reject. The wedge gate shown in Fig A4 is frequently used on stove plate castings and
baths. A series of them will deliver metal very rapidly from an elongated pouring basin; the
chokes keep the slag back and after cooling, the gates are easily broken off without damaging
the casting. The finger gate (A5) is a modification of the wedge gate, and is still easier to
break off. The ring gate shown in A6 used a core to break the fall of the metal, retains the slag
and directs the metal into the proper position in the mould
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b) Parting Gates
The features of parting gates for moulds prepared with the ingate on the same level as the
mould joint or parting, are illustrated in Fig. 2. They all have a downgate formed in the sand of
the cope, or, for heavy castings, formed by ramming up fireclay sleeves in the cope. It is
advisable to provide a recess or hollow at the foot of the downgate to provide a cushion of
molten metal and prevent cutting of the sand at this position. In large green-sand moulds, a
dried core (see B7) is often used at this position. From the bottom of the downgate the gate
extends on the joint line in a direction horizontal to the casting or castings. This arrangement
affords the opportunity to introduce devices that effectively trap any slag, sand or dirt allowed
to pass down the downgate with the metal. Slag and sand are of lower density than liquid
metals such as iron, steel, bronze, etc., and if time allows, will float out of the molten metal.
Alternatively, if the two liquids, slag and metal, are spun, the lighter the liquid moves to the
centre of the whirlpool and clean metal may be drawn off from the outside.
The cross-sectional area of the downgate must be greater than that of the horizontal gate, and
this must be greater than the ingate area in order that the caster can keep the pouring basin
full, keep the slag floating on top of the liquid metal, and avoid drawing down air with the
molten metal.
The first example B1 shows the use of a skim bob, a recess or hollow in the cope to trap slag,
with a choke at the end of the ingate nearest the casting. The choke could with advantage be
farther back, as shown in B3. Another type of skimming gate, a relief sprue, is illustrated in B2.
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The use of a dam in a pouring basin is shown in B4; a further refinement would be the insertion
of a strainer core across the dam, but the metal must be very fluid when strainer cores are
used. There is always danger that a shrinkage defect may form in a casting in front of an
ingate, and a shrink bob on the runner (B5) is an effective preventive. A strainer core inserted
at the joint or parting line to strap slag is shown in b6. Another and simpler method, often used
to ensure that no slag is poured down the downgate until the pouring basin is full, is t place a
sheet of tinned steel at the foot of the downgate between the cope and drag. The thin metal
does not melt until the downgate and pouring basin are full and any slag has had the
opportunity to rise to the surface. Molten metal falling from a height on a green sand pouring
basin or mould is liable to wash away the sand; the method shown in B7 employs dried cores
at these critical locations in a gating system.
A very popular and effective way to trap slag and distribute the metal rapidly is illustrated in
Fig. 2 B8: the horizontal runner allows the slag time to rise out of the metal, which flows off at
the lower edge of the cross runner. Another most effective4 skimming gate is the whirlgate
runner B9. The metal enters the whirlgate at an angle causing the metal and slag to spin
around before it enters the mould cavity. The ingate is cut in the direction opposite to that of
the spinning metal and slag. The slag comes to the centre of the whirlpool and there is no
danger that it will enter the mould. Another method of running that ensures a number of clean
castings off one runner is illustrated in B10. The metal and slag flowing along the horizontal
runner are run through and up the riser at the opposite end of the mould; the gates to the
castings are cut at such an angle that clean metal is taken off in the opposite direction.
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c) Bottom Gates
The bottom gating of moulds produces castings with good surfaces: there is less erosion of
mould and core surfaces, the metal quickly covers the bottom of the mould and rises quietly up
the vertical walls. There is none of the scouring and splashing that occur in top-pouring
moulds.
Figure 3 shows types of bottom gates in general use. C1 takes advantage of the opportunity
that presents itself when two mould joints have to be made to produce this double-flanged
casting: a bottom gate is cut at the mould joint between the drag and the mid-part (or cheek);
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C2 is a similar gate with the addition of a kink in the downgate and a slag trap above the
bottom gate.
A horngate is shown in c3 (so called because its shape resembles a cow’s horn, curved and
tapering towards the point). This type of bottom gating system eliminates the necessity for a
mid-part; the curved runner-pattern is withdrawn from the drag portion of the mould.
Another method using only two-part moulds is shown in c4, in which a core forms the bottom
gate. Notice that the downgate descends to a lower level than the ingate, and is curved
backwards to form a dirt trap for the splashes of cold metal, slag and dirt may enter the runner.
In c5 the bottom gate tapers in the opposite direction to that of the horngate; after the pattern
has been drawn, the wider end of the runner is drawn into the mould cavity. It is customary for
these bottom runners to be placed tangentially on castings such as rolls to give a spinning
action to the incoming metal. The swirling action brings all the scum and slag to the centre of
the roll where it goes up harmlessly into the feeder.
The last example, C6 shows a combination of bottom and side gates used for running bush
castings. As the ingates come into the operation one after the other as the mould is being
filled, each brings fresh, hot metal on top of the metal already in the mould, finally the
uppermost ingate feeds hot metal into the feeder.
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To conclude this section on gating, the student is reminded that whatever the method of gating
adopted, the underlying principle is to allow the metal to flow evenly and quietly into the mould. The
flow of metal into the mould is determined entirely by the gating system and the actual flow pattern of
the metal in the mould will be an important factor in the production of good, clean castings.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 10
1. Make a sketch of a pencil gate and state its advantage
2. On what type of castings would you use a wedge gate?
3. In a casting such as a roll, how should the bottom runners be placed to give a spinning action
to the incoming metal?
4. Why should top-gates not be used on a green-sand mould having a large flat area?
5. What type of gating produces the cleanest castings and why?
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FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 11
Shrinkage and Feeding of Castings
We have dealt at some length with the gating system into the mould and stressed the importance of
making sure that the metal enters the mould in a quiet and orderly fashion. An equally important
point to consider is the feeding system to be employed so that the result will be a sound casting, and
this section will now deal with that aspect of foundrywork.
All metals contract, or shrink, as they pass from a liquid form to a solid state. This shrinkage will be
more noticeable in large castings than in small ones, although, of course, the coefficient of expansion
(and therefore the contraction) is a constant. In small castings the metal solidifies almost as soon as
the mould is poured, so that shrinkage is not a serious factor, but with large castings the metal
remains in a liquid state for a long time, and much trouble is experienced with shrinkage.
While all metals shrink when they solidify, there are scarcely two that shrink to the same extent.
Aluminium, steel and brass shrink more than grey or malleable iron. Then, too, not all grades of grey
and malleable iron shrink the same. That being the case, it is necessary for a Foundryman to study
the metals, not forgetting to take into consideration the size of the casting and the kind metal. The
pouring temperature, also, must be watched, because when a mould is poured with hot metal there is
apt to be more trouble with shrinkage than if it were poured with cold metal.
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Shrink holes are generally found in the castings where the metal is the heaviest or in the part of the
casting that was uppermost when the mould was poured.
There are two ways in which shrinkage may be counter-acted. One method is to feed metal into the
casting while it is solidifying. The other is to chill the heavy sections of the casting, so as to cause
them to solidify as quickly as the lighter sections. If all parts of the casting solidify in about the same
time, there is not much danger that shrink holes will be formed, but if one part solidifies much sooner
than another, there is great danger that shrink holes will exist in the part that hardened last.
Figure 1 shows a dumb-bell casting (as used by weight-lifters) with a shrink hole in each ball. It will
be noticed that the shrink hole at B is on the inside of the casting, with a shell of metal around it. This
kind of shrink hole is common. It exists because the metal becomes hard on the surface of the
casting before it has solidified on the inside. The shrink hole shown at C is even more common. The
metal remained fluid on top until the inside became hard, and the metal that was at C when the mould
was poured, was drawn into the casting to make up for internal shrinkage. When a casting of the
type shown solidifies, the handle a and the metal next to the damp sand become hard first and, while
so doing, draws metal from the parts of the casting that are still fluid. If the parts drawn upon cannot,
in turn, draw metal from somewhere else, the shrink holes are bound to exist. They can be prevented
by feeding metal into the casting.
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Used Feeders
To make a solid casting of the type shown in fig. 1, the mould should be made with a feeder (or riser)
at each end, as shown at B and c in Fig 2.
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The handle A will solidify long before the metal in the balls has solidified, and if the casting were fed
from one end only, the other end would still have shrink holes because the metal in the handle, being
hard, would not allow metal to flow from one end to the other. The connections between the feeders
and balls, as shown at DD, must be large enough not to freeze too quickly, and connections should
be shaped so that there will be a fillet formed, as shown at EE, in fig. 3. Moulders who have had very
little experience in feeding castings often fall into the mistake of making the connections between
feeders and castings so small that the metal in feeders and casting is still fluid after the connections
are frozen. When this is done, the feeders will not perform the work required, and it would be better if
they were left off entirely
When the casting is taken from the mould, the two feeders will be attached, as shown in fig 3.
Usually, feeders that have performed their function properly contain shrink holes as shown at either B
or C, and the casting will be free from such defects.

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Top Feeders
Feeders may be placed on top of the casting, as shown at A in fig. 4, and the size of the feeder
depends upon the length of time necessary for the metal in the casting to solidify. Frequently,
feeders that are too small are used, and they cause more damage than they do well.
When a feeder placed on top of a casting solidifies before the casting does, metal will be drawn from
the casting by the feeder. On the other hand, if the feeders are used on big castings are made large
enough for the metal to remain in a fluid state until the casting has solidified, they have to be so large
that their removal is very costly.
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The use of feeders for cleaning the casting is extremely restricted unless the surface inclines all the
way to the feeder, as in the case of a feeder on the top of a pipe flange (fig 5), and even then dirt is
often found on flanges machined round their periphery at the points A and A.
For such flanges an extra machining piece shown dotted, will considerably facilitate the production of
clean flanges. Feeders, when placed on high parts of the castings considerably reduce blow holes
due to trapped gases, but their use in this respect is purely local. Although they cannot relieve the
mould to a great extent of the head pressure of the metal they do act as a kind of safety valve to
relieve the momentum of the metal flowing into the mould.
To be self feeding, the feeder must be at least as large at the base as the boss or other part of the
casting on which it is placed. The object is to keep a passage for liquid metal from the casting to the
feeder until the former sets. This is common practice in steel and aluminium castings, but for cast
iron much smaller feeders are often used.

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Feeding ……….
The subject of feeding resolves itself into the following problems:-\
1) Is feeding a necessity?
2) What class of castings should be fed?
3) How is feeding to be done?
1) In answer to the first of these questions, we are safe enough in saying that all castings, with
but a few exceptions, are fed to a greater or less extent in some way or other, and the only
exceptions are those of extremely light metal, where immediate solidification takes place with
uniform internal shrinkage.
A mould that is cast, and whose metal does not all solidify immediately such as is the case
with varied sections, nevertheless forms its outside shell, so to speak, throughout, but specially
at its extremities, while the still fluid interior “draws” from the basins. This first formation of
solid metal and plastic interior are important factors in the feeding of a casting.
It is true there never can be fixed rules for feeding, as every casting brings its own peculiar
needs with it and so does every metal with which a mould is cast. But while allowing for these
conditions, it must be borne in mind that feeding is a necessity and provision must be made to
meet this need as shown in the dumb-bell example in fig. 1.
2) What should be fed? This question may be a little ambiguous since it has been laid down as a
principle that feeding is a necessity in the solidification of metals. This admitted, it goes
without saying that there can be but few exceptions. It is therefore safe to say that where a
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casting has varying section thicknesses, the thin will draw from the thick and unless some
method of feeding is employed there will be shrink holes in the heavy sections.
3) In the first of the two preceding divisions we showed in a brief manner what to fed, but as has
been stated, individual castings require individual treatment because the details of our
methods are not infrequently a matter of compulsion rather than choice.
The remainder of this section will therefore deal with different feeding methods employed to
obtain the desired result: a sound casting.
Rod Feeding
One of the oldest feeding methods, and still used successfully today, is rod feeding. The term rod
feeding as applied to foundry work refers to a method of agitating the metal after a mould has been
poured. A wrought-iron rod is pushed through the metal in the feeder, down into the casting, and is
then moved up and down continuously, being gradually withdrawn as the metal solidifies. In Fig 4, A
represents the feeder, B the casting and C the rod.
A rod 6mm in diameter may be used for a feeder 75mm in diameter. A 6mm rod would be suitable for
a 100mm feeder. For a feeder 150mm in diameter, a feeding rod about 12mm in diameter works
well. For feeders larger than 150mm in diameter, still larger feeding rods must be used. Rods may
from 40cm to 120cm long, the proper length depending upon the height of the feeder and the depth of
the casting.
A feeding rod should be heated before it is inserted into the metal. If it is not heated, the metal
surrounding it will chill and stock to it, making the operation of feeding difficult.
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To rod feed a casting properly, select two rods of the required size. One rod is sufficient for some
castings, but it is well to have a second one ready if the first becomes unwieldy due to the weight and
volume of the metal that will adhere to it. Where there are two feeders on the casting, two rods are
necessary, of course. Heat the rod before the mould is poured. After it is poured, watch the metal in
the feeder. When it begins to show signs of freezing, gently push the hot rod through the feeder into
the casting and carefully work it up and down. Do not strike the sides of the feeder, push the rod to
the bottom of the mould, or push it into the core. Continue to pour hot metal into the feeder,
whenever the feeder begins to show signs of freezing, until the casting is solid. By feeling the
resistance offered to the motion of the rod, it is easy to tell when solidification is taking place and,
therefore, at what time the rod must be withdrawn. After the rod has been withdrawn, fill the hole in
the feeder with hot metal.
Casting Yield
One of the greatest problems faced by every foundry, but in particular the non-ferrous and steel
foundries, is the question of yield. This word means the volume of castings produced from a given
weight of metal melted. As an example, if you pour 100kg of metal into a mould and the casting
weight 701kg with the remaining 30kg being used for runners and feeders, the yield is 70%. This
means that 30% of the metal must go back for remelt. Obviously, the ideal situation is to have a
100% yield whereby all the metal melted is used to produce castings. Unfortunately, as in every
aspect of life, the ideal is very rarely, if ever reached. For this reason, therefore, the foundrymen and
the metallurgists have continually sought ways and means to increase the yield without in any way
effecting the soundness of the casting. The modern method of doing this is by ling the walls of feeds
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with some form of material which will keep the heat in the feeder head, and even preferably, increase
the temperature so that the metal will remain liquid for a longer period. The three most common
methods of doing this, and widely used in South Africa are:
a) Vermiculite
b) Plaster compound and
c) Exothermic material
The vermiculite and plaster materials form an insulation barrier between the sand mould and metal
and therefore prevent the metal from being chilled and the feeder stays liquid for a longer period.
According to results, however, the exothermic material gives the best yield. As the name suggests,
when the metal enters the feeder and comes into contact with the exothermic material, heat is
generated as the exothermic material actually ignites and creates heat so that the metal in the feeder
will remain liquid for a sufficiently long time to ensure complete soundness in the casting and the
minimum excess metal.
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The exothermic material is usually applied inside the sand feeder head to a thickness of 12mm all
round. When the metal rises in the feeders, this exothermic sleeve is ignited by the heat of the metal
and produces temperatures up to 2000°C, much higher than the temperature of the metal, so that, in
fact, it keeps the metal molten for some time.
Figures 6 and 7 show a fly-wheel casting which was made in the first place with an ordinary feeder
and then using an exothermic feeder. The weight of the casting was 225kg and with the ordinary
feeder 70kg of metal were required for the runners and feeder, whereas with the exothermic material
only 10kg were required: a considerable saving in metal.
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Figure 8 shows a comparison between normal, exothermic and plaster sleeves for any casting.
These feeders all had the same efficiency for a given weight of casting and it will be noted that the
smallest amount of feed metal was required from the exothermic feeder. In the illustration the words
“blind feeder” are used, and this means that the feeder is surrounded by sand as opposed to being
open to the atmosphere as is normal, and it will be seen that in every case, the blind feeder was
smaller in size than the open feeder.
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Feeding by Centrifugal Casting
The first broad outlines of the centrifugal casting process were published in a British Patent in the
1809. This is the process which is used today for the production of phosphor bronze sticks and
bushes as well as cast iron drain pipes, cylinder sleeves for motor car engines as well as sleeves and
a variety of parts for the jet turbine aircraft engine. In fact, the development of this method of
producing casting was given impetus when Sir Frank Whittle invented the jet engine and required
castings with specially high mechanical strength.
The essential feature of this casting process consists of subjecting molten metal to centrifugal
pressure created in the rapidly spinning mould, in such a manner that the metal is forced to take up
the shape of the mould into which it is being poured. Because of this centrifugal force, the castings
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produced are particularly strong and require very little by way of feeders. Figures 9 and 10 show
typical horizontal and vertical centrifugal casing machines as used for the normal industrial
application.
Figure 11 shows a small centrifugal casting machine of the type used by dentists and jewelers for
small castings produced by the “Lost Was” method.
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The two industrial machines are driven by electric motors which are normally of the variable speed
type, so that the speed can be adjusted according to the size and type of casting, but is normally
arranged to give a peripheral speed varying from 300 to 685 meters per minute. This peripheral
speed is one of the controlling factors of centrifugal castings, and if too high, may cause cracks due to
excessive circumferential tension. On the other hand, too low a speed tends to produce unsound
castings which are usually recognized by cold laps and entrapped oxides on the casting surface. The
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moulds used for industrial centrifugal castings are usually made of cast iron or steel. They are
usually pre-heated to a temperature of approximately 350°c before casting and the mould face is
treated with a suitable paint to prevent sticking. The advantages of centrifugal castings are:
1) Higher yield
2) Increased soundness and cleanliness
3) Machining allowances need not be as great as that allowed on normal gravity fed castings.
In a series of tests on steel castings it was found that the yield on centrifugal castings ranged from 65
– 85%, which is extremely good for castings in this metal.
The importance of the correct positioning and size of feeders for each type of casting cannot be too
highly stressed. A feeder which is too small or placed in the wrong position will act in reverse and
draw metal from the casting, and if it is always borne in mind that the feeder must be the last section
to solidify, this will help in determining the size and position.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 11
1. What is a feeder?
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2. What are some of the important precautions to take when rod-feeding castings?
3. If a casting has not been properly fed, where would you expect to find a shrink hole?
4. What is the advantage of centrifugal casting?
5. Which casting would give a higher yield:
a) A casting with an exothermic riser or

b) A casting with an open sand riser?
6. Describe what happens when the metal enters a riser which has been lined with exothermic
material.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 12
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Casting Defects
It has been truly said that the moulder who never made a bad casting has never made a mould.
There can be no doubt that defective castings have been made since the beginning of the art. The
earliest record of defective castings goes back to 3 000 B.C. when the early foundrymen discovered
that some of his castings had serious surface blisters which completely ruined the casting. According
to the records, the reason for this fault was not established until 4 500 years later when it was
discovered that the impurity of tin was present in these early copper castings.
Fortunately for the modern foundryman, it does not take so long now to discover the reason for a
defect, in fact, by using some of the modern non-destructive testing methods for castings, it is
possible to find a defect and it cause in less than 45 seconds – not 4 500 years.
How often there is an argument in the foundry when a defective casting comes to light: the moulder
blames the sand, the sand technician blames the metallurgist and the metallurgist says the fault has
been with the furnace operator. Modern foundry science and research has, however, established
fairly closely the types of defect which normally occur in castings, and in most cases they have
established the reason for the defect and recommended procedures to avoid same.
It is, however, a regrettable, but true fact that many defects are caused by the carelessness on the
foundry floor. If there is any lesson which a young foundryman should learn, it is to work cleanly and
carefully to make sure that the core or mould which he produces is clean and free from loose sand
before the mould is finally closed, for casting. Care should be taken that the mould is dry, properly
vented and securely clamped or weighted so that there is no danger of the metal bursting through the
joint.
The following is a list of the most common defects, together with comments on their causes and
where necessary, advice is given as to how they can be avoided.
Blowholes:
Blowholes in castings are very common and result from many different causes, as follows:
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1. Using a moulding sand that is too fine for the size of casting being made.
2. Having the sand too damp when making the mould.
3. Ramming the mould too hard
4. Not venting the mould in the proper place
5. Placing too hard dry-sand cores in the mould
6. Using dry-sand cores that are not thoroughly baked on the inside.
7. Too small or incorrectly placed vent channels in the cores, or in the mould, through which core
gases may escape freely when the mould is poured.
8. Too much clay wash on lifters and not enough sand between the pattern and lifters.
9. Using either damp or rusty chaplets. Photographs a and b of fig 1 show blowholes and
imperfect fusion of a chaplet in a grey-iron casting, whilst c illustrates good fusion of chaplet
with metal.
10. Pouring the metal against a chill that is either damp or rusty.
Cold shuts or Misruns
Misrun castings result from the following:

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1. Pouring too cold metal into the mould. Figure 2 shows the non-union of metal where two
streams meet leaving apparent cracks or surface wrinkles together with oxide films.
Sometimes these are called “cold-shut”. The example show in a cast grey iron railway chair.
2. Using either too few or too small gates
3. Pouring metal into the mould too slowly
Cracked Castings
Some castings are likely to crack while cooling in the mould, and others after they come from the
moulds, owing usually to the following causes:
1. Poorly designed castings, that is, those having too light and too heavy sections. The example
shown in Fig. 3 is a small gun-metal oil box having an 8 – 25mm wall thickness
2. Allowing the light section of a casting to cool before the heavy section.
3. Cracks in castings can be prevented by removing sand from the heavy section but allowing it
to remain on the light section until the casting is cold.
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Cross-Joint
Frequently castings have cross-joints that disqualify them for use. Most cross joints however can be
prevented easily if the moulder pays close attention to the following:
1. Pins on boxes should fit the guides when the mould is made.
2. The cope should be put back on the drag without turning the cope around, while closing the
mould. A pronounced mismatch of the top and bottom parts of the mould causing an
inaccurate casting is seen in Fig. 4. This is sometimes called a shift. The illustration is of a
grey iron valve body casting
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3. When a snap-flask mould, with the flask removed, is carried from the moulding bench to the
floor, the mould should be kept level, because the cope may slip on the drag, causing a shift in
the casting.
4. When split patterns are used, the dowel pins should fit in the dowel pin holes.
5. Slip jackets put over snap-flask moulds in a careless manner also cause cross-joints.
Crushed Castings
These are often caused by the following:
1. If the sand in the cope does not fit the sand in the drag, when the mould is closed it may cause
a crushed casting. The example shown in Fig. 5 illustrates a crush due to badly fitting core
print on a grey-iron valve body.
2. If a dry-sand core that is too large for the core prints is placed in a mould, it will cause a
crushed casting.
3. If a mould is clamped too hard, it can cause a crushed casting.
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Dirty Castings
Some foundries seem to have much trouble in keeping the castings free from dirt, whereas others
experience little trouble in this respect. Before a mould is made, the moulder should always study the
job and decide the form of gate necessary to use to make the castings clean. Dirty castings come
from different causes, and some of the common ones are as follows:
1. Not skimming back dirt that floats on top of metal before or while pouring.
2. Gates made so large that they cannot be kept full of metal while pouring, which allows the dirt
to flow into the mould.
3. Not pouring the metal into the mould fast enough to choke the gates up, thereby allowing the
dirt to run into the mould.
4. Leaving loose sand in the mould or too much loose facing on the mould. Figure 6 shows
irregular-shaped cavities containing sand. The example illustrated is a grey-iron cock body.
5. Having too much graphitic carbon in the casting
6. Sand washing when the mould is poured.
7. Metal boiling in the ladle when the mould is poured will also make dirty castings.
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Flash or Fin
Excessive fin or flash along the parting line is a defect. These projections are due to improper jointing
and closing of the moulding boxes. Figure 7 shows a small grey iron valve door on which there is
excessive flash or fin.
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Hard Castings
Some grey-iron castings are too hard to be machined, whereas others machine easily. Some causes
of hard castings are as follows:
1. Cooling small grey-iron castings too fast will make them hard.
2. Having moulding sand too wet may also make small grey-iron castings too hard.
3. Using iron too low in silicon. Localised white or mottled sections or areas in grey-iron castings
which adversely affect machinability. These hard areas usually occur on the thinnest section
of castings, as shown in figure 8, or at the junction of flash with casting
4. Using iron too high in sulphur or manganese.
5. Metal boiling in the ladle when the mould is poured is likely to make the casting hard.
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Porosity
Porosity in castings is usually found on the inside of the heavy sections and is caused by metal being
drawn from the heavy sections while the light sections are solidifying. In some cases feeders on
castings help to prevent porosity, but in other cases are not much help. Some causes of porosity are
as follows:
1. Poor design as to metal thickness in the castings.

2. Having metal too hot when pouring the mould. Porous areas due to liquid shrinkage, are
shown in the valve body in fig 9.
3. In grey-iron castings, using metal too high in silicon or phosphorous.
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Rough Castings
The surfaces of some castings can be rough without disqualifying them, whereas others should be
very smooth. Castings that are to be used as they come from the foundry, without any other kind of
finish, should have smooth surfaces; but as a rule castings need not be smooth if they are to be used
underground and covered or if they are to be machined. There are different causes for rough
castings, some of them as follows:
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1. Making a mould from a sand that is too coarse. Figure 10 shows the rough surface on a
phosphor bronze half bearing made in green sand.
2. Having the moulding sand too damp when making the mould
3. Pouring metal into moulds that are rammed too soft
Scab
A rough irregular projection on the surface of a casting sometimes containing embedded sand is
called a scab, caused as follows:
1. Insufficient bond strength in moulding or core sand or sand too fine and lacking in permeability
2. Excessive density of sand, due to too heavy ramming or local overheating arising from a badly
placed ingate.
3. Badly prepared sand
4. Excessive use of “swab” or water-brush.
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5. Imperfect drying of dry-sand, of loam moulds or cores. Figure 11 shows a rough irregular
projection on the surface of a grey-iron groove casting containing embedded sand.
Shrinkage Cavities
Small and thin castings are generally free from shrinkage cavities, but large castings are likely to
have them. Some shrinkage cavities are on the outside of the casting where they can easily be seen,
but others are on the inside and never detected until the casting is machined. Usually shrinkage
cavities are found in the heavy parts of a casting, so when the mould is made, provision should be
made to prevent them. The common causes for shrinkage cavities in castings is as follows:
1. Metal too hot when the mould is poured.

2. Using feeders that are too small, or placing them in wrong position on the casting.
3. Solidification occurring in the light section of a casting before it does in the heavy section. A
cavity due to liquid shrinkage is shown in Fig 12 which is an aluminium alloy casting
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Swollen Castings
Some castings, when they come from the moulds, are larger than they should be. Others have lumps
on them. Some reasons for swelled castings are as follows:
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1. A mould rammed too soft will not hold its shape when being poured, and the castings made
from these are apt to be larger than they should be. These castings are called swelled or
strained. The example shown in figure 13 is a machine moulded grey-iron sluice valve body.
2. Soft places in a mould will cause lumps on the casting.
3. Pouring a mould too fast often causes a strain on the mould, and this is also likely to cause
larger castings.
Casting Inspection
The old fashioned method of tapping a casting with a hammer to find out if it is sound hand having a
good look at it to check on its appearance is now no longer acceptable to the average customer.
They demand more rigid inspection methods and most well-organised foundries have their own
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inspection department with inspectors who are often qualified moulds, patternmakers o metallurgists
who have made a special study of casting defects.
It is important when a customer orders a casting, that the country should establish what inspection
standards are required and also that the inspection department should know the precise purpose for
which the casting will be used. This knowledge will often assist the inspector in determining whether
a defect on the casting will have any effect on its ultimate performance.
Modern inspection departments are equipped with X-ray machines to radiograph castings and a
variety of other equipment such as magnetic crack detection and pressure testing machines which
will enable them to locate cracks and porosity in castings.
The best form of inspection, however, is for the moulder and coremaker, as well as the patternmaker
and metallurgist, to take care with all aspects of their work so that they all contribute to produce
sound, clean castings.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 12
1. What methods are used to inspect castings for defects?
2. Give reasons why castings crack.
3. What causes rough surfaces on castings?
4. How can shrink holes in castings be prevented?
5. What is meant by a swelled casting and how can it be prevented?
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
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LECTURE 13
MOULDING
Moulding boxes. The importance of the part played by moulding boxes in producing a good casting
cannot be over-emphasized. Good quality, well fitting and strong moulding boxes enable the moulder
to produce a good mould which in turn should result in a good casting.
Moulding boxes of some kind are needed for making practically all types of moulds. They may be
made of wood, iron, or steel and in some cases aluminium is used. Wooden boxes are quickly made
and are the cheapest in first cost, and jobbing foundries quite often made use of them because they
are light in weight and can be easily and cheaply altered. The objections to them are that they soon
wear out and burn easily. Metal boxes are the best where they are to be used continuously for
producing similar castings or where altering will not be too expensive. With ordinary care, metal
boxes will last many years without any expense other than the original cost.
While it is customary to accumulate stocks of moulding boxes in the sizes and depths most frequently
used, it is foolish to extend the range of sizes to such a degree that some of them can be used only
rate intervals. The alternative name for a moulding box is a “Flask” and it is a better title for it reminds
the student that the moulding box is a container for holding a liquid, i.e. molten metal. In this paper
however, we will refer to them as boxes.
Snap Flasks. Small and shallow castings are moulded in snap flasks, which are tapered moulding
boxes, made in wood or light alloy metals, fitted with a hinge at one corner and a fastener at the
corner diagonally opposite. After the mould has been made on the bench or machine it is carried to
the position where it is to be cast; the snap flask is removed and used for the next mould. As only
one moulding box is employed, there is considerable economy, because the snap flask is not
damaged by the molten metal and the knocking –out operation. A common size for such moulds is
400mm x 300mm. In order to resist the sideways pressure of the fluid metal, a steel jacket is slipped
over the joint to guard against the accidental break-out of molten metal. The top part of the mould is
held down during casting by a metal weight, which almost covers the upper surface of the sand,
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leaving a small space for the pouring cup. A typical snap flask is illustrated in figure 1 and figure 2
shows the mould on the bottom board ready for pouring.
FIGURE 1
Metal Moulding Boxes. For the larger sizes of castings three types of moulding box are used,
namely: (a) cast-iron boxes, (b) cast-steel boxes, (c) boxes fabricated by welding rolled steel
sections. Cast-iron boxes are the cheapest, and although they may be broken by the continual rough
handling they receive in a foundry, the broken pieces are useful as scrap for the cupola charges. The
top boxes usually have cross bars cast in them, extending to within 25mm of the pattern. These save
the moulder from having to use large number of lifters, but they may have to be broken out to
accommodate another, larger pattern. At intervals along the sides and ends of the box, pins are used
to locate the parts and the pattern or pattern plates. Flanges are cast round the upper and lower
edges of the boxes. Forged-steel or wrought-iron trunnions (cylindrical projections) are “cast-in” to
facilitate turning over, stacking and slinging. Very large cast-iron boxes, which have to accommodate
a wide rant of patterns, have loose crossbars bolted in position, adjusted to suit each new pattern.
Cast-steel moulding boxes, and not cast-iron boxes, are made by steel foundries for their own use,
but the most popular type of steel moulding box, one that is used in all production foundries, is built
up by welding together rolled-steel sections. (see figure 3). These boxes have thinner walls than
cast-iron or cast-steel boxes, and are preferred because they are lighter in weight. They are liable to
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become distorted in use, and particularly in knocking out. This distortion puts the pin centres out of
alignment, but as the boxes are made of a ductile steel, they can often be hammered back to the
correct shape and tested on a frame.
Aluminium boxes are frequently used in non-ferrous foundries and have the advantage that they can
be easily cast and are light in weight. The lower temperatures of metal poured in non-ferrous
foundries reduces the risk of the aluminium being damaged by the molten metal as would happen in a
cast-iron or steel foundry.
Box Handles, Pins and Bushes. Depending on the size of the box and nature of the work, there is a
wide range of box handle styles available from manufacturers. The most commonly used types of
handle are shown in Figure 3 (loop handle), figure 4 (tubular handle) and figure 5 (trunnion handle)
for heavy crane work.
FIGURE 3, 4 AND 5
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Moulding boxes may be located on each other by means of fixed pins – where the pins are bolted to
the drag box – (as in figure 3) or loose pins may be used to guide them together during the making
and closing of the mould. The fixed pins, are usually 75mm long and 20mm diameter, although for a
deep lift – longer pins can be obtained – and pins of 25mm diameter are used for heavy boxes.
All the moulding boxes in Figures 3,4 and 5 show the lugs where the pins are fixed or which hold the
hardened steel bushes for the top box, or when loose pins are used as would be the case in figure 4.
Normally, a moulding box has a round bush in the lug at one end and an elongated bush at the other
end – as this allows a bit more tolerance to ensure the good fit – without any cross joint when the
boxes are closed. The usual dimensional tolerance allowed in moulding box pins and bushes is ±
0.05mm and it is important to maintain this accuracy – especially in machine moulding – to avoid
scrap castings because of cross joints. The box in figure 3 has single lugs – s that this can only be
used as a drag or cope. Double lugs are shown in Figure 4 and these enable the box to be used –
(with loose pins) for drag, cope or mid part.
The box bars for reinforcing – and to carry sand (and the hooks in the cope) are shown clearly in
figure 5.
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To hold the boxes together securely during casting, they may be clamped together as shown in figure
6 or they may be bolted together – or weights may be placed on top to resist the upward thrust of the
metal.
FIGURE 6
All the boxes illustrated in Figures 3 – 6 are widely used on machine moulding using the jolt / squeeze
/ strip of machine. The flanges on the boxes in figure 5 are machined so that they can be used with a
roller conveyor system to roll the completed mould off the moulding machine after the pattern has
been removed.
Moulding Tools. Many types of tool and appliances are used in making moulds. The selection of
tools depends upon the shape and size of the castings to be made.
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A group of tools commonly used by all moulders is shown in Figure 7. The shovel A is indispensable.
It should always be kept clean, not only to protect it from wear but because a rusty shovel or one
coated with sand, is a very clumsy tool.
There are two types of hand rammers. The one shown at B is used in making moulds on the floor
and is known as the floor rammer. It is usually about 1.2 meters long. The rammer shown at c is
used in making moulds on the bench and is known s the bench rammer. It is usually from 400mm to
500mm long. The wedge-shaped end of the rammer is called the peen, and the other end is called
the butt. The terms peen and butt are used for both floor and bench ramming.
The bellows d is of standard type, used in both bench and floor moulding for blowing loose sand from
the mould.
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The swab L is used to moisten the sand around the pattern before it is drawn from the mould. The
one shown is made of hemp. Sponges or waste also can be used for swabbing.
The straightedge F is used to cut the sand level with the box after the mould is rammed.
The wire I is called a vent wire. It is used to punch holes through the sand, after the mould is rammed
and before the patterns are drawn. These holes are passages for the escape of steam and gases
when the mould is poured.
The riddle E is used for sifting the sand that is put next to the pattern.
All patterns must be rapped before they are drawn from the sand. The draw spike g is driven into the
patter by means of the rapping bar H. The wood screw M is used also for drawing patterns. If the
pattern maker has put threaded drawholes into the pattern, which is often the case, the draw screw J
is used.
To speed up the work in floor moulding, pneumatic rammers are used and these are connected o the
air line in the foundry by means of rubber hoses.
Brushes and air operated spray guns are used to cover the surface of the mould with a coating of
facing materials for dry sand moulds to give a clean strip and good surface finish to the casting.
Hand Tools. As a young foundryman you will be familiar with the variety of small tools used by the
skilled moulder – and Figure 8 shows a selection of these tools.
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A number of trowels of different forms are used, No. 2 being known as a broad heart; No. 3 as an
English Square; No. 12 as a tapered trowel; No. 13, a scotch square, No. 14 as a long heart-trowel.
The combined heart and square trowel No. 11, is a useful tool. Various forms of cleaners are shown,
No. 5, being termed a scotch club cleaner; No. 6 a flange cleaner; No. 9 a scotch cleaner; and No.
10, an English cleaner. Amongst the tools are No. 4, a double ended boss tool: Nos. 16, 18 and 19,
fluted, straight and circular beads respectively; Nos. 1 and 15, gate knives, No. 17 spoon tool; No. 7 a
girder tool; No. 28, sleeker or dog tail, Nos. 20 and 27, inclusive, illustrate many of the different forms
of smoothers used for the varying curved shapes required. It is not necessary to attempt an
elaborate description of these tools. The apprentice will quickly appreciate their utility as he proceeds
with his practical work.
Chaplets. Chaplets are metal supports placed in moulds to hold cores in place when the cores are
set and also when the mould is poured.
The chaplets are made from iron, mild steel, thin sheet iron (sometimes called tin), brass, and iron to
50mm or more in diameter. The size of chaplet to use depends upon the size of the casting, the
thickness of the metal, and the amount of pressure to be exerted against or under the core. Chaplets
must remain rigid until the metal in the casting has solidified, or the core will float, causing the casting
to be unfit for use. If the chaplets are too large, the iron in the castings is apt to chill around them
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instead of fusing with them, which would cause leaks if the castings were put to a water, gas, or
steam-pressure test. Such castings may have to be scrapped. The importance of the selection of
chaplets is evident. It is advisable to leave this part of the work to an experienced man.
Foundries can make their own chaplets, but, as a rule, a much more satisfactory product can be
purchased from manufacturers who specialize in making them. Chaplets should be kept in a dry
place to prevent rusting. With the same object, the sheet-iron and mild-steel chaplets should be
coated with tin, oil, red lead, or chalk before they are set into the mould. Tin is probably the best
coating. When the chaplets are set they should be examined for rust or dampness. Hot metal will not
lie against rusty or wet chaplets, and blowholes are likely to result.
Figure 9 shows some of the many types of chaplets that are used to support cores. Those lettered A
and B are known as perforated chaplets and used extensively for light and thin castings. The cup
chaplet C is used a great deal in moulding small steam-engine pistons. The double flanged chaplet
D, the bridged chaplet e, and the right angle chaplet G are used in making a great variety of castings.
The straight stem chaplet F is used when the fluid pressure of the metal is so great that the other
types cannot be used.
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Setting Chaplets. One method of supporting a core in a mould is shown in figure 10. The core B is
held in place and located by two core prints CC. The chaplets AA are placed on top of the core.
These chaplets should be of the same thickness as the metal of the casting above the core. When
the mould is closed, the cope fits down on the chaplets and core is held in place during pouring,
assuming that the chaplets do not melt before the metal has solidified and that the pressure under the
core is not so great that it will press the chaplets into the sand of the cope.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 13
1. Give three types of materials used to make moulding boxes.
2. What type of moulding box is used in a production foundry?
3. What type of castings are made in snap flasks?
4. Make sketches of three tools used by the moulder
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5. Why should chaplets be kept in a dry place?
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 14
Mould Construction
In this lecture, some practical examples will be given of the making of moulds, in moulding boxes, in
the moulding floor and with a pattern plate.
Two part Mould. Figure 1 shows the pattern for a flat-backed casting of a face plate, and in the
following description, the making of a mould with two patterns in the box is illustrated in Figures 2 –
12
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Place the patterns and drag on the moulding board, with the pins on the drag down, as shown in
figure 2. Sieve facing sand over the patterns to a depth of about 25mm. Press the sand firmly
around the edges of the patterns against the moulding board with the fingers. Shovel the drag full of
backing sand, as shown in figure 3. Peen-ram around the sides of the box first and then in between
the patterns.
Again fill the drag and flat-ram it nearly even with the edge of the drag. With the straightedge, strike
off any sand that may be above the edges of the drag. Make vent holes, with a wire 1.5mm in
diameter, about 25mm apart and reaching from the bottom of the drag (now uppermost) to within
3.2mm of the patterns, as shown at A in figure 4. Throw sand, free from large lumps, over the drag to
a depth of about 6mm. Rub the bottom board on the sand until it lies on the drag without rocking.
Figure 5 shows the drag ready to be rolled over.
Grasp the moulding and bottom boards at the ends with both hands, holding the drag firmly between
the two boards, and roll the drag over on the moulding bench. Take off the moulding board. Sleek
down the sand with the trowel, to make a smooth parting. With the bellows, blow all loose sand from
the drag. Blow all parting powder from the patterns. Figure 5 shows the drag ready for the cope.
Place the cope on the drag and see that the pins fit into the sockets. Set the downgate pin halfway
between the patterns, as shown in Figure 6. Sift facing sand to a depth of 25mm over the patterns.
Fill the cope with backing sand. Ram the cope just as the drag was rammed. Strike off the sand
even with the top of the cope. Vent the cope, as was done with the drag. Remove the downgate pin
and cut the runner hole to a funnel shape at the top, as shown in A in figure 7. Pack all loose sand
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around the runner hole with the fingers before lifting the cope. Figure 7 shows the mould rammed,
ready for the cope to be lifted.
Lift the cope and place it on the moulding board, with the impression taken from the drag uppermost.
The drag, after the cope has been lifted is shown in figure 8. The cope, properly place, is shown in
figure 9. Blow off any loose sand that may be on the mould. Swab the sand next to the patterns with
water, being careful not to get it too wet (Blowholes in the castings may result from wet sand).
Drive the draw spike into each pattern in turn, rapping on all sides of the spike to loosen the patterns.
Draw the patterns from the sand carefully so as not to break the sand. If the sand does break, the
broken places must be repaired and all loose sand in the mould must be cleaned out, using a cleaner.
If the cleaner is dipped into water, the sand will stick to it better than if it is used dry. With the gate
cutter, cut the gates in the drag. Deepening slightly that part of the gate into which the metal will
enter from the downgate. The gates should be about 6.35mm deep and 12.7mm wide.
After the mould is patched and all loose sand has been cleaned out, close the mould by placing the
cope on the drag with the pins in the sockets, as shown in figure 10. If the mould is made in a box
that remains on mold while the mould is poured, then it must be clamped together as shown in Figure
11. But if the mould is made in a snap flask, the flask must be removed and a slip jacket put over it
and then a weight put on top before it is poured. The snap flask mould weighted down is shown in
Figure 12.
The casting as taken from the mould with the downgate and ingates attached, is shown in Figure 13.
Castings of the size usually made on a bench and in a snap flask should remain in the mould from 10
– 30 minutes before the mould is broken up.
Bedding a Pattern In
Where the foundry does not have a moulding box of the right size, or where a pattern is too large for
moulding in a box, the method used is to make the mould either in the foundry floor, or in a special
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moulding pit constructed for this purpose (usually with cement sides) in the foundry. The method
used is called “bedding-in”.
For small moulds, the pattern may be pressed or hammered down to bed them into the sand to form
the mould cavity. After the pattern is drawn, wires are thrust into the sand below the mould cavity,
and the vent holes connected to the atmosphere by another series of sloping vents which emerge in
the sand surface outside the top box.
For large castings it is necessary to use facing sand, and to provide an easy passage for the escape
of mould gases from below the casting by means of coke, ash, or clinker bed, or by vents connected
to vent pipes bedded into the foundry floor. In either instance these horizontal vents must be
connected to the atmosphere by a series of large, sloping vent pipes. To prepare a coke bed a hole
is dug in the foundry floor, 200mm to 250mm deeper than the pattern to allow for 150mm of cokes or
clinkers, and for 100mm – 120mm of sand between the cokes and the bottom face of the mould. The
bottom of the hole in the floor is rammed fairly level with a flat rammer, and larger pieces of clinker
put in to form a bed rather larger than the plan area of the pattern. A layer of hay is sometimes put
over the ashes, coke or clinker, to prevent sand falling to the interstices. A few score millimeters of
sand are then rammed on top of the coke. I order that the mould gases may escape easily, large
vent pipes are partly buries in the foundry floor with their lower ends in the coke bed, (see figure 14).
In floor moulding a large pulley from a solid pattern, the pattern is placed on the sand bed shown in
Figure 14, pressed or hammered into position, and sand filled in at the side up to the level of the
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mould joint. The pattern is then lifted away, facing sand sieved over the impression, the pattern
replaced and rammed up. It is sometimes necessary to remove and replace the pattern several times
to ensure that the face of the mould has been properly prepared. This “bedding-in” type of moulding
entails a high degree of moulding skill to produce an evenly rammed mould. After the joint has been
smoothed, and parting powder spread, a cope I placed over the patter; wooden stakes are driven into
the floor against the box to register its position. The top part is rammed up, runners and risers cut,
and the top part lifted, leaving the solid pattern in the floor. The pattern is drawn out, and the
surfaces of both parts of the mould finished, the core placed in position, and the top part replaced in
its correct position as indicated by the wooden stakes, or by other devices, locating it in relation to the
mould in the floor. The completed mould is shown in Figure 15.
This method of bedding-in is sometimes used for moulding large castings in which the bottom-part
moulding box, when rammed up with sand, is too heavy to be rolled over to withdraw the pattern.
Moulds made by the bedding-in method may use greensand, the CO2 (Sodium Silicate) or air-set
(sometimes called No-Bake) processes. With the last two processes, care must be taken to keep the
sand from drying out too much during the making of the mould.
Cement sand and dry sand methods are used for extremely large floor moulds for castings in iron,
steel and non-ferrous metals.
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Mould with Irregular Joint Line
When a mould has to be used a pattern which does not have a flat back, or is a one-piece pattern like
the bevel hear shown in figure 16, it is necessary to ram a false cope, then embed the pattern to the
parting line as shown in figure 17.
The following is the procedure to make such a mould:
Place the part of the box that is to be used for the cope on the bottom board with the pins up. Ram it
full of moulding sand. Dig out some of the sand where the pattern is to be placed, then embed the
pattern to the parting line, even with the joint of the cope, as shown in Figure 17. Place the drag full
of sand and ram it. Vent the drag, and place the bottom board on it. Roll the mould over, and lift the
cope from the drag. Shake the sand from the cope. Make the parting as shown in Figure 18.
Sprinkle parting powder over the drag. Place the cope and downgate pin. Ram and vent the cope.
Remove the downgate pin and lift the cope. Swab, rap, and draw the cope. Make the vent hole for
the escape of the core gas through the drag. Set the core and dust some graphite on the mould.
Figure 19 shows the mould finished and ready to close.
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When it is necessary to make several castings from this type of pattern it is advisable to make what is
known as an “oddside” (or a temporary cope). This may be a green sand, drysand, or plaster of paris
half mould which is made off the drag after the joint has been made, and is then placed aside to be
used each time a new mould is required. The CO2 process is widely used for the making of odd
sides, as no drying or baking is necessary and it provides a hard mould which is not easily damaged
with frequent usage.
Double Sided Match Plate
In lesson No. 4 a description was given of the making of a double sided pattern plate to be used
where large numbers of castings are required in which there is an irregular joint line.
This type of pattern can be used wither for floor, bench or snap flask machine moulding.
To make a mould from a double sided pattern plate the plate is placed on the top box, and the drag is
then placed, face down, with the pins through the place and top box bushes. The drag is then
rammed up in the usual way, vented, and a bottom board placed in position so that the whole (drag,
pattern plate and cope box) can be rolled over. The runner pin is then placed in position, through the
cope box, this is rammed up in the usual way and, after removal of the runner pin and widening of the
pouring cup, the cope is lifted off the plate. The pattern plate is rapped, then lifted off the drag,
ingates cut and the mould blown out, and the two halves are ready for coring and closing.
Open-sand Moulding
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This, the simplest form of hand moulding, is usually green-sand moulding. The entire mould is made
in the foundry floor or in a bed of sand leveled off in a wooden frame or moulding box (drag) raised
above floor level for convenience in working and pouring. This method is only used for simple
castings, floor plates, core grids, moulding boxes, weights, i.e. castings with flat tops in which it does
not matter if the upper surface is decidedly rough. No moulding boxes are necessary as the molten
metal finds its own level, it is therefore essential that the bed of sand be horizontal so as to obtain a
plate of uniform thickness. The mould cavities are made deeper than the intended thickness of the
casting; overflow channels at the sides of the cavity are cut at the exact height from the bottom face
of the mould to give the desired thickness. The sand must be rammed lightly, just hard enough to
support the weight of metal, or there is danger that boiling will cause blowholes in the casting.
After the well-sieved and moist sand has be roughly leveled, four wooden pegs are driven into it, as
shown in Figure 20, two straight pieces of timber placed on the pegs, and another piece on top at
right angles. The pegs are knocked down in turn, until a spirit level, placed on each of the three
pieces of timber, indicates that they are level. The leveling is finally checked across the diagonals.
The space between the pieces of timber is filled in with more sand, and strickled off level with a
straight edge.
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From this stage there are two alternative methods of procedure. In the first method this horizontal
bed of sand forms the bottom face of the mould, sand being built up around it to the shape of the
proposed casting by using segmental pieces of wood (or flat pieces of wood, full size) which must be
thicker than the casting to be produced in order to allow extra depth for the overflow channel to be
cut. If the plate or shape to be cast is circular, a block of wood may be driv3en into the centre of the
open-sand bed, to form a solid centre to support trammels, dividers, or large compasses to draw a
circle of the desired size in the sand.
An example of a mould for a circular plate is shown in figure 21; the pouring dish has been built up in
sand, and the overflow channel cut to regulate the plate thickness.
In the alternative method, the face that has been leveled is used as the upper level of the open-sand
bed; patterns such as core grids attached to a flat board, are knocked down into the sand with a
sledge hammer until the board is level with the upper face of the bed. When the pattern is taken off,
the imprint of the core grid is left in the sand. Rectangular plates may be made in this fashion with a
full pattern, or by strickling or sweeping out a cavity of the required shape, as shown in figure 22.
Strips of wood may be used to scrape out the impression in the sand.
Page 65 of 168
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 14
1. Give a brief description of the making of a simple two part mould.
2. When is the “bedding-in” process used to make a mould?
3. How much sand should there be between the coke bed and bottom of a mould made in a pit?
4. What is an “oddside”?
5. a) What name is given to a pattern plate for a pattern with an irregular joint line?
b) What type of machine moulding is used with a pattern plate having an irregular joint?
Page 66 of 168
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 15
Calculation of Masses and Pressures
Everyone who works in a foundry watches the metal being poured into the mould at some time or
another, and has, on occasion seen the metal bursting out between the cope and drag parts of the
mould. Sometimes this breakout is caused by a bad joint, but more often than not, the reason is
because the cope has not been properly bolted, clamped or weighted to resist the upward pressure of
the molten metal while it is filling the mould.
When this fault happens, the obvious remedy is to check that all bolts and clamps are secure and that
there is sufficient weight on top of the mould to ensure that it will not lift. In many jobbing foundries,
the placing of weights on a mould is very often guesswork, but it is an expensive guess if the result is
a scrap casting.
This section of the course will now be devoted to teaching the method of calculation to determine the
pressures exerted by the metal and, by doing this, you will have the satisfaction of knowing that you
are assisting in the production of sound castings and avoiding making scrap.
Page 67 of 168
To start off with, here is a table giving the densities of various metals:
DENSITY OF VARIOUS METALS PER CUBIT METRE (t/m3)

Cast Iron 7.20 t/m3
Steel 7.80 t/m3
Brass 8.70 t/m3
Copper 8.89 t/m3
aluminium 2.70 t/m3
Estimating Casting Pressure. Buoyancy of Cores
Two of the laws of physics that find application in foundry practice are, that liquids always seek their
own level, and that pressure in a liquid is exerted equally in every direction. A cope on a mould will
lift if the lifting force of the metal is greater than the mass of the cope.
When any solid substance is immersed in a liquid, it will tend to rise to the surface if the volume or
mass of the liquid is displaces is of greater mass than itself. The only way to prevent it floating is to
put a sufficient weight or pressure upon it to overcome the lifting force.
Take the case of a piece of soft wood thrown into water; it shows no tendency to sink, but floats about
on the surface, and should it be necessary to compel it to go underneath, pressure must be exerted
to make it do so, and then as soon as the pressure is removed, the wood rises to the surface again.
If the wood be floating in some containing vessel, and the level of the water be raised, the wood
retains its position on the surface, rising as the water rises.
If now a lump of metal massive enough for the purpose be fastened to the wood and it is again
dropped into the water, it will sink at once, and remain immersed as long a the metal is attached to it.
The effect of a similar lifting force is observed when it is attempted to fill a mould with molten metal
and maintain a head above the covering box. Everything depends upon the density of the metal or
alloy being used, and the mass of the cover of the mould, whether the lifting power will be sufficient to
move it or not. If it is necessary to estimate the amount of resistance that must be exerted to prevent
the upward movement, the area of the surface exposed to the pressure, the height of the pouring
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head above it, and the density of the liquid or its pressure per square meter of surface require to be
known.
In making the calculation, even though it may not be intended to fill the runner head to the top, it
should always be measure in case of emergency. An average mass to allow for cast-iron is 0.72kg
which is the mass of a column of cast iron 1 meter high on a base of 10mm square i.e. 10mm x
10mm. Having this data the calculation is made by multiplying together the area, height of head and
mass per 10mm square and the product will represent the minimum mass required to counteract the
upward pressure.
Let us employ the formula to determine the mass required on a box covering a mould in which a plate
1m x 0.5m is to be poured, the cope being 150mm deep and runner bush 100mm above it (this gives
a head of 250mm)
The total surface is 1m x 0.5m = 500 00mm2. The mass required to counteract the lifting force.
500 000𝑚𝑚2 × 252mm ×0.72kg

= 900 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
100𝑚𝑚2 𝑥 1 000𝑚𝑚
0.72𝑘𝑔
The fraction represents mass of a cast iron column 1m (1000mm) high on a base
100 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥 100𝑚𝑚
10mm x 10mm (100mm2).
The mass of the box itself should generally be ignored in weighing down as rendering additional
security unless it forms a big factor. Consider the problem of casting a plate 300mm square and
25mm thick. If the cope were left off and the impression of the pattern in the drag were filled with
metal, the molten metal would seek its own level. The mould underneath the casting would have to
support the mass of the metal 25mm in thickness. Cast-iron has a density of 7.20 t/m3. The mass of
the plate
300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 25𝑚𝑚

= 𝑥 7 200 𝑘𝑔
1000𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1000𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1000𝑚𝑚
= 16.2kg which presses on the mould underneath the casting.
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If a cope of 100mm deep is used and the gate filled to the top of the cope, the plate would under a
pressure due to the mass of a 100mm head of metal when poured. If this mass is applied to the
300mm square plate, it would be found that the pressure upward on the cope is being exerted by a
mass of
300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 100𝑚𝑚

x 7 200kg
109 𝑚𝑚 3
= 64.8kg
The mass pressing downward on the drag is
300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 125𝑚𝑚

𝑥 7 200𝑘𝑔
109 𝑚𝑚 3
= 80.0kg
The pressure of the mass downward will have no ill effect but the upward pressure may lift the cope
A 300mm square plate could be made in a 400mm square box. Sand has a density of 1.66 t/m 3 so
the sand in the cope has a mass of
400𝑚𝑚 𝑥 400𝑚𝑚 𝑥 100𝑚𝑚

𝑥 1 660𝑘𝑔
109 𝑚𝑚 3
= 26.56kg
If the mould were made in a snap flask, the weight of the flask need not be considered. Therefore
(64.8 – 26.5)kg = 38.3kg which is the mass exerting a lifting force on the cope that must be overcome
by using a weight or by clamping the mould.
The side pressure on the mould would be relatively small. The plate is 25mm thick and the cope
100mm deep, so the average head is 112.5mm. The plate is 300mm thick so there is a side pressure
exerted by a mass of
Page 70 of 168
300𝑚𝑚 𝑥 25𝑚𝑚 𝑥 112.5𝑚𝑚
= 7 200𝑘𝑔
109 𝑚𝑚 3
= 6.07kg on each side of the mould.
While it is true that the foregoing examples will give just the masses required under the simplest
conditions, there are other conditions affecting the results which must be considered and which will
often demand a greater mass than that given by the rules. This is due to the fact that there is an
instant when the metal comes up suddenly against the lifting surface, during which a sudden pressure
is exerted which is greater than that due to the height of the head, the latter being merely the steady
pressure which will be exerted by the liquid when at rest.
When pouring a mould, it generally takes from 10 to 50 seconds (sometimes more) to fill it with metal,
whereas, when the mould itself is filled, the pouring gate may fill in less than a second, thereby
obtaining a head pressure in a moments time that, owing to its suddenness, may in some cases be
so great as to call for one-fourth to one-third more weight than the static head pressure obtained by
the rules just given. The higher the top of the pouring gate is above the cope’s lifting surface, the
greater will be the extra pressure.
Therefore, in addition to the pressure rendered necessary by the head pressure, extra pressure is
required to allow for the momentum left caused by the sudden stopping of the inflowing iron at the
moment the mould is filled. The amount of this depends, briefly, on the character of the pouring
system, the speed of pouring, the number of ladles, and the area of lifting surface which the metal will
suddenly rise up against, as well as the height of the pouring gate or flow-off rises above the face of
the cope’s lifting surface. Enough has been said to show the wisdom, and often the necessity, of
placing more weights on a cope than is called for by the head pressure; the moulder must exercise
good judgment in this matter, remembering always that it is better to overweight than underweight a
job.
The lifting force of the molten metal depends in a measure on whether it is hot or dull. If the metal is
dull, in most cases it will exert less pressure than if it were hotter and therefore more fluid.
Page 71 of 168
On the other hand, the duller the iron is, the more apt it is, in moulds having risers or flow-off gates, to
have its pressure approach that due to the height of the pouring basin; this height is generally greater
than that of the top of the risers or of the flow-off gates.
Often the metal will set at the entrance to the risers, or it may come up the risers so sluggishly as to
stop the flow of metal out of them, and so cause the head-pressure to approach that due to the height
of the pouring basin. In the case of thin castings, if the metal is dull enough to freeze or set in the
risers, it is not very apt to exert a great lifting pressure on the mould. If with thick castings the risers
or flow-off gates should freeze up or flow sluggishly, there will be exerted a lifting pressure due to the
full height of the top of the pouring basin or gate box.
Buoyancy of Cores
When discussing cores mention is made of the necessity of fastening them so they shall not move
when the metal is poured round them, and of weighting or wedging down the chaplets employed to
hold them.
Cores stand in somewhat the same relationship to molten iron that wood does to water. Taking the
relative density water as 1, the majority of timbers exceed 0.5, whereas while iron is a little over 7,
sand is only about 2. Many cores are, of course, strengthened with irons that increase their weight,
but rarely bring it up to more than 3.5, if so high, so the make up of the core must be considered, if
allowances is made for the opposition the core is likely to make to the lifting force.
Cores Partially submerged and fully submerged
There are cases where the cores are only partially submerged, their upper surfaces being in contact
with the cope as in Figure 1.
To assess the lifting force being exerted under a core, it is necessary to know whether the metal is
acting with a gradually increasing force on the bottom or goes over the top as well. If a square core
by lying horizontally in a mould, then the metal reaches the bottom of the core, it begins to exert its
lifting power, and this continues to increase until the flowing iron arrives at the top of the core, when it
Page 72 of 168
is at its maximum, because as soon as the metal completely envelops the core, the downward
pressure 3will be equivalent to any further lifting force due to head of metal.
Consider the case of a box shaped casting having a core. Let the walls of the casting be 10mm thick,
the core being 200mm square and 90mm deep. What is the lifting pressure for cast iron if the top box
is 50mm deep and the pouring basin 40mm deep? (Figure 1)
The density of cast iron is 7.2 metric tons/metre3 – 7.2 x 10-6kg/mm3 mass required to overcome
lifting force = density x area x head height of metal.
(i) Area beneath core = 200 x 200 = 40 000mm2

Head height = 90 + 50 + 40 = 180mm
7.2 𝑥 10−6
 Lifting force = 40 000mm2 x 180mm x 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑚3
= 50.8kg
However lifting force is a pressure not a mass and pressure is measured in NEWTONS.
For engineering use, 1kg = 10N
 the final answer is 50.8 x 10 = 508N
(ii) There is also a lifting force on the face of the top box. This is calculated in a similar way.
Page 73 of 168
Area = (220 x 220) – (200 x 200) = 8 400mm2
Head height = 50 + 40 = 90mm
7.2 𝑥 10−6
Mass to overcome lifting force = 8 400mm2 x 900mm x 𝑘𝑔 = 5.39𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑚3
 lifting force = 53.9 N
Total lifting force = 508 + 53.9 = 561.9 N
When the core is covered by metal three forces are present
(i) The lift under the core

(ii) The lift over the core
(iii) The lift on the mould face of the top box around the core (see figure 2)
The sum total in each instance does not differ much, but the difference in the pressure upon the core
under the two conditions is very considerable. They tend to show that making the core and the iron in
the one case may present quite a different problem from what it will in the other, one iron being only a
simple contrivance, while the other may at times require considerable judgment to be exercised in its
formation. In the first instance the whole top surface of the core is against the covering box, so that
each part bears its share of the pressure, and the metal filling the mould round it prevents it breaking.
Where, however, the metal is over the core, though the pressure may be much less, it has to depend
entirely upon whatever means have been adopted to hold it in position to enable it to resist the force
tending to lift it. Should the agents employed to hold it down be chaplets or studs, they will cover only
a small surface and the core must then be strong enough to hold together against the force with
which the metal is pressing it against the faces of the few chaplets used.
Taking these figures as they apply to the box, they mean that pressure equal to the amount stated will
be exerted to lift it when molten cast-iron fills the moulds under ordinary conditions, but which will be
altogether altered if the rapidity with which the mould is poured be accelerated.
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It will often have4 been noticed how a box is lifted when the metal fills it very quickly, even though
there is a reasonable amount of weight on it. If metal is rushed in, which is necessary with some
sections, there is an immediate stoppage when the mould becomes filled, and the top has to resist
the shock of the suddenly applied pressure which almost amounts to a blow.
While the pressure any head of metal will exert, and therefore the amount of weight necessary to
counterbalance it, can be estimated by general rules if the mould is filled slowly enough, the different
rates at which it is required to fill moulds under certain circumstances, render their weight quite
inadequate to resist the increased pressure produced by rapid pouring.
General rules
To find the mass necessary to hold down submerged or covered cores, first work out the cubic
contents of the space occupied by the core and multiply it by the density of the metal; then deduct
from this the mass of the core. In other words, the lifting or static pressure on a submerged core is
the mass of iron it displaces minus the mass of the core.
To find the mass in kg required to hold down a core, multiply the lifting surface of the cope by the
height in mm above this surface and the product by 7.2 t/m 3.
To find the total pressure on the sides of a mould multiply the vertical height of a side in mm,
measured from the top of the pouring gate to the centre of gravity of the side, by the density of metal
x 10 and the result will be the pressure in newtons on that side.
To find the total pressure on the bottom of a mould, multiply the bottom area, in mm covered with
metal, by the vertical height to the top of the pouring gate in mm and by the density of the metal x 10
which gives the pressure in newtons.
Page 75 of 168
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 15
1. What are the two laws of Physics that always find application in foundry practice?
2. Why is it necessary to weight a cope by more than the calculation shows would be required to
hold it down?
3. How is the buoyant or lifting effect exerted by iron influenced by its temperature, that is, by
having the iron hot or dull?
4. What is meant by the momentum lift?
5. Estimate the total upward pressure on a cope covering a plate mould 1 meter square, the cope
being 150mm deep, and runner bush 100mm above it.
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6. Give reasons why it is necessary to fasten cores with studs and chaplets.
7. What would be the total upward pressure on the cope of a 300mm square plate 25mm thick,
cast on edge.?
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
LECTURE 16
Masses of Castings
In the previous paper, we calculated the weight necessary to keep the mould properly closed during
casting. The next step is to calculate the mass of metal required to fill the mould and make a
complete casting. Unless this is done correctly, short run castings may result, and this is not good for
business.
To calculate the mass of castings, the following rules should be observed.
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The volume in cubic millimeters must be multiplied by the mass of one cubic millimeter of metal i.e.
7.2 x 10-6kg for cast iron and 8.7 x 10-6 for brass and 3 x 10-6kg for aluminium and so on depending
on the metal employed.
The following tables and formulae must be observed when calculating the masses of various
castings.
1) The rectangular Plate
Length multiplied by breadth multiplied by depth multiplied by mass of one cubic millimeter of
metal used i.e. L x B x D x 8.7t/m3 for brass.
The cylinder or solid stick as made in the foundry
π R2 x Length of solid x mass of 1 cubic millimeter of metal
EXAMPLE: Calculate the mass of a Brass cylinder 175mm dia. X 500mm long.
Volume = πR2 x 500
= π x (175 )2 x 500
2
= 1 175 x 104mm3
Brass Density = 8.7 x 10-6kg/mm3

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 = 101.23kg
Hollow Cylinder or Bush
π (R2 – r2) h x mass of 1cm3 of metal or an easier method may be employed i.e.
MD being called the mean diameter
M D x π = mean circumference
𝐷−𝑑
Thickness of bush i.e. R = 2
𝐷−𝑑
MDxπx x length of bush x mass of 1 cm3 of metal i.e. bush has been opened to form
2
rectangular plate.
EXAMPLE: Find the mass of a Hollow cylinder of brass
Page 79 of 168
Outside dia 350mm
Inside dia 175mm
Length 500mm
Volume = (350
2
)2 - (175
2
)2 x π x 500
= 3 608 x 104mm3
Density of Brass = 8.7 x 10-6kg
 Mass = 3 608 x 104 x 8.7 x 106kg
= 313.9kg
To find the mass of solid castings where solid patterns are employed, the mass of the pattern (pine
wood) may be multiplied by 16 to give the mass in cast iron.
Page 80 of 168
Page 81 of 168
DENSITIES OF VARIOUS METAL PER CUBIC MILLIMETRE
CAST IRON 7.2 X 103KG/m3
STEEL 7.6 X 103KG/m3
BRASS 8.7 X 103KG/m3
Page 82 of 168
COPPER 9.0 X 103KG/m3
ALUMINIUM 3.0 X 103KG/m3
Metal in the Ladle
The final calculation necessary to produce a complete casting is to estimate the mass of metal in the
ladle so that there will be sufficient to fill the mould, runners and risers, or feeders.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 16
1. Calculate the mass of an Aluminium sphere 350mm diameter
2. Find the mass of an octagonal casting in Brass if
3. Calculate the mass of a circular copper plate 1m diameter and 10mm thick
Page 83 of 168
4. What will the mass of a cast iron bush or Hollow cylinder be, if the core is 200mm diameter
and the bush is 300mm diameter, and the length is 400mm?
FOUNDRY THEORY N1 – CORE MAKING
LECTURE 17
INTRODUCTION
Coremakers produce separate sand shapes which are to be assembled in moulds to form holes,
internal shapes and undercut portions of castings. The core box is usually made in two parts,
dowelled and clamped together while the core sand is rammed. Cores must be made from refractory,
open-grained sands, bonded with ingredients giving strength to prevent damage by the rough
handling cores endure compared with mould faces protected by the cast-iron or steel moulding box.
At the same time, cores must be capable of collapsing shortly after the molten metal has solidified
around them, and have passages through them, known as “vents”, to allow the hot gases evolved
during casting to pass freely to the core prints and through the mould to the atmosphere. Small,
straight cores have a vent wire pushed through them, entering at one core print and coming out at the
other, or vent wires may be rammed up in the sand and pulled out to leave passages.
Wax vents, a wick soaked in wax, are placed in the centre of cores shaped like the letter S, V, U, etc.,
in which one could not be certain that passages made by pushing in straight wires would be
connected. The wax soaks into the sand during baking and leaves a hole, vent, or chimney, through
the centre of the core. Nylon venting material is now more widely used than wax vents as it leaves no
residue. Medium and large cores have their centres filled with ashes or clinker which permit the core
Page 84 of 168
gases to escape; assist the core to contract when the casting is cooling; and allow the core sand to
be more easily cleaned out after casting. Cores made in halves have a V groove cut along the centre
of their inner faces to provide vents when they are dried and pasted together.
CARRIER PLATES
The rapid production of oil and greensand cores is facilitated if the core boxes are designed so that
every core can be turned out to dry on a flat plate. For cores that have not flat surface on which to
place them, core driers are made to support the core so that it retains its shape during baking. A core
drier or carrier is a half-core box, usually made in metal, to support the core while in the green state.
For mass production a large number of core driers would be necessary but expensive item, and every
effort should be made to design the core boxes so that the driers are not required. Small quantities of
cores of irregular shape are turned out on a bed of moist silica sand to support them until they harden
in the baking oven.
Where cores are made by the CO2; hot-box; cold box and shell processes necessary to use core
carrier plates as the cores are hard when removed from the core box.
REINFORCING
Except for small cores – and those made by the above modern processes, most cores are internally
reinforced with core wires or core rods for medium cores, and with cast-iron or fabricated steel
devices known as core grids or core irons for large cores. There are three reasons why such
reinforcement is required:
1.) To help the core retain its shape while it is damp

Page 85 of 168
2.) To provide internal hooks or staples by which the core can be lifted safely to a drying plate,
and after drying lowered accurately into the mould; and
3.) To strengthen the core so that it withstands the tendency of the fluid metal to break and lift it
during casting.
Core grids or irons are made on open sand beds, a pattern making the imprint; or white sand is
sprinkled over the surface, the outline indicated by template or scribed lines, and channels produced
in the sand by pressing in pieces of wood shaped to the grid section. A large number of soft-steel
rods cut to lengths to suit the shape of the core, and steel hooks or staples are pushed vertically into
the bottom of the sand channels so that they are “cast-in” when the molten iron is poured round them
to make the grid. Where a number of core grids are used inside large cores, they must be securely
bolted together, as the slightest movement of one of them would crack or distort the core. After the
mould has been poured, the core grids are released by unscrewing nuts from the long bolts which
extend through the core prints to the outside of the moulding box; core grids are usually made in cast-
iron in order that the fettler may break up those grids too large to remove through the openings in the
casting being cleaned. A typical cast iron core grid is shown in Fig 1.
Page 86 of 168
LOAM CORE
If a number of large cores are required for castings such as T-pipes, for which an ordinary cast-iron
grid would have to b3e broken to remove it from the casting, the core grids are fabricated in sections,
bolted together; the bolts are withdrawn after casting and the separate pieces of grid used again.
Such collapsible or segmental core grids may be made in cast-iron or steel. Another type of
collapsible core barrel is used in making long cylindrical castings. The usual method of making a
core for such a casting is to wind straw rope on a perforated core barrel, cover it with sludge, followed
by a finishing layer of finely-ground loam strickled to shape by rotating it while it is supported on two
trestles and in contact with a core board or strickle giving the outline of the finished core. (see figure
2) Loam mixtures consist of a mixture of moulding sand and clay with about 15% moisture. In order
to save time and the cost of the straw rope in making quantities of such cores, a collapsible core
barrel is made from a perforated tube consisting of three sections divided longitudinally. Two of the
joints are hinged and the other cut so that one section will fall inwards when two end plates are
removed. These collapsible core barrels are made in different sizes so that a facing of about 20mm
of loam is needed.
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The surfaces of cores are coated with a heat-resisting paint of blacking, plumbago silica flour, or
similar refractory material mixed to a paste with a clay slurry and dextrin or cure gum and diluted with
water to the required consistency. If the paint rubs off in handling the dried cores, insufficient clay or
dextrin has been employed in the mixture; if the paint cracks, too much clay, and if it peels, too much
dextrin has been used. If a core is surrounded by a considerable thickness of metal, two or three
coats of paint are applied. Flash dressings are now widely used in the foundry for cores and moulds.
After they are applied, they are set alight and burn off leaving a hard, smooth skin of dressing on the
mould or core.
Where cores are integral with the remainder of the mould, the mould is self-coring – see figure 3. The
inner shaded part A is the core. The mould is self-coring if, when the self-coring pattern is taken out
of the sand, it leaves the mould and core behind it.
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A core proper is separated from, but fits into the mould, and it functions as part of the mould – see fig.
4. This figure illustrates a complication of the last example, which renders the use of a separate core
advisable.
The core, it should be remembered, is part of the mould. It is added t the mould after the pattern has
been withdrawn. Thus, the pattern and the core have no direct connection to the one with the other.
There is, however, a highly important indirect connection between the two, and the pattern must
frequently be provided with core prints, in consequence of this relationship.
It is most essential that a core should maintain its correct location, if it were moved bodily or tilted, the
thickness of the casting would be seriously affected.
Page 89 of 168
LOCATION OF CORE IN MOULD
Figure 5(a) makes this clear, thus the left hard wall is much too thick, while the right is dangerously
thin. To prevent any such movement of the core, it is customary to fix it definitely in the mould.
In many cases the lower end of the core is plug shapes and it fits tightly into a corresponding socket
in the bottom of the mould, this socket is called the core print.
Figures 5(b) and 5(c) illustrate this arrangement.
When the core is put into a mould, it is expected to be more or less completely surrounded with
metal, and its use there, is to act in conjunction with the mould, to confine the metal to certain specific
bounds, so that when the iron or other metal has become solid, it will have assumed the shape
desired.
Page 90 of 168
Having such a duty imposed upon it, a core must not only be properly made and constructed of the
right materials, but be placed in the correct position, and so secured that it shall not move.
There are two main varieties of cores. The one is placed vertically in the mould, the other is held
horizontally, often completely bridging the mould space. While many cores need no support
additional to that provided by the prints, others have of necessity to be supported by means of some
form of chaplets.
The number of variety of core box cores are legion; a core box is one whose external shape is
determined by the internal shape of the corebox. The core box is a special form into which the sand
is rammed.
MOULD AND COREBOX
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It is, therefore, easy to see the essential difference between a pattern proper and a corebox. Thus, in
Figure 6(a) the main body of the mould A is built up round an ordinary pattern; the core B is made by
ramming sand into the core box one half of which is illustrated in Figure 6(b).
When a large number of the same type of simple core have to be made either by hand or by machine,
multiple coreboxes are used where there is more than one cavity in the corebox – and four, five, six
can be made almost at the same time. The screen cores made in steel foundries and cores used in
small malleable pipe castings are types usually made in multiple core boxes.
CORES WITHOUT BOXES
Many cores are made without employing boxes, being struck up with a strickle and template.
The bend pipe core, for instance, is easily made in this way, by using loam supported by a core iron,
and employing either a plate, whose side is to act as a template, or having a flat plate on which a
template can be laid, the side of which will guide the strickle as the two halves of the care are built up.
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In beginning to form a core, such as shown in figure 7, the template is placed in position, then a little
parting powder may be sprinkled on the plate and loam placed where the core is to be, the core iron
wetted with clay and bedded into it, and the shape made by putting more stiff loam over it.
If the core is large enough, pieces of brick can be built in until the core has become the approximate
size. Loam is spread over the face, and the strickle worked along the template to roughly bring the
half core to its true from, and then the whole is fired.
When using strickle it must be kept square with the template, or the core will not be the correct size.
The second half is now made in a similar manner to the first one, before beginning it, the template
should be turned over, or the two pieces being alike may not fit together to make a whole core of the
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shape required. The plate and core having been dried, a rap on the plate loosens the pieces of core,
one half of which is then turned over, the parting brushed off, and a vent cut along the centre. The
second half is lifted and a vent cut in it also, then it is placed on top of the reversed half, and the
calipers applied to them to see if they make a core of the desired dimensions, if correct, the joint
faces are damped and a little thin loam laid along the bottom half, then the top half is put on and
given a rub to get it into its place, the joint is thus made up; as additional security, the core irons can
be bolted or wired together, the core being then finished and dried ready for use.
LARGE CORES
Large cores are made on the coreshop floor in boxes which may be rolled over by hand to remove
the core. Alternately, the boxes may be made by the patternshop in such way that they can be taken
apart by the removal of screws and the core lifted by crane for transport to the drying oven, or direct
to the foundry floor if made by the CO2 or air-set processes.
In the illustration showing the core grid (fig 1) the lifting hooks for carrying the core were also shown.
After the core has been rammed up, the sand surrounding the top of the lifting hook is dug out to
expose part and these are then attached to a chain or sling for the lifting of the core. It is customary
to use lifting straps for the movement of large round cores. These straps are usually a form of web
belting approximately 50mm wide so that they have a good bearing surface on the core and do not
cut into the sand.
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FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 17
1. Describe three methods of venting cores.
2. Why are carrier plates used for some cores?
3. Give three reasons for using core irons
4. How is a core located in a mould to ensure the casting has the correct wall thickness?
5. Why are cores used in castings
LECTURE 18
COREMAKING (continued)
CO2 Cores
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The development of the CO2 (sodium silicate process) in the foundry industry has simplified the
process of coremaking in many ways. Due to the fact that the cores can be hardened in the box and
the mixture is very strong it is often possible to produce cores without the use of core irons and grids.
The other advantage is of course that the cores retain the shape given to them by the corebox and
there is no subsequent distortion or change of shape due to handling and drying.
Fundamentally, the process consists of the addition of a sodium silicate based binder to a dry silica
sand. The proportion of binder may vary from three to seven percent depending on the fineness
number of the sand. A quantity of carbon dioxide gas is passed through the cores and the size of
complexity of the core being made will determine the gassing time which may range from a few
seconds to several minutes. The gas pressure is usually between 1.4 and 1.75 bar. Passing through
the sand, the gas reacts with the binder to produce a hard core. Figure 1 shows a typical core bench
CO2 installation with the corebox on the bench. The flexible pipe to take the gas from the pressure
gauge is at (A), and (B) is the gassing nozzle which has a hand operated lever to switch on and off
the gas while hardening the core. The chutes for delivering sand from an overhead hopper to the
core bench are shown at (C) and above this is the pressure gauge enclosed in a locked box so that
the pressure can be set and maintained without interference.
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It is generally accepted that a core 125mm diameter by 125mm high can be gassed at the pressure of
1.75 bar in a time of 20 seconds. The core is rammed p n the normal way and after scraping off and
venting, the corebox is lightly rapped before gassing of the core and this will then enable the core to
be removed easily after gassing has taken place. At this point it should be mentioned that for ease of
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stripping, coreboxes for the CO2 process should be coated with a good quality of duco or enamel type
paint. It has been found that shellac tends to cause sticking. Paraffin or a proprietary type of liquid
separating medium are satisfactory to give a good strip.
Air setting process
Large numbers of cores, some weighting as much as ten tons are being produced by the air setting
(sometimes called No-bake) process. This is a process in which furane resins and an accelerator (or
catalyst) are mixed with dry silica sand to produce a core that does not require any baking. The
amount of binder (furane resin) is normally between 1.5 and 2%. The amount of catalyst which is
added is decided by the size of the core and setting time required. In other words, a large core which
will take a long time to make will require less catalyst than a small core which can be rammed up
removed from the corebox in a short space of time. The amount of catalyst can vary between 40%
and 70% of binder. As with the CO2 process, the amount of reinforcing rods or grids can be
substantially reduced when using airset-mixtures due to the fact that he core is only removed from the
corebox after it has hardened and the material has a high strength. Cores for pipe castings can be
made with the air-set process using a core barrel as shown in the previous section for loam core
making. Indeed, the use of the loam process for core and mould making is gradually disappearing
due to the long drying period required before the cores or moulds can be closed.
Core Making Machines
Core making machines are usually used when large quantities of certain cores are required,
especially if special equipment is necessary to make each individual type of core. Some mechanical
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aids to core making can be used on a number of different cores without having any very special
equipment. The various machines used with some of their advantages and disadvantages are
discussed below.
Pneumatic Rammers
These merely assist normal hand core making by enabling ramming to be done faster. Care must be
exercised in their use or cores may be rammed too hard or core boxes may be damaged.
These merely assist normal hand core making by enabling ramming to be done faster. Care must be
exercised in their use or cores may be rammed too hard or core boxes may be damaged.
Plain Jolt Machines
These ram the core sand into the corebox by lifting the whole table on which the corebox rests and
allowing it to fall back on the body of the machine. This jolting action rams the sand into the corebox.
The method is used mostly on flat block cores and other cores of a similar nature. Ramming is faster
than by hand but the corebox must still be turned over and drawn by hand.
Jolt squeeze Roll over machines
These machines ram by jolting and squeezing and also turn over the corebox and draw it. They are
suitable for cores of a flat nature which do not have deep narrow sections.
Core shooters
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These machines come in various sizes and are usually used for making small and medium cores.
They ram by shooting the sand into the corebox by compressed air under pressure of 6 to 7 bar.
Intricate cores can be made very quickly on this type of machine but special coreboxes and plates
through which the air and sand is blown into the boxes are required for each type of core made. For
this reason it is necessary that large quantities of the same core be required.
The compressed air must be allowed to escape from the corebox leaving the sand behind and this is
done by inserting special vents, having fine slits in them at various points in the corebox. The placing
of these vents is important and usually needs some experimentation in order to ensure a completely
filled corebox.
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Figure 2 shows a bench type pneumatically driven core shooter. The corebox is clamped
automatically by the same lever that operates the shooting mechanism. These machines are the
fastest means of making small and medium size intricate cores. Several of the same core may
sometimes be blown at one time in the same box. Ramming is very uniform when the vents are
correctly placed.
Figure 3 sho2ws a semi-automatic two-station core-shooter used to make cores by the hot-box
method.
Figure 4 shows a shell core being removed from a shell core blower of the rollover type which is
illustrated in Figure 5.
Sand Slinger ramming
The sand slinger imparts a high velocity to the sand by means of an impeller travelling at high speed
on the end of a movable arm. The force with which the sand is thrown into the box rams it firmly and
evenly. The sand is fed to the impeller by means of a bucket conveyer belts, and the slinger head is
moved by hand to direct the sand into the right place.
This machine does not require any special tackle or coreboxes and can, therefore, be used on any
core boxes where the sand can be directed into the box from the top. Some recesses may require
hand ramming. The flow of sand can be stopped for placing core irons, or coke vents, etc Where a
number o core are to be made from the same box, wear of the box by the impact of the sand can be
prevented by means of a steel plate forming the joint, and ribs or lugs should be made of metal. No
special sand mixtures are required as the slinger will handle ordinary core sands as used for hand
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ramming. Roll over and draw equipment have to be specially installed for large cores or mass
production.
Extrusion Ramming
These machines are used to make cores in the shape of rounds, hexagons, squares etc, and operate
by forcing the sand through a die of the required shape and size by means of a worm driven by hand
or electric motor. The core is supported in a grooved plate as it leaves the die. This plate keeps the
core straight and in shape until it is baked. With the aid of this machine a stock of plain straight round
cores of various diameters can be maintained for instant use. Figure 6 shows the arrangement of a
motor driven core extrusion machine. The sand used on extrusion machines should not have a high
green strength or else cores will result with very hard surfaces which will cause metal agitation and
casting defects on pouring the mould.
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In lecture 6 of this course we referred to the continuous mixer which prepares sand such CO2, hot-box
and air-set in the mixing trough and presents them ready for use. This machine is again illustrated in
Figure 7. The mixing trough swings through an angle of 180° giving wide coverage and this machine
has an output f 4t of mixed sand per hour. Larger machines are also available.
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Many foundries use this type of machine in the coreshop to speed up production of large cores. The
corebox is usually placed on a roller conveyor which travels under the outlet of the mixing trough –
remains in that position till filled before being pushed along to the hardening and stripping stations.
Figure 8 shows a corebox being filled.
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When core wires are used for the strengthening of cores – the progressive core-shop will have a
simple hand operated wire cutting and bending machine installed to help the coremaker prepare his
wires quickly and easily.
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FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 18
1. Describe a machine used to make simple round cores.
2. How is CO2 core hardened and what amount of binder is normally used?
3. What is the air setting process for core making?
4. Describe a core shooter.
5. What are the advantages of a continuous mixer filler in the coreshop?
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LECTURE 19
Cupola Technique and Practice
Off all the industrial melting furnaces in use, the Cupola is probably the most efficient due to the
intimate contact between the fuel and the metal to be melted, but this same fact necessitates that the
best conditions for operation be fairly strictly adhered to or else the quality and usefulness of the
metal melted may be affected.
Remarkable results may be achieved by strict and intelligent control of a Cupola.
The general construction of the straight forward cupola is as outlined in Figure 1 and consists of a
steel shell mounted on a base plate supported by four tubular legs. The base plate has a circular
hole in the centre the size of the lined diameter and is provided with two half doors hinged as shown
and held closed by means of a steel prop.
Holes are provided in the shell for the taphole, the fettling door (in the case of smaller Cupolas), the
slag hole, the charging door and the tuyeres.
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The tuyeres are enclosed by a wind belt into which the blast is conveyed by the blast main from the
blower or fan. Inspection covers are provided opposite each tuyere so that they may be kept clean
with a bar.
Holes are provided in the shell for the taphole, the fettling door (in the case of smaller Cupolas), the
slag hole, the charging door and the tuyeres.
The tuyeres are enclosed by a wind belt into which the blast is conveyed by the blast main from the
blower or fan. Inspection covers are provided opposite each tuyere so that they may be kept clean
with a bar.
The Tuyeres
The height of the tuyeres and slag hole above the bottom doors will depend on whether the metal will
be held in the well or allowed to run out as fast as it melts, in which case the tuyeres may be only
228mm above the sand bed.
The tuyeres are usually rectangular in shape and flare out from the shell towards the inside of the
Cupola. A ring of specially shaped cast iron blocks are used to form the tuyeres. The total area of all
the tuyeres at their smallest point, that is at the shell, is important and should be (in the case of small
Cupolas, 910mm and under) 25% to 30% of the cross sectional area of the cupola at the melting
zone, and maybe only 15% in the case of large ones (1.8m). The smaller tuyeres give better
penetration of air into the Cupola in the case of large diameters.
The wind box must be designed to give an even velocity at all tuyeres.
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The Lining
The steel shell is lined with good quality firebricks which are laid with as little jointing fireclay as
possible, as it is at the joints that the bricks burn away first.
A double lining is used up to the charging door and the stack is given only a single lining.
The size of a cupola is the diameter inside the lining at the melting zone.
Taphole
The shape of the Taphole and slag hole is important and should be as shown in the sketch, that is
beveled out at both ends so as to leave a minimum length of small diameter hole. If this is not done
the metal may “freeze” in the taphole. The same applies to the slag hole. The outer bevel also helps
to guide the botting clay into position.
In small Cupolas where a fettling door is provided, the taphole and slag hole can be made up before
the sand bed is put in but in large Cupolas, which have no fettling door, the taphole and slaghole
must be made up in a breasthole provided for the purpose of assisting the bed coke to burn up and
can, therefore, only be made up when the bed coke is well alight to the tuyeres.
In this case before filling the breasthole with ganister, or whatever material will be used, a tube the
required size is placed in position on the sand bed and selected pieces of coke placed around it to
prevent small pieces of coke blocking the tap hole and also to form a solid wall against which to ram
the filling material – when rammed up the tube is withdrawn and the taphole made the required
shape.
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The Sand Bed
The bottom doors are closed and propped up firmly with a bar. The bed can then be rammed up
using a strong floor sand. Straw may be scattered over the doors first to assist venting. The sand
should be rammed firmly, but not hard, or else the metal will not lie quietly on the bed and cold iron
will result. The finished bed should slope down to the taphole and be in one straight line with the
bottom of the taphole and the bottom of the lining of the chute. The slope should be a half to one
centimeters to the meter. The slope allows metal to run out of the taphole as soon as it melts,
especially when starting up, or else the first metal down may set and cause the succeeding metal to
be cold.
Lighting Up
Before lighting up selected pieces of coke must be placed at each side and above the taphole so that
the metal may not be obstructed by small pieces of coke. Sometimes the coke may be set alight
directly by means of a gas torch or paraffin burner, or previously ignited coke may be charged, but
more usually a wood fire is lit to start off the coke. Pieces of wood should be placed on the sand bed
so that when more wood is thrown down from the charging door, no damage is done. The wood is
ignited by means of oily waste or paper. When the wood is a light, coke is thrown down, small
quantities at a time, to give it a good chance to burn through. As the coke burns through, more coke
is added until a predetermined height above the tuyeres has been reached. The coke must be made
to settle compactly by poking from the tuyeres and the charging door.
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The Coke Bed
The coke above the tuyeres is known as the bed coke and the best height should be obtained
experimentally by starting off higher than would be considered necessary and timing the first drops of
iron from the time the blast is put on, then each time reducing the bed a few centimeters until the first
droops appear six to eight minutes after the blast has been put on. When this height has been found,
it should be maintained by a marked rod with a flat plate welded on to the end to rest on the coke.
The bed must always be well burnt or it will take longer for the first drops to appear.
The bed height is influenced by the blast pressure and the size and shape of the tuyeres. The blast
pressure should, therefore, be kept constant throughout the melt.
The bed height as obtained above is just a little higher than the position at which the solid charge is
held whilst melting, but some constituents, like pig iron and light scrap, may melt before reaching this
position, while steel scrap and bulky pieces may drop still lower before being completely melted.
The coke used in the bed should be selected for size and strength. The best size being one twelfth of
the internal diameter of the Cupola. Smaller coke, and weak coke which breaks into small pieces,
burns away too rapidly.
The Air Supply
The amount of air needed by the Cupola can be ascertained from the probable melting rate of the
Cupola (a figure of .65 tons per 0.09 meter of area per hour is safe). From the coke to metal ratio the
amount of coke to be burnt in a given time can be calculated. Each kilogram of coke containing 90%
Fixed Carbon requires 3.7 cubic meters of air to burn it to carbon dioxide. Therefore, supposing 72kg
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of iron is expected each minute and one kilogram of coke is charged to melt 3.6kgs of iron, that is a
ratio of 3.6 to one, 9kg of coke must be burnt a minute. Therefore, 3.70 x 9 = 33.3 cubic meters of air
per minute is required, but in order to allow for leaks, 35 cubic meters of air per minute should be
allowed.
The air is usually supplied by a centrifugal type fan but these have the disadvantage of not being able
to supply the same quantity of air if the resistance through the furnace should increase due to dirty
tuyeres or small scrap. Should the resistance increase the pressure will rise but the actual quantity of
air supplied will be decreased. Positive blowers of the Roots type, which have two Figure 8 shaped
rotors rotating in opposite directions in an elliptic shell in constant contact with each other and the
shell, are able to supply a constant volume of air in spite of a rise in pressure.
The pressure of air is measured by bending a long glass tube of about 6mm diameter into a U and
pouring in water until the legs are about half full. One leg is connected to the blast main and the air
pressure forces the water down in that leg and up in the other. The pressure is ready by measuring
the length in millimeters between the two surfaces and is expressed as millimeters water gauge.
The following table gives average figures for bed height above the tuyeres, blast pressure in
millimeters watergauge, and mass of iron charge in kilogram’s, for various diameter Cupolas:-
TABLE 1
Diameter at Melting Bed Height above Blast Pressure Iron charge kgs
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Zone millimeters tuyeres millimeters millimeters
watergauge
450 970 300 113
610 990 300 204
910 1040 380 454
1220 1070 410 817
1520 1090 480 1225
1830 1120 510 1816
The Metal Charge
The total weight of each charge varies with the size of furnace. Table 1 gives approximate weights
for various sizes.
The charge is made up of varying proportions of pig iron, scrap iron and sometimes steel. The
proportions used and the type of pig and scrap used will depend on the type of casting for which the
iron is required.
A Cupola can be divided into zones which indicate the part each plays in the operation of the furnace.
These zones are as follows:-
1.) The crucible or well from the sand bed to the tuyeres
2.) The combustion zone from the tuyeres to the top of the coke bed – anything from 650mm to
1370mm.
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3.) The melting zone, which is immediately above the combustion zone
4.) The preheating zone, which overlaps the melting zone and extends to the charging door. The
stack, which is the part above the charging door.
Changes during melting
The changes the various elements that make up the charge undergo, depend largely on the
conditions existing in the Cupola at the time they are melted and it is for this reason that all variables
should be carefully controlled at all times. For instance, if the bed is allowed to go too low or the blast
to high, or a bit of both, sever losses will occur in carbon and silicon, to the detriment of the iron.
Under normal operating conditions, the following changes can be expected:-
Carbon:
Low carbon materials such as steel, will pick up carbon to an extent depending on conditions in the
furnace. High carbon materials, like pig iron, probably lose carbon. High duty irons have lower
carbon contents than normal cast iron. Therefore, steel is used in the charge to reduce the final
carbon content of the iron. Melting high carbon scrap over again two or three times also reduces the
carbon content and improves the physical qualities of the iron.
Silicon:
A loss of 10% to 15% can be expected on the calculated total silicon content of the charge.
Combined Effect of Silicon & Carbon
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The element carbon has the greatest influence on the physical properties of cast iron, as on its total
amount and state of existence in the solid cold iron, depends the usefulness or other wise of the
material for any particular job.
If the carbon is all dissolved in the iron just as sugar dissolves in water, then the metal if broken would
show a white structure and would be found very hard and unmachineable. Carbon can, however,
exist in other forms, out of solution, just dispersed throughout the iron as iron filings would be when
well mixed with sugar grains. The free carbon can be spherical under certain conditions but is usually
in the form of graphite flakes and it is these flakes which weaken the structure of the iron making a
weak brittle substance out of a material which would otherwise be similar to tool steel.
If these flakes can be reduced in size and dispersed in a fine form throughout the metal, a very much
stronger iron will result and this is the principle used in the manufacture of high duty irons.
A number of elements which can be found in cast iron influence the state of existence of the carbon.
Some tend to keep it in solution while others tend to increase the amount of graphite formed. Chief of
this latter group is silicon and the most important adjustment in the composition of the iron to make it
suit the purpose for which it is required, is that of the silicon content. For the iron to be white and
hard, the silicon may be as low as 0.7% and to be soft and grey, as high as 2.5% The rate at which
the iron solidifies also influences the condition of the carbon. Rapid setting as against a chill, will
keep it in solution making the iron hard, whereas slow setting in a very thick casting will allow it to
become fully graphitized and soft. The silicon content should, therefore, be adjusted to counteract
these tendencies where necessary.
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Manganese
A loss of 20% to 30% can be expected. Manganese neutralizes the ill effects of sulphur by combining
with it and forming manganese sulphide which tends to float out of the iron into the slag. The
manganese content should be equal to 1.7 times the sulphur content plus 0.3%.
Sulphur:
An increase of 20% to 50% can be expected as sulphur is picked up from the coke. Sulphur weakens
and hardens the iron and should be neutralized by manganese. It also causes the molten metal to be
sluggish and retain gas more easily.
Phosphorous:
This element will remain at about the same proportions as originally present. Phosphorous weakens
the iron but also promotes fluidity and is sometimes added for very thin castings.
Ferro Alloys:
Bearing in mind the influence of the various elements mentioned, it is often necessary to increase
their proportions in the charge. This may be done by means of Ferro Alloys which are specially
prepared alloys rich in the element desired. Ferro Silicon can be obtained with a silicon content of
45% - 75%. Ferro Manganese 75% manganese and Ferro Chrome, etc.
Bearing in mind the influence of the various elements mentioned, it is often necessary to increase
their proportions in the charge. This may be done by means of Ferro Alloys which are specially
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prepared alloys rich in the element desired. Ferro Silicon can be obtained with a silicon content of
45% - 75%. Ferro Manganese 75% manganese and Ferro Chrome, etc.
Sequence of Charging:
The sequence of charging is as follows:
When the bed has been made up to its full height and is properly burnt through, charging can
commence. Firstly limestone flux is added to the bed, then the iron is charged, putting in the steel
first, if steel is used, then the scrap iron then the pig.
The object of that order is get the steel, which is difficult melt, near the hottest zone so it will melt at
about the same time as the pig iron, which melts quite easily. To get consistent properties in the iron,
the whole of each charge must be allowed to become mixed but if the size and weight of the various
pieces in a single charge differ greatly, the lighter material will melt and be tapped out before the
bulky part has had a chance to melt completely.
The cupola can be divided into three concentric rings of different temperature. The outer ring is the
hottest and any large pieces of scrap should be charged there. The next ring is not quite as hot and
pig should occupy that position. The innermost ring is the coldest and as ferro alloys usually melt
quite easily they should be charged there, with the light scrap.
When charging, all the material of each charge should be distributed evenly over the whole area of
the cupola so that each charge will be as level as possible.
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After the iron charge is in, the ferro alloys are charged and then another charge of coke, which will
replace that burn away to melt the previous charge of iron.
FOUNDRY THEORY Nl
TEST PAPER 19
1. Why is the Cupola more efficient than most Industrial Furnaces?
2. Make a neat sketch, at least 230 mm high, of a Cupola. Name the

various parts and mark off the various zones.
3. Give a brief description of how a Cupola works.
4. Why is the ratio of tuyere area to cross sectional area important

and what percentage should it be?
5. Describe the making of the sand bed.
6. What factors set the height of the coke bed and why is it necessary
to have a bed at all?
7. State the amount of loss or gain which occurs under normal conditions
in the following elements:
(a) Silicon (b) Manganese (c) Sulphur (d )* Phosphorous
LECTURE 20
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Cupola technique and Practice (continued)
The Coke Charge
The weight of the coke charge or coke split, as it is called, depends on the ratio of coke to iron, that is
decided on. Ten kilograms of iron can be melted by one kilogram of coke, giving a ratio of ten to one,
but if the coke is of poor quality and steel is being charged, seven or eight to one will give hotter iron.
Part of the coke is used to raise the carbon content of the steel.
The size of the coke and its characteristics will also help to decide on the ratio used. Some cokes are
hard and strong and do not burn as rapidly as others, which are weak and crumble easily under the
weight of the charge.
Coke burns in the oxygen of the air to give carbon dioxide and a great deal of heat, but carbon
dioxide will combine with hot coke to form carbon monoxide and this reaction uses up heat.
Therefore, a coke which is said to be very reactive, and is partly consumed by the carbon dioxide to
form carbon monoxide before it can give its full effect to melting the iron, will probably have to be
used with a lower iron to coke ratio than a less reactive coke. In addition, very reactive cokes must
usually be used with a lower air velocity than hard cokes.
Coke which is smaller than the desirable one twelfth the diameter is also consumed quicker than the
correct size coke. Small coke is, in any case, usually associated with weak coke.
The coke, in burning leaves a residue of ash, and any sand, etc, on the metal charged, will also
accumulate in the Cupola. Therefore, some means of eliminating these unwanted substances must
be used and this is done by charging limestone or dolomite to the extent of 3% or 4% of the metal
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charge. This is known as the flux and combines with the ash and sand or metal oxides, to form a fluid
slag, which floats on top of the metal collecting in the well.
The limestone or dolomite is charged on top of the coke before the next charge of iron is put on.
Thereafter the whole sequence is repeated, that is, iron, ferro alloys, coke split, flux, until the furnace
is filled to the charging door.
The level of charges should be maintained throughout the melt, the sequence being continued as the
“burden” drops.
As soon as the Cupola has been filled up, the blast should be put on, as there is no advantage in
allowing a preheating period and there is a danger of the bed burning low if this is done.
The importance of some details mentioned in the previous paper warrants discussing more fully. The
first in importance is the coke bed.
The coke bed provides the heat necessary for melting the iron when air is forced in and burns the
carbon in the coke to carbon dioxide. The highest temperature in the furnace is that in the middle of
the coke bed and its position is clearly marked in a Cupola by the excessive burning away of the
lining. In the coke bed all the oxygen of the air of the air should be consumed and above a certain
line there should be no more free oxygen. This line may not be straight, as would be desirable, but
depends on the blast velocity and tuyere shape, which effects the degree of penetration of the blast.
Its height above the tuyeres also depends on blast velocity; it rises and falls as the velocity increases
or decreases.
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Several centimeters above the limit of free oxygen line, another line can be drawn, which will follow
the shape of the first line very closely. This line represents the lowest point to which solid metal will
descend before which is always maintained in good practice.
If this safety margin of coke is lost, due to one of numerous causes, such as original bed too low, or
allowed to burn too low due to insufficient coke in the splits, or small highly reactive coke, which burns
away too rapidly, or blast too strong to suit other conditions, or the size of scrap too large for the
Cupola, the iron will descend into the zone of free oxygen and become burn, resulting in sluggish,
gassy iron with no life, and castings showing pin holing. The temperature will not drop immediately
as the burning of the carbon and silicon in the iron itself helps to maintain the temperature or even
raise it. If the bed is lost early in the melt, cold iron will result very quickly. The only cure is to lower
the blast pressure until the bed can be built up by double coke splits.
If the bed is too high and because of coke splits which are too large, does not get a chance to burn to
its natural height, slow melting and possibly cold iron, will result, as well as a waste of coke. This
condition can be overcome by cutting down on the coke splits or raising the blast, intelligently
controlled.
Sizes of Scrap Charged
Tables I and II give sizes of cast iron and steel scrap to be used in various size Cupolas, a safe rule is
1/3 the diameter; if this is exceeded bridging is likely to occur, that is the charges will not drop as the
lower ones melt away. If the “hang up” is not noticed soon enough, the bed will burn away and cold,
gassy iron will result. The area of any piece should not be more than one seventh of the area of the
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cupola. Large flat scrap will give rise to uneven melting and increased air resistance in the Cupola by
closing up the normal air passages.
TABLE I
SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF SCRAP FOR CUPOLAS CAST IRON
Diameter Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum
cupola inside thickness mm thickness mm length mm weight kg
lining mm
760 102 6 45 45
1220 102 6 61 45
1520 152 6 91 68
1830 152 6 122 68
2280 204 6 152 90
TABLE II
STEEL SCRAP
Diameter Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum
cupola inside thickness mm thickness mm length mm weight kg
lining mm
760 25 6 450 13
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1220 25 6 610 23
1520 50 6 910 34
1830 75 6 1220 45
2280 102 6 1520 68
Flux
As previously explained the flux forms a fluid slag with the ash, sand and metal oxides, but it also
attacks the cupola lining which, in normal “acid” or fire brick lined Cupolas, is composed largely of the
same elements as sand, namely silica, which is the oxide of silicon. For this reason the tendency is
to use less limestone than is necessary to give the most desirable results.
In chemistry the most common reaction is the action of an acid such as Hydrochloric Acid on a base
such as Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda) to give a neutral salt, Sodium Chloride (common salt) and
water.
Of the substances concerned in the cupola, silica and sulphur are of an acidic nature and Iron Oxide,
Lime (calcium oxide) and magnesia (magnesium oxide) are basic.
In order to be able to increase the amount of flux used, which helps to eliminate sulphur and gives
cleaner and more fluid iron, due to better carbon pick up, basic material are sometimes used to the
line the Cupola well and melting zone. These are not as rapidly attached by the slag, being of a
similar chemical nature to the flux. The basic materials used are magnesite and chrome magnesite
bricks, but these are more expensive than the normal firebrick.
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A blanket of slag should be maintained over the metal in the well at all times, as this cleans droplets
of iron passing through and protects the metal from the blast, but as an excess is accumulated, this
should be drained off through the slag hole from time to time. If the slag is known to be too thick
fluorspar to the extent of 5% of the flux may be added.
Soda Ash is sometimes added to the flux and this not only gives fluidity but is an active desulphuriser,
up to 1% of the iron charge may be used.
A good slag should be fluid when molten and when cold should be glassy and have a greenish to
greenish brown colour. A very black slag indicates an excess of iron oxide.
When draining the slag it is allowed to drop into a cast iron or sand lined steel pot, which may be
provided with wheels and, when full, pulled away and emptied.
The Well
As the metal melts it drops through the coke and in passing the highest temperature zone picks up its
maximum heat and continues down through the coke. The slag blanket rises with the metal until it
reaches the slag hole, through which it will run out, if fluid enough.
If the slag hole should become blocked, the slag will rise up and flow into the tuyeres, blocking them
up. If there is any danger of this occurring, either the metal in the well must be tapped out
immediately, or the blast put off until the slag hole can be cleaned. If the metal is allowed to rise
without being tapped, it too will flow from the slag hole, at which stage the well must be tapped. The
capacity of the well is about one third to one quarter of its total volume, due to the space taken up by
the coke. The well should hold either one charge, or multiples thereof. It is usual, in well controlled
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cupolas, to tap by timing the taps calculated on the melting rte of the furnace. The melting rate varies
as the melt progresses; on first starting up the rate may only6 be two thirds of its normal, until
thoroughly warmed up. When the lining starts to burn away the melting zone becomes bigger, and
the melting rate is greater.
The metal is run out of the taphole until the first sign of slag appears and is then stopped with botting
clay or specially strengthened moulding sand. The bot is cone shaped and is stuck on the end of an
iron bar provided with a round plate at the end to hold the clay.
Indications of correct operations
The best indication of good practice is hot, fluid metal and a good melting rate. The temperature is
easily checked by means of an optical pyrometer of the disappearing filament type and the fluidity is
tested by pouring the metal under standard conditions into a mould (made in cores) of a spiral, or
semicircular cross section of about 5mm radius. The length of the cast spiral is an indication of
fluidity. The higher the carbon content and the temperature of the iron, the greater the fluidity. Grey
cast iron much more fluid than white cast iron. If the metal is being melted rapidly but is not hot
enough, it is probable that the coke split is too small or the charge too heavy.
If the melting rate is low but the metal of good temperature, the coke split is probably too large, or the
charge too small.
It is necessary have some rapid means of knowing the hardness or chill throwing power of the iron,
especially when castings of various thicknesses are to be made in the same melt. This may be done
by several methods. The most convenient is a wedge shapes test piece, which is small enough to set
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quickly. When quite set it is cooled off slowly in water and broken. The point of the wedge will show
a white fracture at the greater the chill throwing power of the metal, the further up the wedge the white
fracture will be visible. Another type of test is the stepped bar with steps of 3mm, 6mm, 10mm,
13mm thick, which after casting is broken step at a time to see which steps are white and which are
grey, indicating the chilling power of the metal. Yet another form of test is a small slab mould on
edge, the bottom of which is a warm clean iron chill. The iron chills the metal to a greater or lesser
depth, depending on the hardness of the metal and when set and cooled off, the slab or wafer is
broken and the depth of chill measured. These tests can be completed before the metal is cast into
the moulds and if found unsuitable, the metal may be used elsewhere.
Where different grades of metal must be melted, it is advisable to have at least one extra charge of
the better quality before those required and one after. The descent of the charges is watched by
weighing each ladle of metal taken from the furnace and recording it as so many charges or parts
thereof. The furnace must be emptied just before the first charge of high grade iron should be melting
and again just after the first charge is melted. This metal, which will not be up to standard, must be
used elsewhere or pigged. The extra charge after those required helps to prevents mixing with the
low grade iron that is to follow. This should also be used elsewhere or pigged. After a melt is over
the prop is knocked from under the bottom doors and all remaining coke and iron is dropped out of
the furnace and cooled down with water.
Before the Cupola is used again it must have all slag and iron chipped off the lining, but the glaze
must be disturbed as little as possible. The burnout must be patched with ganister, which is a mixture
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of fireclay, silica sand and ground firebrick, but where this must be done, part of the glaze at least,
must be chipped away to give the ganister hold on the brickwork beneath.
Handling Materials and Making up Charges
The method of storing and handling such materials as coke, scrap iron, pig iron, etc, will depend on
the size of the establishment. Arrangements are usually made to have some type of partitioned binds
running alongside the railway siding serving the Company, as normally the materials arrive in bulk by
rail. They are then off loaded directly into the bins and conveyed to the charging platform as required.
Where very large tonnages are handled, the whole system is mechanized. In one type of installation
the railway trucks come in on a raised ramp: the materials are then off loaded into raised bins, the
floors of which slope downwards towards a line along which a scale car runs. This car carries the
buckets for holding the charges and the material is raked from the bins into the buckets until the
required weight is indicated. These bins are then hoisted up to the charging door and placed in the
Cupola to deposit the charge.
Various arrangements are used to unload the bins, some have a cone bottom and are provided with a
flange on the top. The lifting arrangements are such that the cone is held closed when the bucket is
lifted, but when put into the cupola by means of an overhanging arm on the crane the flange rests on
a wishbone and the cone is lowered, depositing the charge evenly in the Cupola. Of all the
mechanical types used this is probably the best, as it gives even charging in the right place. The
cupola lining just below the charging door is made of cast iron segments and they are usually
arranged to allow a bigger diameter where the metal leaves the bucket and reduce to the right
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diameter a few meters below. The cast iron segments extend to a few meter below the point at which
the lining is reduced to normal and damage to the firebrick lining is prevented.
Another type of discharge is a single large door the full diameter of the bottom of the bucket which
swings out when the holding catch is released. This is usually done automatically as the bucket
enters the cupola. Sometimes two half doors are used. These are hinged to swing clear of the
dropping charge.
A common type of loading device is a simple tipping skip which runs up a ramp and tips its load into
the furnace. This is the least desirable, as the charge tends to fall unevenly and mostly to one side of
the Cupola. The lining also suffers severely. The charge can be distributed more evenly by handing
a curtain of steel rails where discharge takes place.
Variations of the modern straightforward cupola consist of cupolas with several rows of tuyeres, some
having means of adjusting the amount of air delivered by each as in the balanced blast Cupola. More
economical coke and iron ratios are claimed.
Other types have an additional totally enclosed lined receiver built in from of them, into which the iron
runs as it melts. More consistent quality iron is claimed for this type, as the iron becomes well mixed.
Figure 1 shows the arrangements of a receiver type furnace.
Modern trends
Although the basic design of the cupola has remained almost unchanged since it was first used in
foundries (and is still most widely used in this form), modern developments have introduced various
refinements. These include the use of hot blast, water cooling of the shell and the addition of oxygen
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into the stream of air passing into the wind belt. This last mentioned process is known as oxygen
enrichment and, like the other two new developments, is aimed at producing hot metal in the shortest
possible time.
possible time.
possible time.
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Page 134 of 168
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 20
1. Explain what is meant by the coke ratio and what factors influence the choice of ratio used.
2. How is he coke ash and other unwanted substances such as sand and iron oxide removed
from the cupola?
3. Explain what happens in the coke bed and what factors influence its height above the tuyeres.
4. Why should the length of pig and scrap not exceed certain proportions and what will happen to
scrap especially steel, which is too thick and heavy for the size of the cupola?
5. How would you thin down a thick slag to give it more fluidity?
6. How would you test:-
a) The fluidity of the iron

b) The chill throwing power or hardness of the iron?
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LECTURE 21
MELTING FURNACES
The Convertor
In the previous two sections we discussed the melting of cast iron in the cupola furnaces. Although
modern cupolas can melt a large percentage of steel in the charge, it is not possible to produce a
steel from the cupola at this stage because of the high pick-up of carbon from the coke, and other
reasons. Consequently, the steel convertor was invented and the two main types are called
Bessemer and Tropenas.
These vessels are not melting furnaces; they are steel-making units and the source of heat is not
coal, coke or gas, but the oxidizable elements, silicon, manganese, and carbon in pig iron melted and
superheated in a cupola to a temperature of about 1 350°C and poured into the pear-shaped
convertor vessel. Cold air is blown upwards through this molten metal at a pressure of about 1.4 bar
or across the surface of the molten metal at a pressure of 0.28 bar, according to whether it is the
Bessemer (bottom-blown) or Tropenas (side blown) process which is being operated. The oxygen of
the air burns the silicon and manganese to form a slag; the carbon burns to produce gases, carbon
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monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The heat generated by these reactions raises the temperature of the
molten iron to about 1 700°C.
An illustration of a Tropenas converter is given in Figure 1.
In both the Tropenas and Bessemer processes an air blast provides oxygen to remove unwanted
elements from the molten cast-iron which contains approximately 3.00 percent carbon, 2.00 percent
silicon and 1.00 percent manganese. The great advantage of these processes is that they are so
rapid that the foundry can be supplied with a heat of steel every half hour. The convertor vessel is
rotated on a central axis, tilted backwards until it lies in a horizontal position ready to receive the
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molten cast-iron tapped from a cupola or mixer into a transfer ladle; next, air pressure having been
introduced, the vessel is turned up vertically, into the blowing position in the Bessemer convertor the
tuyeres are in the bottom of the vessel and the air blows upwards through the molten metal; lastly,
after the blow is finished, the vessel is then turned down and the blown iron poured into a ladle
containing the additions required to introduce the C, Si and Mn to the desired analysis, and the stocks
of aluminium to ensure that the steel will settle in green-sand moulds.
The blower is an experienced man who can judge from the character of the flame issuing from the
mouth of the vessel whither the heat is blowing hot or cold. If the vessel is cold, the metal cold, or the
silicon content is lower than normal, extra heat has to be generated by throwing in bags of ferro-
silicon, the oxidation of this extra silicon producing the required increase in temperature. On the other
hand, if the heat is too great there is a danger that the carbon will be burned out before the silicon, so
pieces of scrap steel are thrown in to chill the bath of molten metal.
Direct-Arc Electrical Furnaces
In the direct-arc electric furnace, mainly used for making the highest quality steels, the metal bath and
the slag form a conductor between the electrodes and, therefore, the heat is developed directly in the
metal in the region of the electrodes. A three phase type of furnace with three electrodes is the one
most frequently used and is shown in Figure 2. The electrodes are graphite for the very small and for
the large furnaces over 15 tons capacity, and either graphite or amorphous carbon for arc furnaces of
intermediate size.
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The furnace body is a heavy steel shell which is lined with refractory bricks, silica for acid furnaces
and magnesite for basic furnaces. The roof is made up of silica bricks held in position in a steel roof-
ring. The three electrodes are supported by arms attached to electrode masts, and the current input
is controlled by the automatic raising and lowering of electrodes to adjust the length of the arc; the
shorter the arc-gap, the more power is available for melting. The furnace is charged from one side,
the working platform, and tapped from a pouring spout or launder diametrically opposite. All arc
furnaces are capable of tilting backwards or forwards for charging, running off the discarded slag, and
pouring the metal in a ladle. Modern top-charging furnaces have a roof that can be taken off the
furnace body after each heat to enable a new charge of scrap metal to be dropped into the furnace in
a few seconds.
Induction Melting furnaces
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The electric induction furnace was originally developed to provide a melting unit which would enable
foundries to melt small quantities of special steels.
Electric induction melting is the name given to a melting technique wherein the heating power is
developed directly in the charge by electro-magnetic induction. In fact, the induction furnace is
fundamentally a transformer in which the primary winding is the furnace coil and the secondary
winding is a single turn short-circuited loop consisting of the charge to be melted. Alternating current
applied to the furnace coil causes current to be induced into the charge, thus developing heat to melt
the charge. It is essential that the charge is electrically conductive, which means that the process is
applicable in the main to metals.
Induction furnaces are classified into one of two major groups depending upon the charge – coil
configuration. If the charge is essentially a solid cylinder surrounded by the coil then the arrangement
is known as a “CORELESS” FURNACE. An alternative assembly has the charge in a loop
surrounding the coil and in this case the arrangement is called the “THE CORE-TYPE” or
“CHANNEL”.
Core-type furnaces almost invariably operate at the frequency of the electricity supply, whereas
coreless furnace can be further sub-divided into three frequency groups. These are, respectively,
Line-frequency, operating at the supply frequency; TRIPLE frequency, operating at three times the
supply frequency; MEDIUM frequency, operating at frequencies between 450 cycles per
second and 10 000 cycles per second.
Coreless Furnaces
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A cross-section through a typical coreless furnace is shown in Figure 3. The charge is contained
within a refractory lining, which in turn is surrounded by the furnace coil. The coil is water-cooled to
protect it from damage due to heat generated by its own losses and also conducted through the lining
from the charge. The whole is supported by another shell which is carried on trunnions so that the
whole furnace may be tilted to empty out the molten charge.
The outer shell is of steel and with this construction, flux-return paths of transformer steel are
disposed between the coil and the shell to protect the latter from stray heating effects. Power is
supplied to the coil by means of flexible cables which are usually water-cooled.
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Due to electro-magnetic interaction between the currents in the coil and in the charge, turbulence is
set up which stirs the molten metal. This stirring effect helps in the mixing of alloying additions.
Core-type furnaces
Figure 4 shows a section through a core-type (or channel) furnace. The bulk of the charge is
contained in a refractory lined upper shell. Below the furnace is the refractory lined “loop”,
surrounding the primary coil which is located in a cylindrical cavity in the refractory. A magnetic yoke
structure passes through the centre of the coil and also surrounds the “loop”. The coil may be cooled
either by air blown over its surface, or alternatively by water passed through the coil conductors.
It will be seen that all the heat is generated in the “loop” and is transferred by conduction, convection
and electromagnetic turbulence to the rest of the charge. For this reason, the loop must always be
complete and core-type furnaces are never completely emptied during operation.
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Pouring of the charge is usually accomplished by tilting the furnace about trunnions, although larger
furnaces are often made in the form of a horizontal drum which rotates to pour through a “teapot” type
spout.
Channel type furnaces are normally used for the melting of non-ferrous metals and the coreless types
are being used in South Africa for the melting of cast irons and stainless steels. Coreless furnaces
are also widely used as holding furnaces and for superheating cast iron melted in the cupola.
Sampling during Melting
In the previous paper, on cupola practice, details were given of the wedge and step tests for rapidly
determining the hardening or chilling power of the cast iron in the ladle, or just as it is being tapped
from the furnace. The same procedure can be used with cast irons melted in the induction furnace,
with the added advantage that the metal is still in the furnace and can be kept there for any
adjustments to the analysis if necessary.
With steel melting practice, it is customary for the melter to draw off what is known as a “bath
sample”. This is taken from the molten bath in the furnace and sent to the laboratory for an analysis.
Due to the fact that it is neither good practice, nor economical to keep the metal in the furnace for an
indefinite period, suppliers of equipment have concentrated on for an indefinite period, suppliers of
equipment have concentrated on providing methods which will give accurate and rapid results. This
has resulted in the establishment of the spectroscope as an essential part of steel foundry equipment,
and indeed, it is now also being used by non-ferrous and cast iron foundries. To take advantage of
the speed with which the analysis can be given by means of the spectroscope, it is the usual practice
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for foundries to use a rapid method of conveying the sample from the furnace to the laboratory and
the pneumatic tube system is the most popular method.
This method of analysis enables as many as 50 chemical elements at concentration ranging from 1
part per million (usually known as “trace elements”) up to 90 percent, to be determined, in a time of
one to two minutes from receipt of sample, with an accuracy which is satisfactory for control
purposes, and generally better than routine chemical methods.
Precautions while casting
At the beginning of this course, detailed precautions were set out which were recommended to
ensure that you are not endangered during the melting and casting of metal in the foundry. It is worth
repeating however, that protective clothing should be worn at all times when dealing with molten
metal. When working at, or near steel melting and casting bays it is very important to wear the
special dark blue goggles provided, otherwise your eyes will be damaged by the high temperature
reflection of the molten metal. This precaution is vital if you look into the arc furnace when melting is
taking place, as the fierceness of the arc, like that from electric welding arc, can cause extensive and
lasting damage to your eyes.
Finally, remember water and molten metal do not mix! Make sure that all ladles and tools to be used
are clean and dry.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 21
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1. What are the names of the two types of convertors and what is the principal difference
between them?
2. What methods can be used to charge the electric arc furnace?
3. Give a brief description of a coreless type induction furnace, and state what metals are
normally melted in this furnace.
4. How is cast iron tested for chill properties when sampling from the furnace?
5. What type of equipment is used for analysis of the metal from the furnace bath and what is its
advantage?
LECTURE 22
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FOUNDRY LADLES – WITH VARIOUS EXAMPLES
The iron when melted in a cupola is tapped into a receiving ladle and from this is poured into smaller
ladles to be distributed to the moulds. These ladles vary in size from the smallest, which one man
can easily carry, up t those capable of holding two, three, five to as much as several hundred tons,
which are used in steel works and heavy iron foundries. Of the smaller sizes, these are generally
made in one piece by a stamping process of the form shown in Figure 1 and of the inside dimensions
stated in the following table, for carrying from 13kg up to that required to carry 100kg of molten metal.
Principal
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Dimensions Capacity in Kilograms
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg
13 14 18 23 25 32 38 51 64 77 90 100
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
Dia. A 180 190 190 200 210 240 250 260 310 320 330 340
Dia. B 150 150 150 150 150 200 200 200 250 250 250 250
Dia. D 130 140 180 200 220 150 200 260 230 260 290 300
Radius R 2.5 25 25 25 25 30 30 30 40 40 40 40
Lining t 6 6 6 8 8 8 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5
A number of each of these sizes should be kept in stock, depending on the size and class of work
usually made. The names of the ladles relate to the method of carrying them. Hand ladles are
sometimes made of cast iron or pressed steel. The larger ladles are built up of boiler plate.
The smallest sizes are usually mounted as shown in figure 2, suitable for easy handling by one man,
and known as the hand ladle. Figure 3 shows the usually method of mounting the larger sizes up to
100kg ladles, in which a double handle extends at the front end (one for each hand of the man
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carrying the front), the single or after end being carried by two men leaning towards each other with
should to shoulder.
In order that each of the three men referred to may be carrying about the same weight; the man in
front takes hold of the handles at a greater distance from the centre of the ladle than that
corresponding to the position of the rear men.
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Different types of ladles are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Ladles must be lined to protect them from
burning through. Up to 1-ton capacity, the cupola daubing mixture is used. The bowl is smeared with
thick clay-wash, and the clay pressed in hard with the hands, being rubbed smooth on the inside.
The lining should be kept as thin as possible, 9.5mm to 19mm on hand ladles, 25mm to 38mm on
large ones; the bottom lining being from one-third to one-half thicker than sides, as it receives the first
fall of the incoming metal.
Many foundries line small ladles with a mixture of silica sand and sodium silicate (5%) similar to that
used in the foundry for the CO2 process.
Figure 6 is an elevation of a ladle suitable for castings from ¼ to 1 (metric) tone. The body it will be
seen, is surrounded by a strong malleable iron ring R, from which two trunnions project into the eyes
formed at each end of bent lifting frame, by means of which the ladle may be raised free from the
carriage.
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When this is done by means of crane power the hook at the end of the lifting chain is placed at the
bent portion near the centre, in order that it may not slip from the properly balanced position. When a
ladle is mounted as shown in Figure 6, the dangerous tendency for the ladle and metal to overturn
and empty itself suddenly over the foundry floor, is prevented by means of a loose swinging fork F,
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fitted at one side to the upper edge of the ladle as shown, and by throwing this into or out of gear with
the side of ladle as shown, and by throwing this into or out of gear with the side of lifting rod next to it,
the ladle is kept in the proper vertical position; when out of gear the ladle may be swing over to the
right or left by means of the handle H, shown in position for that purpose.
This, however, is but a rough and ready means of regulating the quantity and rate at which the metal
is poured, and should not be used for ladles carrying more than ½ metric ton of molten metal; larger
ladles up to one ton on this principle should have an eye-hold 0, in position shown, or a double
handle as shown at one end of Figure 3, so that a long iron bar or lever may be applied to assist in
holding the ladle in any position suitable for pouring metal at the desired rate of flow. The handle
here is made with a socket at one end to fit the projecting end of trunnion, so that it may be taken off
and removed out of the way. When in use the handle is prevented from slipping off by dropping a
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cotter or pin through both socket and trunnion; by suspending the pin or cotter to a chain as shown, it
is always there when required. This (figure 6) also shows the ladle resting or suspended from its
trunnions on an iron carriage with four wheels, by means of which the ladle may be readily transferred
to any convenient part of the foundry floor without the use of a crane.
Figure 7 illustrates another type of foundry ladle, made to hold from 4 to 5 tons; this form is more
generally adopted in steel foundries. The essential point of difference is that the metal, instead of
being run or poured over the lip or tope edge of the ladle as usually, is allowed to pass downward
from the bottom of the ladle. This type, as has been said is mostly used in pouring steel moulds.
When the steel for steel castings is melted in an open hearth furnace, the whole heat is usually
tapped into a large ladle.
These ladles have a hole in the bottom into which is fitted a special carbon sleeve made of graphite.
A carbon stopper at the end of an iron rod fits into this sleeve.
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The iron rod above the carbon stopper is encased in fire brick sleeves to protect it from the hot metal.
Figure 7 shows how a stopper is arranged to open and close the pouring hole in the bottom pour
ladle. The and wheel and rack and pinion control the raising and lowering of the stopper, and in place
of these, a long lever arm is often used. Where a bottom pour ladle is used for steel castings, the
pouring basin or runner box, shown in Figure 8, being made of special sand and dried, is placed over
the runner for pouring by this method of pouring the metal is free from dirt or slag, which latter always
remains floating on the surface of the molten metal left in the ladle.
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The plates on the sides of ladles are frequently bored or perforated with a number of small holes, as a
precaution (especially in large ladles), for the escape of gases or stream generated in the lining when
the molten metal is run into them from the furnace. The tendency of these gases, or pent up steam
due often to insufficient or careless drying, is to burst and split off a portion of the lining from the ladle;
the liquid metal then coming in contact with the plates, heats them to a dangerously high temperature,
when this happens the least evil to be anti-cipated is the bulging of the sides from the correct form,
thus interfering with the free action of the gearing required for tilting the ladle.
The presence of damp in the lining often results in a sudden noise and vomiting of the molten metal,
raising it in showers to the roof. In such cases, the metal remaining should be got out of the ladle as
soon as possible, either by casting or pouring it into gutters hurriedly formed in the floor of the
foundry, as if not removed from the ladle n time, it may burnt its way through the shell, and discharge
itself through the hole thus formed before there is time to make suitable preparations.
Page 154 of 168
A teapot spout ladle is shown in Figure 9. This type of ladle is widely used for the pouring of small
steel castings and is sometimes used in iron foundries. It has the great advantage of only allowing
the bottom metal to be drawn off and the slag and other dirt is kept floating on top. This also helps to
keep the heat in the metal.
Lining Ladles
Before commencing to line the large ladle, it is advisable that it should be lightly heated; the furnace-
man coats in the interior with a wash of clay of about the consistency of cream, he proceeds to apply
the prepared sand or loam to the bottom of the ladle in a uniform coating using the utmost precaution
to force it into close contact with the plates at all points. In working upwards the thickness of the
lining is slightly reduced, and the covering of the lips must be neatly rounded off, so as not to expose
Page 155 of 168

an uneven surface to the flow of the metal, while at the same time it must be prevented from coming
in contact with the iron of the ladle.
When the lining is completed the ladle is allowed to stand, until the loam has dried sufficiently by the
air, before firing. A fire is then lit inside the ladle, so as to completely dry the lining. If any cracks are
observed in the lining during the process of drying they must be filled up with moist loam, and when
the whole lining is perfectly dry and without cracks or flaws, a coating of thick blackwash is applied.
When about to run the metal into a large ladle, an old piece of plate should be placed in a sloping
position, resting against one side and the bottom, so as to prevent the first force of the current of
metal from coming into contact with the lining. This plate can be removed with tongs, when there is
enough metal in the ladle to receive the flow of the falling metal.
The larger ladles are first line with fire brick of (especially for steel) thickness proportionate to their
size, and then daubed with clay mixture similar to cupola lining. The lining must be thoroughly dried
before using, to drive out moisture.
In shops where most of the pouring is done with small ladles, a special ladle drying stove similar to a
shallow core-oven is provided. A wood fire is built inside of the larger ladles to dry them out, or
special ladle drying torches may be bought for this purpose. To preserve a lining as long as possible,
slight breaks are repaired daily.
FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 22
1. What are ladles used for?
Page 156 of 168

2. Describe the method of making ladles. What are they made from?
3. a. Describe the method of lining a large ladle.
b. Why should the bottom lining be thicker than the sides?
4. a. What precautions would you take to allow the escape of gases generated in the lining?
b. what is the result of insufficient or careless drying of the lining?
5. Crane ladles have a dangerous tendency to overturn. Make a neat sketch explaining how this
can be prevented.
6. What are the essential differences between ladles used for steel and those used for cast iron?
7. What are the advantages to be derived from the steel method of pouring?
8. How would you prevent the first force of the current of metal from the cupola injuring the lining
of a large ladle?
LECTURE 23
FOUNDRY SCIENCE
Crucible Melting
Page 157 of 168

The choice of furnaces for melting metals for castings is governed by the cost of melting, the flexibility
of the unit and the quality demanded in the finished product. Melting and pouring operations offer the
most difficult problems in the foundry, even when the make-up of the charge and the methods of
melting are standardized from heat to heat. Small variations in quality, factors not controlled by
specifications, cause the rejection of many castings.
The shape of the container enables melting furnaces to be divided into two classes, crucible and
hearth furnaces. The crucible furnace derives its name from the special crucible pot made of
refractory, inserted in the furnace chamber, which may be in a pit in the floor, at floor level or raised
above the floor. The crucible with its molten contents is lifted from the pit furnace, and used as a
hand ladle (shank) to pour the metal into the moulds. When the furnaces are above or at floor level
the crucible pot must be fixed firmly in position if the furnace is of the tilting type, but this is not
nece3ssary in the stationary type known as bale-out furnaces for aluminium and other low melting
point metals. The moulder dips a warm metal spoon into the liquid to collect his molten metal to cast
the moulds.
Page 158 of 168

Types of furnace
The three types of crucible furnaces illustrated in Fig. 1 (a) pit type, (b) bale-out type, and (c) tilting
type, are mainly used for melting aluminium and copper base alloys and to a less extent for steel and
cast-irons. The metal is melted out of contact with the fuel and there is very little change in
composition during melting. The pit type. Fig. 1(a) is usually fired with coke. Sufficient coke being
packed round and above the crucible pots to melt and superheat the charge without re-coking. The
natural draught provided by a tall chimney is controlled by means of a loose brick or damper at the
foot of the stack. As the bale-out crucible furnaces, Fig. 1(b), are more often fired by oil or gas they
are made cylindrical in shape in order that the flame may sweep around and uniformly heat the
crucible. Forced draught is provided by a small fan, and the waste gases are taken away by
underground flues r an overhead cowl to a relatively low chimney stack. The tilting crucible furnaces,
Fig. 1(c) are raised above floor level, mounted on two pedestals, and rotated by means of a geared
Page 159 of 168

hand-wheel or a hydraulic ram. As with the bale-out crucible furnaces, forced draught is employed
and the furnace fired by coke, oil or gas. The coke-fired tilting furnaces are provided with an
enclosed ashpan. The disadvantage of using coke for this type of furnace is that ample coke space is
essential, the furnace must hold sufficient to melt and superheat the charge. Re-coking during a melt
is difficult and results in a serious loss of temperature. The burners on oil or gas fired furnaces are
arranged so that the heating can be continued even when the furnace is tilted. The tilting gear is
designed so that the furnace tilts on a central axis as in Fig. 1(c), or on a lip axis.
Detailed illustrations of the modern types of the above furnaces are shown in Fig. 2(a) lift-out furnace,
2 (b) section through lift-out furnace. Fig 3 is a lip axis hydraulic tiling furnace.
Page 160 of 168

Coke fired pit furnaces were used in the early days of alloy steel melting and furnaces with capacity
for four or more crucibles were popular. The introduction of electric melting has, however,
superceded this method and it is doubtful if much crucible steel is produced today. Oil fired crucible
furnaces are, however, still used t a limited degree for the production of small quantities of alloy cast
irons.
Page 161 of 168

Electric melting furnaces using either resistance or induction heating methods are becoming popular
for the melting of aluminium and non-ferrous alloys because of the speed of melting and cleanliness
of the operation.
All metals should be melted as rapidly as possible. This is especially true in the case of non-ferrous
metals where every precaution should be taken to avoid stewing and overheating which will allow
harmful gases to be absorbed. For this reason, many companies preheat the metal before placing it
in the furnace crucible. Methods of preheating range from the simple solution of placing the ingot or
scrap on top of the melting furnace lid to the more sophisticated type of built-in electrically heated
preheating unit.
Page 162 of 168

Burners
Figure 4 shows a sectioned high intensity burner which is used for providing the correct mixture of oil
or gas and air. This particular burner incorporates a re-circulating element which causes complete
combustion of the fuel before the hot gases enter the melting furnace. In view of the importance of
preventing air pollution, burners of this type are being more widely used because they are smokeless
in operation and provide clean working conditions all round. For the coke fired type of furnace,
centrifugal or fan type blowers as shown in figure 5 are used. This type of blower has an impeller
which runs at high speed inside the body. The air is drawn in at the centre of the impeller and by
Page 163 of 168

centrifugal force is forced through the impeller into the body of the blower and through the outlet into
the pipe leading to the furnace.
The furnace atmosphere determines the extent of the loss of oxidizable elements in the molten metal;
the burners and dampers of coal, coke, or oil fired furnaces can be adjusted to produce (a) an
oxidizing atmosphere, or (b) a neutral atmosphere – seldom practicable in melting furnaces, or (c) a
reducing atmosphere. An oxidizing flame is short and fierce; a reducing atmosphere results when
there is a long rolling flame burning with a deficiency of air, other words, the furnace atmosphere has
an excess of combustible gases, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which may be absorbed by
the molten metal.
Page 164 of 168

A generally accepted melting practice is to melt with slight but definite oxidation to keep the hydrogen
content low, and then at the end of the heat to add a suitable and powerful deoxidizer. Both oxidized
and gassy metals have a tendency to be a sluggish in the foundry. If the sluggishness is caused by
oxidation it can be overcome by the addition of a deoxidizer, but if caused by absorbed reducing gas
it is very difficult to eliminate.
From the foregoing it will be obvious that it is important to obtain the proper air-fuel mixtures to control
the furnace atmosphere. Normally the manufacturers of melting furnaces and burners are only too
pleases to offer advice for the efficient operation of their equipment to obtain the best results.
Temperature measurement
To ensure that good castings are produced it is important to obtain metal at the correct pouring
temperature. An immersion pyrometer of the type used in non-ferrous foundries in shown in Figure 6,
the temperature being recorded either on a wall recorder or a special gauge fitted at the handle of the
pyrometer.
Tapping and Pouring
Page 165 of 168

Special tongs are used to lift the crucible from pit type furnaces and it is then placed in the pouring
shank which should be situated near to the furnace so that it is easy for the transfer from furnace to
shank. The shank should be set sufficiently above the floor so that the crucible doesn’t rest on the
floor when it is placed in the shank and some loose sand should be spread on the floor underneath
the crucible. A skimmer which is a thin rectangular piece of steel bent to an Lshape should then be
used to skim off the slag from the top of the metal. The skimmer must be heated before being used
for this purpose to ensure that it is completely dry and free from moisture. The skimming should take
place over the back of the crucible so that there is no danger of slag adhering to the pouring spout
and being washed into the mould with the first pour of metal.
When a tilting furnace is used then the crucible and shank as shown in Figure 7 are held under the
pouring spout of the furnace while tilting. To avoid a sever loss of temperature when pouring from the
furnace the crucible (b) should be heated to a red heat before being placed in the pouring shank.
For large castings the ladles used for non-ferrous castings may be of the open or teapot type as
shown in a previous paper. Again it must be repeated that every care should be taken to keep the
ladles in a warm, dry place to make sure that there is no moisture present when filling with liquid
metal.
Page 166 of 168

FOUNDRY THEORY N1
TEST PAPER 23
1. Name 3 types of furnaces used to melt non-ferrous metals.
2. In view of air pollution problems, what type of burner is recommended for crucible furnace
heating and what are its advantages?
3. Draw a sketch of a lift-out furnace.
4. Name two causes of sluggish metal.
5. How is the temperature of molten metal checked?
Page 167 of 168

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FOUNDRY THEORY N1

GATING AND FEEDING OF CASTINGS (continued)

best for his particular type of job.

b) Joint or parting gates, and

COMPONENT PARTS OF GATING SYSTEMS ILLUSTRATED IN FIGS. 1, 2 AND 3

No. Name of part

1 Runner cup, sprue cup

2 Cup strainer core

4 Pouring basin or runner basin

5 Pencil gates, pencil runners, pop gates

8 Finger gate (vertical)

10 Skim bob (cope) or (drag)

14 Pouring basin with dam

16 Strainer gate (cope)

18 Strainer gate (drag)

20 Pouring box or runner box

22 Finger gate (horizontal)

25 Riser or feeder heads supply liquid metal to thick sections: must be

gases and steam to escape as the mould is being filled

28 Core for bottom gate

29 Draw-in bottom gate

at these critical locations in a gating system.

the roll where it goes up harmlessly into the feeder.

uppermost ingate feeds hot metal into the feeder.

1. Make a sketch of a pencil gate and state its advantage

2. On what type of castings would you use a wedge gate?

5. What type of gating produces the cleanest castings and why?

Shrinkage and Feeding of Castings

this section will now deal with that aspect of foundrywork.

casting that was uppermost when the mould was poured.

by feeding metal into the casting.

at each end, as shown at B and c in Fig 2.

they were left off entirely

or C, and the casting will be free from such defects.

that their removal is very costly.

relieve the momentum of the metal flowing into the mould.

iron much smaller feeders are often used.

The subject of feeding resolves itself into the following problems:-\

2) What class of castings should be fed?

3) How is feeding to be done?

uniform internal shrinkage.

meet this need as shown in the dumb-bell example in fig. 1.

methods are not infrequently a matter of compulsion rather than choice.

obtain the desired result: a sound casting.

represents the feeder, B the casting and C the rod.

the feeder with hot metal.

methods of doing this, and widely used in South Africa are:

b) Plaster compound and

minimum excess metal.

fact, it keeps the metal molten for some time.

only 10kg were required: a considerable saving in metal.

smaller in size than the open feeder.

castings with specially high mechanical strength.

small castings produced by the “Lost Was” method.

2) Increased soundness and cleanliness

– 85%, which is extremely good for castings in this metal.

to solidify, this will help in determining the size and position.

4. What is the advantage of centrifugal casting?

5. Which casting would give a higher yield: