Determination of Moisture Sorption Isotherms (MSI) of Foods

Aim: To determine the Moisture Sorption Isotherm (MSI) of a chosen food sample at a constant
temperature.

Definition: A Moisture Sorption Isotherm (MSI) is a graph depicting the equilibrium relationship
between the water activity (aw) of a food and its moisture content (MC) at a specific temperature.

Materials and Apparatus:

Desiccators (various sizes), Saturated salt solutions (various types like LiCl, NaCl, KNO3 etc.), Analytical
balance (with high precision), Aluminum crucibles (with lids), Oven, Tweezers, Desiccator vacuum pump
(optional), Vacuum gauge (optional)

Reagents: None required (other than the saturated salt solutions)

Principle: Saturated salt solutions create environments with constant relative humidity (RH) within
desiccators. Food samples placed in these environments will reach equilibrium moisture content,
reflecting the water activity of the surrounding air. By using various saturated salt solutions, we can
establish different RH conditions and measure the corresponding moisture content in the food sample.

Procedure:

1. Sample Preparation:

Grind or mill the chosen food sample to a uniform particle size.

Weigh approximately 2-3 g of the sample into pre-weighed aluminum crucibles.

Record the initial weight of each crucible with the sample (W1).

2. Desiccator Preparation:

Select several desiccators to create a range of relative humidity (RH) conditions.

In each desiccator, place a different saturated salt solution in a separate container (not directly touching
the sample).

Optional: If using a vacuum pump, evacuate the desiccators to a low pressure (around 200 mmHg) to
remove any residual moisture.

3. Sample equilibration:

Place the crucibles with food samples on a platform inside each desiccator. Ensure the samples are not
in direct contact with the salt solution.

Seal the desiccators tightly.

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4. Incubation:

Place the desiccators in an oven set to a constant temperature (typically 25°C).

Allow the samples to equilibrate for several days (usually 2-4 days, depending on the food) until the
weight change becomes minimal.

5. Weighting and Data Collection:

Periodically remove the desiccators from the oven and weigh each crucible with the sample (W2).
Record the weight.

Return the desiccators to the oven for further equilibration.

Repeat steps 5a and 5b until the weight change between measurements is negligible (e.g., less than
0.001 g).

6. Determination of Water Activity (a_w):

Look up the corresponding water activity (a_w) values for each saturated salt solution used at the
chosen temperature (usually available in reference tables).

7. Final Weight and Moisture Content:

Once equilibrium is reached, remove the samples from the desiccators and dry them in an oven at a
higher temperature (around 100°C) for a fixed time (e.g., 24 hours) to determine the dry weight (Wdry).

Calculate the final weight of the sample after equilibration (Wf) by subtracting the weight of the empty
crucible from the final weight with the sample (W2).

Calculate the moisture content (MC) for each sample at equilibrium using the following equation:

MC (%) = (Wf - Wdry)x 100

Wdry

Data Collection:

Prepare a table to record the following data for each sample at each RH condition:

Sample ID

Initial weight of crucible + sample (W1)

Weight of crucible + sample after equilibration (W2)

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Final weight of empty crucible (Wdry)

Final weight of sample after equilibration (Wf)

Calculated Moisture Content (MC)

Water Activity (aw) of the corresponding saturated salt solution

Analysis:

Plot a graph of Moisture Content (MC) on the y-axis versus Water Activity (a_w) on the x-axis for all
your data points.

Analyze the shape of the MSI curve. Different shapes can indicate specific food behaviors related to
water adsorption and desorption.

You can further

Exploring the Properties of Water.

Aim: To investigate and observe various physical properties of water

Materials and Apparatus: Beakers, Stirring rods, Pipettes or droppers, Parafilm or plastic wrap, Coins
(different denominations),Granular solid (e.g., salt, sugar), Food coloring (optional), Ruler, Hot plate or
Bunsen burner, Paper towels, Balance (optional)

Properties to be Investigated:

1. Cohesion and Surface Tension:

Fill a beaker with water to approximately 1 cm below the rim. Carefully place a drop of water on the
surface using a dropper. Observe the curvature of the water droplet and the formation of a visible
surface film.

Gently place a coin on the water surface. Note how the coin initially rests on a slight dome of water due
to surface tension.

2. Adhesion:

Dip the clean tip of a stirring rod into a beaker of water and then touch it to the side of an empty beaker.
Observe the water adhering to both the stirring rod and the empty beaker, indicating the adhesive
property of water.

3. Density of Water:

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Fill two beakers with equal volumes of water. Accurately measure the water temperature using a
thermometer (optional). Add an ice cube to one beaker and allow it to settle. Observe the water level in
both beakers.

Record the observations. Explain why ice floats in water despite being a solid form of the same
substance. (Density of water reaches a maximum at 4°C).

4. Capillarity:

Cut a narrow strip of filter paper. Place one end of the paper strip in a beaker containing colored water.
Observe the colored water rising up the paper strip against the force of gravity. Explain this
phenomenon in relation to the cohesive and adhesive properties of water.

5. Solvent Properties:

Fill a beaker with a measured volume of water (e.g., 50 mL). Add a known mass of the chosen solid (e.g.,
1 gram of salt or sugar) to the water. Stir the mixture using a clean stirring rod until the solid dissolves
completely. Record the observations. Explain the behavior of water as a universal solvent.

6. Thermal Conductivity:

Prepare two beakers with equal volumes of water at different temperatures (e.g., one with hot water
from a hot plate and another with cold water). Wrap each beaker securely with parafilm or plastic wrap
to minimize heat loss through evaporation.

After a set time interval (e.g., 5 minutes), carefully feel the outer surface of each beaker. Record which
beaker feels warmer. Explain how this observation relates to the thermal conductivity of water.

Conclusion:

Based on the experimental findings, discuss the different physical properties of water explored in the
laboratory session.

Explain the significance of these properties in various natural phenomena and biological processes.

Relate your observations to the molecular structure of water (polar covalent bonding with hydrogen
bonding) for a deeper understanding.

4
 Identifying Starch in Food Samples

Aim:To identify the presence of starch in unknown food samples using the iodine test.

Materials and Apparatus:Test tubes or small beakers, Dropper pipette, Iodine solution, Hot plate or
Bunsen burner, Forceps or tongs, Distilled water, Unknown food samples (solid or liquid, such as bread,
potato, pasta, apple, milk), Labeling tape or markers for test tubes

Procedure:

1. Sample Preparation:

If using solid food samples, cut or crush them into small pieces for better contact with the test solution.

2. Test Tube Labeling:

Label each test tube with the name of the corresponding food sample.

3. Adding Samples:

Using clean forceps or tongs, place a small amount of each food sample into separate test tubes.

4. Distilled Water:

Add a few drops of distilled water to each test tube containing the food samples. This helps disperse the
sample and facilitates interaction with the iodine solution.

5. Iodine Solution:

Using a dropper pipette, add a few drops of iodine solution to each test tube containing the sample and
water mixture. Swirl the test tube gently to ensure proper mixing.

6. Observation:

Observe the color change in each test tube after adding the iodine solution.

7. Optional: Heating (for Starch Confirmation):

Using a hot plate or Bunsen burner with a low heat setting, carefully heat the test tubes containing the
sample-iodine mixture for a brief period (around 30 seconds).

Observe any color changes after heating.

8. Cooling Down:

Allow the test tubes to cool down completely before further handling.

Results and Interpretation:

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A color change to blue-black in the test tube indicates the presence of starch in the food sample.

If the solution remains brown or orange-brown after adding iodine, starch is likely absent.

The optional heating step can help confirm the presence of starch. Heating a blue-black solution might
cause a color change to reddish-brown, which then returns to blue-black upon cooling. This signifies the
presence of starch.

Conclusion:

Based on the observed color changes, identify which food samples contain starch.

Test limitation: this test does not distinguish between different types of carbohydrates.

6
 Determining the Rotary Power of Sugars using a Polarimeter

Aim: To determine the specific rotation of various sugar solutions using a polarimeter.

Materials and Apparatus: Polarimeter, Sodium lamp (light source for the polarimeter), Sample cuvettes
(cells) with known path lengths, Analytical balance, Volumetric flasks, Pipettes, Distilled water, Sugar
samples (e.g., sucrose, glucose, fructose), Magnetic stirrer (optional), Beakers.

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Sugar Solutions:

Concentration Selection: Choose a desired concentration for your sugar solutions (e.g., 1% w/v). This
refers to grams of sugar per 100 milliliters of solution.

Accurate Weighing: Using the analytical balance, weigh out a precise amount of your chosen sugar
sample according to the desired concentration and volume of the solution you wish to prepare.

Dissolution: Transfer the weighed sugar sample to a clean beaker or volumetric flask. Add a small
amount of distilled water and stir to dissolve the sugar completely. You can use a magnetic stirrer to aid
in dissolving the sugar.

Volume Adjustment:Once the sugar dissolves, dilute the solution with distilled water to reach the final
desired volume in the volumetric flask. Swirl the flask gently to ensure homogenous mixing.

2. Setting Up the Polarimeter:

Follow the manufacturer's instructions for your specific polarimeter model.

Typically, you will need to turn on the instrument and allow the sodium lamp to warm up for a stable
light source.

3. Blank Measurement:

Fill a clean sample cuvette with distilled water. Ensure the cuvette is free of dust, fingerprints, or
scratches that might affect the light path.

Place the cuvette filled with distilled water into the sample chamber of the polarimeter.

Adjust the instrument settings to obtain a zero reading on the scale (this represents the baseline for
pure solvent).

4. Sugar Solution Measurement:

Rinse the sample cuvette with distilled water and dry it thoroughly.

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Fill the cuvette with your prepared sugar solution.

Place the cuvette containing the sugar solution into the sample chamber of the polarimeter.

Record the observed rotation angle on the scale. This value represents the optical rotation caused by
the sugar solution.

5. Repeat Measurements:

Repeat steps 4 for each sugar solution you want to analyze.

It's recommended to perform replicate measurements (e.g., duplicate or triplicate) for each solution to
improve data reliability.

Data Collection and Calculations:

Record the following data for each sugar solution:

Sugar type

Concentration of the solution (w/v)

Path length of the sample cuvette (cm)

Observed rotation angle for each replicate measurement (degrees)

Calculate the specific rotation ([α]) of each sugar solution.

[α].= Observed Rotation Angle

Concentration x Path Length

Units for specific rotation are typically reported in degrees x dm³/g x dm (deg dm³ g⁻¹ dm⁻¹).

Analysis and Discussion:

Analyze the calculated specific rotation values for each sugar solution.

Discuss the observed differences in specific rotation between different sugars.

Research typical ranges for the specific rotation of the chosen sugars and compare your results to these
reference values.

Consider potential sources of error in the experiment and how they might affect your results.

Conclusion:

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Summarize your findings on the specific rotation of the investigated sugar solutions.

Explain how this experiment demonstrates the relationship between a molecule's structure and its
interaction with polarized light.

9
 Determining Gelatinization Temperatures of Starches

Aim: To determine the gelatinization temperature of different starch samples using a differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique.

Materials and Apparatus: Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), Aluminum crucibles, Analytical
balance, Micropipettes, Distilled water, Starch samples (e.g., corn starch, potato starch, wheat starch),
Desiccator (optional).

Procedure:

1. Sample Preparation:

Drying (Optional): If concerned about moisture content affecting the results, pre-dry the starch samples
in a desiccator for a defined period (e.g., 24 hours) to remove any residual moisture.

2. Weighing:

Using the analytical balance, accurately weigh a small amount (typically around 2-5 mg) of your chosen
starch sample.

3. Sample Placement:

Carefully transfer the weighed starch sample into a clean and dry aluminum crucible.

4. Reference Sample:

Prepare a reference crucible containing only distilled water (same volume as used for the starch
sample). This will be used as a baseline for the DSC measurement.

5. Hermetic Sealing:

Carefully seal the crucibles to ensure a hermetic environment during the measurement.

6. DSC Settings:

Program the DSC according to the desired temperature range encompassing the expected gelatinization
temperature of your starch samples (typically between 50°C and 100°C).

Set an appropriate heating rate (e.g., 10°C/minute) for the analysis.

7. Running the Experiment:

Pace the crucibles containing the starch sample and reference water in the designated sample holders of
the DSC.

Initiate the programmed temperature scan according to the instrument's operational guidelines.

8. Data Acquisition:

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The DSC will measure and record the heat flow associated with the sample as a function of temperature.

The instrument software will typically generate a thermogram depicting the heat flow versus
temperature profile.

Data Analysis:

Analyze the generated thermogram for each starch sample.

Identify the endothermic peak associated with the gelatinization process. This peak represents the
temperature range where the starch granules are absorbing heat and undergoing the transition from a
semi-crystalline to an amorphous state.

The temperature corresponding to the peak maximum or the onset of the endothermic peak is
considered the gelatinization temperature of the starch sample.

Discussion:

Compare the gelatinization temperatures obtained for different starch samples.

Discuss the factors that might influence the gelatinization temperature of starches (e.g., source of the
starch, presence of amylose/amylopectin ratio variations).

Research typical gelatinization temperature ranges for the chosen starch samples and compare your
results to these reference values.

Conclusion:

Summarize your findings on the gelatinization temperatures of the investigated starch samples using the
DSC technique.

Explain the significance of determining gelatinization temperature in various applications involving

starches (e.g., food processing, pharmaceutical formulations).

11
 Isolating and Characterizing Physicochemical Properties of Starches

Part 1: Starch Isolation

Materials and Apparatus:

Grated or finely chopped source material (e.g., potatoes, corn kernels, wheat), Distilled water, Beaker,
Stirring rod, Cheesecloth or muslin cloth, Centrifuge (optional), Graduated cylinder, Ethanol (95%, food
grade), Oven (set at 50°C), Petri dish or weighing paper

Procedure:

Create a slurry by placing the chosen source material in a beaker and adding distilled water, then stir
vigorously to break down cellular structure. Next, filter the slurry through cheesecloth to remove larger
particles and cell debris, collecting the filtrate containing starch granules. Allow the filtrate to stand
undisturbed for sedimentation, with starch granules settling at the bottom. Carefully decant the
supernatant liquid, leaving the starch layer behind. Optionally, repeat filtration and sedimentation with
fresh water for further purification. Alternatively, use a centrifuge to accelerate sedimentation. Next,
wash the starch pellet with ethanol, repeating the process multiple times. Finally, dry the isolated starch
in an oven at 50°C until completely dry and store in a sealed container for further analysis.

Part 2: Physicochemical Characterization

Materials and Apparatus.

Microscope: Observe size, shape, and surface features of starch granules.

Iodine test: Identify the presence of starch using a simple colorimetric test.

Viscometer: Measure the viscosity of starch solutions to understand their thickening properties.

Spectrophotometer (optional): Analyze the absorption spectrum of starch to explore its interaction with
light.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC, optional): Determine the gelatinization temperature of the
starch.

Data Collection and Analysis

Record observations and measurements obtained from each physicochemical characterization

technique.

Analyze the data to gain insights into the properties of the isolated starch:

Size and shape of starch granules (microscopy)

Presence of starch (iodine test)

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Viscosity of starch solutions (viscometer)

Potential functional properties based on the data (e.g., thickening ability)

Conclusion:

Summarize the successful isolation of starch from your chosen source.

Discuss the observed physicochemical properties of the isolated starch and how they might relate to its
potential applications.

Highlight limitations of the chosen isolation and characterization methods.

13
 Measuring Jell Strength of Jams and Jellies using a Gelometer

Aim: To measure the jelling strength of different jam or jelly samples using a gelometer.

Materials and Apparatus:

Gelometer, Cylindrical sample molds, Spatula, Analytical balance, Freezer or cold room, Jam or jelly
samples.

Procedure:

To prepare the jam or jelly samples for gelometer testing, ensure they are in a smooth, spreadable form,
either by blending or processing them, then accurately weigh around 10-20 grams of each sample using
an analytical balance as per the gelometer's manufacturer instructions; transfer the weighed sample
into a clean cylindrical mold, leveling its surface with a spatula; cool the filled molds in a 4°C freezer or
cold room until fully gelled, adhering to recommended storage times; subsequently, measure the gel
strength by placing the gelled sample mold onto the gelometer platform, initiating the measurement
program, which applies controlled force and records penetration depth or required force; record the gel
strength values displayed by the gelometer, noting the units of measurement; upon completion, clean
the sample mold thoroughly with warm water and detergent, adhering to proper food waste disposal
protocols.

Analysis and Discussion:

Analyze the obtained jell strength values for the different jam/jelly samples.

Discuss factors that can influence jell strength (e.g., type and amount of pectin used, sugar content, pH).

Research typical jell strength ranges for various jams and jellies and compare your results to these
reference values.

Consider potential sources of error in the experiment and how they might affect your results.

Conclusion:

Summarize your findings on the jell strength of the investigated jam/jelly samples as determined by the
gelometer.

Explain the significance of jell strength as a quality parameter for jams and jellies, considering its relation
to texture and consumer preference.

14
 Fractionation and Isolation of Food Proteins

Materials and Apparatus: Blender or grinder, Centrifuge, Graduated cylinders, Beakers, Magnetic
stirrer, Stirring rods, Filter paper, Funnels, Saturated salt solutions (e.g., ammonium sulfate at different
saturation levels), Distilled water, Ice bath, pH meter, Test tubes, Dialysis tubing, Desiccator, Analytical
balance.

Additional Reagents

Milk: Skim milk or whole milk, dilute acetic acid solution (e.g., 1% v/v)

Egg: Eggs, saturated sodium chloride solution

Meat: Lean meat (e.g., chicken breast), cold phosphate buffer (pH 7.0)

Wheat Flour: Wheat flour, 0.1 M sodium chloride solution

Cowpeas/Sorghum: Dried cowpeas/sorghum seeds, sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH, e.g., 0.1 M)

Procedure::

Grind or blend the chosen food sample to a fine consistency to facilitate protein extraction.

The specific extraction method will depend on the food source.

Milk: Suspend the milk sample in distilled water and adjust the pH to around 4.5 with dilute acetic acid
solution. This will cause casein proteins to precipitate.

Egg: Homogenize the egg whites with a saturated sodium chloride solution. This helps extract albumen
proteins.

Meat: Homogenize the meat sample with cold phosphate buffer. Maintain a low temperature to
minimize protein denaturation.

Wheat Flour: Prepare a dough with wheat flour and 0.1 M sodium chloride solution. Wash the dough
with excess solution to remove starch and other components. The remaining gluten fraction is rich in
proteins.

Cowpeas/Sorghum: Soak the dried seeds in dilute sodium hydroxide solution for a defined period. This
helps solubilize the proteins.

Centrifuge the homogenized mixture at a suitable speed and time (depending on the sample) to
separate the liquid protein extract (supernatant) from the insoluble components (pellet).

Utilize techniques like salting out with saturated salt solutions at different concentrations to achieve
further fractionation of proteins based on their solubility characteristics.

15
Ammonium sulfate precipitation is a commonly used method. Refer to specific protocols for different
protein fractions targeted (e.g., albumins, globulins).

If complete desalting of the protein fraction is required, dialyze the protein solution against distilled
water using dialysis tubing. This removes residual salts introduced during earlier steps.

Protein Isolation:

Depending on the chosen method, protein isolation might involve techniques like:

Precipitation (e.g., adjusting pH to a specific isoelectric point for targeted protein precipitation).

Freeze-drying (lyophilization) to remove water and obtain a concentrated protein powder (optional).

Analyze the isolated protein using techniques like:

SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis to visualize protein profiles.

Bradford assay or other methods to quantify protein concentration.

16
 Browning Reactions:

The Science Behind the Color Change

Browning in cut fruits and vegetables is a fascinating phenomenon caused by a series of chemical
reactions.

1: Browning in Action (Cut Yam)

Materials: Fresh yam, Cutting board, Knife, Two plates

Procedure:

Cut the Yam: Wash and peel the yam. Cut it into thin slices and place half on each plate, leave one plate
of yam slices exposed to air. Cover the other plate with plastic wrap to minimize air exposure, monitor
the exposed yam slices over time.

The exposed slices will begin to turn brown within minutes, while the covered slices will brown much
slower or not at all.

Explanation:

The browning observed is due to a complex series of enzymatic reactions. When you cut the yam, you
damage cell walls, releasing enzymes (mainly polyphenol oxidase) that come into contact with phenolic
compounds naturally present in the yam. In the presence of oxygen, these enzymes convert phenolics
to quinones. Quinones are highly reactive molecules that readily polymerize (link together) forming
brown pigments called melanins. This is why the exposed yam slices brown!

2. Preventing Browning with Blanching

Materials: Fresh apple (or another browning-prone fruit/vegetable), Cutting board, Knife, Two pots,
Stovetop, Strainer, Cold water bowl.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the Apple: Wash and core the apple. Cut it into similar-sized slices.

2. Blanching: Fill one pot with water and bring it to a boil. Fill the other bowl with cold water.

3. Blanch Half: Add half of the apple slices to the boiling water for a brief period (around 30 seconds for
thin slices). Immediately transfer the blanched slices to the cold water bath to stop the cooking process.

4. Leave Raw: Leave the remaining apple slices raw (unblanched).

5. Observe the Change: Set both sets of apple slices aside for 10-15 minutes. Ask students to predict
and observe what happens. The blanched slices should brown much slower compared to the raw slices.

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Explanation:

Blanching works by inactivating the enzymes responsible for browning. The brief exposure to boiling
water denatures (inactivates) the enzymes, preventing them from reacting with phenolic compounds
and causing browning. This allows the blanched apple slices to retain their fresh appearance for a longer
duration.

Questions

1. Find and prove any 2 other ways use to prevent browning in food industry.

Hint: lemon juice, contains citric acid that can inhibit enzymatic browning.

2. Explain the browning method use on bread during toasting. (Maillard reaction).

18
Separation of Color Pigments using Paper Chromatography

Materials:

Chromatography paper, Pencil, Ruler, Scissors, Sample solution containing a mixture of colored
pigments (e.g., spinach extract, food coloring mixture), Capillary tubes or micropipettes, Beaker or
chromatography chamber, Solvent (e.g., acetone, isopropanol:water mixture), Spray bottle, Desiccator.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the Chromatography Paper:

Cut a strip of chromatography paper with a width of about 2 cm and a length of 10-15 cm.

On the shorter end (baseline), use a pencil to lightly mark a line about 1 cm from the bottom edge. This
will be the starting point of the sample application.

2. Sample Application:

Dip a clean capillary tube or micropipette tip into your sample solution.

Touch the tip to the marked line on the chromatography paper to deposit a small spot of the sample
solution.

Allow the spot to dry completely (on a cool setting). You may repeat this process 2-3 times to increase
the concentration of the sample at the starting point.

3. Prepare the Chromatography Chamber:

Pour a small amount of the chosen solvent into the beaker or chromatography chamber.

The solvent level should not be higher than the marked baseline on your chromatography paper.

Cover the chamber partially with a lid to minimize solvent evaporation while allowing some air
circulation.

4. Chromatographic Separation:

Carefully place the chromatography paper strip into the chamber, ensuring the sample spot is
positioned below the solvent level but not touching it.

The solvent will start to travel up the paper by capillary action, carrying the components of the sample
mixture along with it.

5. Monitor the Separation:

19
Allow the solvent to migrate up the chromatography paper for a suitable distance (until the solvent
front reaches about 3/4th of the paper length). This can take 20-30 minutes depending on the solvent
and paper type.

Monitor the progress and remove the paper when the desired separation is achieved.

6. Drying and Visualization.

Mark the final solvent front with a pencil on the dried chromatogram.

Some pigments might be visible directly. You can enhance the visualization by gently spraying the paper
with a dilute solution of a suitable visualizing agent (specific to the pigments used) if needed. Allow the
sprayed paper to dry completely in a fume hood or a desiccator.

7. Identification of Pigments:

Compare the position (distance traveled) of each colored band on your chromatogram to reference
values for the expected pigments in your sample mixture. Resources such as Rf (retardation factor)
values can be helpful for identification.

Identification of Dyes using Spectrophotometer

Materials: Spectrophotometer with cuvette holder, Cuvettes (matched pair), Sample solution
containing a colored dye (unknown), Solvent (same solvent used to prepare the dye solution),
Disposable gloves

Procedure:

1. Prepare the Blank:

Fill one cuvette with the solvent used to prepare your dye solution. This will be your blank.

Wipe the outside of the cuvette with a clean tissue to remove any fingerprints or smudges that might
interfere with the measurement.

2. Prepare the Sample Solution:

Fill the other cuvette with your unknown dye solution.

Ensure both cuvettes are filled to approximately the same level.

3. Spectrophotometer Settings:

Set the wavelength range of the spectrophotometer to cover the visible spectrum (typically 400-700
nm).

4. Blank Measurement:

20
Place the cuvette containing the solvent (blank) into the sample holder of the spectrophotometer.

Discussion:

Iterpret the results and draw conclusions about the identity and concentration of dyes present in the
samples based on their absorbance readings.

Discuss how spectrophotometry measures the absorbance of light by colored substances, allowing for
quantitative analysis and identification of dyes.

Explain the importance of using a blank reference to account for background absorbance from the
solvent or cuvette material.

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