A REVIEW

ON

TOAD DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE IN URBAN AND RURAL

HABITATS IN BENUE STATE: IMPLICATIONS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

BY

JEKELLE EMMANUELLA NGUAMO

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1.0 Introduction

Amphibians are key components of ecosystems, contributing to various ecological processes

such as nutrient cycling and serving as indicators of environmental health due to their sensitivity

to habitat alterations and pollutants (Beebee, 2013). Among amphibians, toads (order Anura,

family Bufonidae) are particularly noteworthy for their wide distribution and ecological

significance. Understanding the diversity and abundance of toads in different habitats, including

urban and rural areas, is essential for assessing the impacts of anthropogenic activities on

amphibian populations and overall environmental health (Riley et al., 2005). Toads (order

Anura) are amphibians widely distributed across various habitats worldwide, playing vital roles

in ecosystem functioning and serving as indicators of environmental health. Understanding how

toad diversity and abundance vary between urban and rural habitats is crucial for assessing the

impacts of urbanization on amphibians and informing conservation efforts (Baker et al., 2014).

Urbanization is a significant driver of environmental change, altering landscapes, fragmenting

habitats, and introducing various stressors to wildlife populations. Studies have shown that urban

areas often exhibit lower toad species richness and abundance compared to rural or natural

habitats (Baker et al., 2014). Furthermore, urban areas are often characterized by increased

impervious surfaces, altered hydrology, and pollution from various sources, all of which can

negatively impact amphibian populations. Toads are particularly sensitive to habitat alteration

due to their reliance on both terrestrial and aquatic habitats during different life stages. Studies

have shown mixed results regarding toad diversity and abundance in urban areas (Richardson et

al. 2010). While some urban habitats may support viable toad populations, others may

experience declines or local extinctions. Factors influencing toad populations in urban

environments include habitat availability, connectivity, pollution levels, and the presence of

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predators and competitors. For example, urban parks and green spaces with suitable habitat

features may support diverse toad communities, while highly urbanized areas with limited green

spaces may be less suitable (Parris, 2016). Despite these challenges, some toad species have

demonstrated an ability to adapt to urban environments. Certain species exhibit behavioral

plasticity, such as altered breeding strategies and habitat preferences, enabling them to persist in

urban areas (Gallant et al., 2013). Additionally, urban toad populations may benefit from human-

altered landscapes, including artificial water bodies like ponds and stormwater retention basins,

which provide breeding sites in otherwise degraded habitats (Parris and McCarthy, 2001). These

findings suggest that toad diversity and abundance in urban areas are influenced by a complex

interplay of factors, including species-specific traits and habitat modifications.

Rural habitats generally offer more intact and less disturbed environments compared to urban

areas. Consequently, toad diversity and abundance in rural habitats may be higher than in urban

environments. Agricultural practices, such as pesticide use and habitat destruction, can adversely

affect toads by reducing suitable breeding sites and food availability (Smith et al., 2010).

Furthermore, the intensification of agriculture and expansion of monoculture crops can lead to

the loss of vegetative cover, exposing toads to predation and desiccation (Eigenbrod et al., 2009).

Therefore, while rural areas may offer relatively less disturbed habitats for toads compared to

urban environments, they are not immune to anthropogenic influences. Moreover, rural

landscapes are increasingly being affected by urban sprawl and development, leading to habitat

loss and fragmentation (Smith et al., 2010).

Comparative studies examining toad diversity and abundance between urban and rural habitats

have yielded valuable insights into the effects of urbanization on amphibians. These studies often

utilize standardized survey methods to assess species richness, abundance, and habitat

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characteristics across different habitat types (Homan et al., 2019).. Results from such studies

highlight the importance of maintaining habitat connectivity and quality for sustaining toad

populations in both urban and rural landscapes. Despite advances in understanding toad ecology

in urban and rural habitats, several challenges remain. These include the need for long-term

monitoring programs, the integration of citizen science data, and the development of landscape-

scale conservation strategies. Additionally, climate change poses a significant threat to

amphibian populations worldwide, highlighting the importance of considering future climatic

scenarios in conservation planning. The conservation of toad diversity and abundance in urban

and rural habitats requires integrated management strategies that address multiple stressors and

consider landscape-scale processes. Habitat restoration and creation of green spaces within urban

areas can provide refuges for toad populations and promote connectivity between fragmented

habitats (Lowe et al., 2017). Moreover, reducing pollution and minimizing anthropogenic

disturbances in toad breeding sites are essential for supporting healthy populations and

maintaining ecosystem resilience (Gagne et al., 2018). Collaborative efforts involving

researchers, policymakers, and local communities are necessary to implement effective

conservation measures and ensure the long-term survival of toads in urbanized landscapes.

Toads play critical roles in ecosystem functioning, including pest control and nutrient cycling,

making their conservation important for maintaining ecosystem health. The presence of healthy

toad populations in both urban and rural habitats indicates the overall health of these ecosystems.

Conversely, declines in toad diversity and abundance may signal environmental degradation and

the need for conservation interventions. Therefore, monitoring toad populations in urban and

rural environments can serve as an indicator of environmental health and guide conservation

priorities. This review thus explores the current state of knowledge regarding toad diversity and

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abundance in urban and rural environments, focusing on the implications for environmental

health.

1.1 Statement of Problem

The diversity and abundance of toads in urban and rural habitats present a crucial ecological

concern with profound implications for environmental health. Urbanization and habitat

fragmentation pose significant challenges to the survival and proliferation of toad populations,

potentially leading to decreased biodiversity and disrupted ecosystem functioning.

Understanding the factors influencing toad diversity and abundance across different habitat types

is essential for effective conservation and management strategies aimed at preserving ecological

balance and mitigating the detrimental effects of anthropogenic activities on amphibian

populations and overall environmental health.

1.2 Justification of the Review

Understanding the diversity and abundance of toads in both urban and rural habitats is crucial for

assessing the impact of human development on amphibian populations and overall

environmental health. Urbanization poses significant challenges to wildlife, potentially leading to

habitat fragmentation, pollution, and altered ecosystem dynamics, all of which can have adverse

effects on amphibians. Comparing toad populations between urban and rural areas can provide

insights into how these anthropogenic disturbances affect their distribution and abundance.

Moreover, toads play a vital role in ecosystem functioning, including pest control and nutrient

cycling, thus changes in their populations can have cascading effects on ecosystem health.

Therefore, investigating toad diversity and abundance across different habitats is essential for

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informing conservation strategies and promoting sustainable urban development practices to

mitigate adverse effects on amphibians and broader environmental health.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Review

The aim of this review is to assess and compare the diversity and abundance of toad populations

in urban and rural habitats, with a focus on understanding the implications of human-induced

environmental changes on these amphibian populations.

The objectives include:

1. Review the current state of knowledge regarding toad diversity and abundance in urban

and rural habitats through a comprehensive review of relevant scientific literature.

2. Review and compare the key environmental factors influencing toad populations in urban

and rural settings, including habitat fragmentation, pollution levels, habitat availability,

and climate change.

3. Review the potential consequences of urbanization and anthropogenic activities on toad

populations, such as habitat loss, altered breeding dynamics, and increased mortality

rates.

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2.0 Amphibian Ecology.

Amphibians, as a class of vertebrates, occupy a unique ecological niche due to their dual life

stages in aquatic and terrestrial habitats. This dual life strategy presents amphibians with distinct

ecological challenges and opportunities. In their aquatic larval stage, amphibians often inhabit

freshwater ecosystems such as ponds, lakes, and streams. Here, they play crucial roles in nutrient

cycling and energy flow within these ecosystems. For instance, tadpoles are known to graze on

algae, regulating algal blooms and contributing to water quality maintenance. Additionally,

amphibian larvae serve as important prey items for a variety of aquatic predators, thereby

contributing to the intricate web of energy transfer within freshwater food chains (Pearl et al.,

2016).

Amphibians contribute significantly to ecosystem processes through various ecological roles,

including predation, herbivory, and nutrient cycling. As predators, amphibians regulate

invertebrate populations, influencing community structure and dynamics in both aquatic and

terrestrial habitats. Furthermore, their sensitivity to environmental changes, such as pollutants

and habitat degradation, makes them valuable bioindicators of ecosystem health. Amphibians

also play essential roles in energy flow and nutrient cycling, as they serve as prey for a wide

range of predators and contribute to nutrient recycling through their feeding habits and roles as

decomposers (Griffiths et al., 2015).

Amphibians exhibit diverse reproductive strategies, including external fertilization in water,

providing insights into the intricate relationships between amphibians and their habitat. As

amphibians undergo metamorphosis and transition to their terrestrial adult stage, they become

integral components of both terrestrial and riparian ecosystems. Adult amphibians occupy

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diverse habitats ranging from forests to grasslands, where they fulfill various ecological roles.

For example, many amphibians are nocturnal predators, feeding on insects and other

invertebrates, thus contributing to pest control and regulating insect populations (Werner et al.,

2007). Furthermore, as both predators and prey, amphibians serve as important links in terrestrial

food webs, influencing the dynamics of species interactions and ecosystem stability (Rothermel

et al., 2008).

However, amphibians face numerous ecological threats that endanger their populations and

disrupt their ecological functions. Habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, climate change, and

infectious diseases are among the primary challenges amphibians encounter (Stuart et al., 2004).

These threats not only directly impact amphibian populations but also have cascading effects on

ecosystem dynamics. For instance, declines in amphibian populations can disrupt predator-prey

interactions and alter community structure in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Collins and

Storfer, 2003). Therefore, understanding and mitigating these threats are crucial for conserving

amphibian biodiversity and preserving their ecological functions in ecosystems worldwide.

2.1 Urbanization and Amphibians.

Urbanization is recognized as one of the most significant drivers of global environmental change,

profoundly impacting biodiversity and ecosystems. The expansion of urban areas alters

landscapes, disrupts natural habitats, and introduces a myriad of stressors for wildlife.

Amphibians, in particular, are highly susceptible to urbanization due to their permeable skin,

aquatic reproduction, and sensitivity to environmental changes. Studies have shown that urban

areas negatively affect amphibian populations by reducing habitat availability, fragmenting

habitats, increasing pollution levels, and introducing non-native species. For instance, a recent

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study by Johnson et al. (2023) found that urbanization is associated with a significant decline in

amphibian species richness and abundance, highlighting the detrimental effects of urban

development on amphibian communities.

Moreover, urbanization exacerbates existing threats to amphibians, such as habitat loss, climate

change, and disease. Climate change, driven in part by urbanization, alters precipitation patterns

and temperatures, directly impacting amphibian breeding cycles, distribution, and survival.

Urban heat islands, a phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than

surrounding rural areas, further exacerbate thermal stress for amphibians. Additionally, the

introduction of non-native species through urbanization can lead to competition, predation, and

disease transmission, further threatening native amphibian populations. A recent meta-analysis

by Smith et al. (2022) demonstrated that urban areas serve as hotspots for the introduction and

spread of non-native species, posing significant threats to native biodiversity, including

amphibians.

Efforts to mitigate the impacts of urbanization on amphibians require interdisciplinary

approaches that integrate urban planning, conservation biology, and community engagement.

Implementing green infrastructure, such as green roofs, rain gardens, and constructed wetlands,

within urban areas can provide vital habitat and connectivity for amphibians while also

enhancing urban biodiversity and ecosystem services. Community-based conservation initiatives,

such as citizen science programs and community-led habitat restoration projects, play a crucial

role in monitoring amphibian populations, raising awareness, and fostering stewardship among

urban residents. Furthermore, policy interventions, such as land-use planning and zoning

regulations that prioritize conservation and green space preservation in urban development, are

essential for promoting coexistence between urbanization and amphibian conservation. Recent

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studies emphasize the importance of proactive management strategies and collaborative efforts to

mitigate the adverse effects of urbanization on amphibians and preserve urban biodiversity for

future generations (Jones et al., 2023).

2.1.1 Toad Diversity and Abundance.

Toad diversity and abundance are key components of terrestrial ecosystems worldwide, playing

crucial roles in various ecological processes. Toads belong to the family Bufonidae within the

order Anura, and they are characterized by their stout bodies, warty skin, and terrestrial habits.

The diversity of toads is distributed across different continents, with notable species found in

regions ranging from temperate to tropical climates. The diverse habitats in which toads are

found include forests, grasslands, deserts, and wetlands, highlighting their adaptability to various

environmental conditions (Frost, 2020).

One of the most widely studied aspects of toad diversity is their taxonomic classification and

evolutionary relationships. Molecular phylogenetic studies have provided insights into the

evolutionary history of toads, revealing patterns of diversification and speciation across different

geographic regions (Pyron and Wiens, 2011). These studies have identified several major clades

within the family Bufonidae, each comprising multiple species with distinct morphological and

ecological characteristics. In addition to taxonomic diversity, toads exhibit a wide range of

ecological traits that contribute to their abundance and distribution. For instance, toads are

known for their ability to tolerate a broad range of environmental conditions, including

fluctuations in temperature and humidity. This adaptability allows them to inhabit diverse

habitats and exploit various resources for feeding and reproduction, contributing to their overall

abundance in many ecosystems (Pough et al., 2016).

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Toad abundance is influenced by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors, including habitat

availability, predation pressure, and competition with other amphibian species. Studies have

shown that toad populations can fluctuate in response to changes in environmental conditions,

such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Anthropogenic activities, such as

urbanization and agricultural expansion, can also impact toad populations by altering their

habitat and disrupting breeding sites. Toad diversity and abundance play important ecological

roles in terrestrial ecosystems. As predators of insects and other invertebrates, toads help regulate

populations of arthropods, contributing to ecosystem stability and functioning. Furthermore,

toads serve as prey for a variety of predators, including birds, mammals, and reptiles, forming

important links in food webs and energy transfer within ecosystems (Beebee, 2013).

Conservation efforts aimed at preserving toad diversity and abundance are essential for

maintaining ecosystem health and biodiversity. Threats such as habitat destruction, pollution, and

climate change pose significant challenges to toad populations worldwide (Blaustein et al.,

2010). Conservation strategies may include habitat restoration, captive breeding programs, and

monitoring of population trends to assess the effectiveness of conservation measures. Public

awareness and education campaigns can also play a crucial role in fostering appreciation for toad

diversity and promoting conservation initiatives aimed at protecting these ecologically important

amphibians. Toad diversity and abundance are integral components of terrestrial ecosystems,

with toads playing important roles in ecological processes such as insect predation and energy

transfer within food webs. Understanding the factors influencing toad diversity and abundance is

essential for implementing effective conservation strategies aimed at preserving these

ecologically important amphibians in the face of increasing anthropogenic pressures and

environmental changes (Böll et al., 2021).

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2.1.2 Importance of Toads in Ecosystems

Toads play a vital role in ecosystems worldwide, contributing significantly to ecosystem

dynamics and functioning. One of the primary contributions of toads lies in their role as

insectivores. They consume a wide variety of invertebrates, including insects such as beetles,

ants, and mosquitoes. By controlling insect populations, toads help maintain ecological balance

and prevent pest outbreaks that could harm plants and other animals (Vasconcelos et al., 2010).

This aspect of their diet makes them valuable allies in agriculture, where they can help control

pests naturally, reducing the need for chemical pesticides that can have detrimental effects on the

environment. By preying on crop-damaging insects, they offer a sustainable and environmentally

friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. The reduction in the use of synthetic pesticides helps

to safeguard the health of both the ecosystem and other organisms within it, including humans.

Studies have shown that toads can be an effective biocontrol agent in managing agricultural

pests, thus promoting a more balanced and resilient ecosystem (Kuznetsova et al., 2012).

Moreover, toads also serve as prey for various predators within their ecosystems, including birds,

mammals, and reptiles. Their presence in food chains and webs contributes to the transfer of

energy and nutrients throughout the ecosystem (Rothermel et al., 2019). As prey, toads help

support the populations of their predators, contributing to the overall biodiversity and stability of

the ecosystem. Toads play a crucial role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems. Through their

feeding habits and subsequent excretion, they redistribute nutrients across the landscape. This

process enriches soils, promotes plant growth, and supports the overall health of terrestrial

ecosystems. In aquatic ecosystems, toads also contribute to nutrient cycling through their

excretion and decomposition after death, further supporting the productivity of these

environments (Mazzoni et al., 2015).

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Furthermore, toads are important indicators of environmental health. Their sensitivity to changes

in environmental conditions, such as pollution, habitat degradation, and climate change, makes

them valuable bioindicators (IUCN, 2018). Their decline or disappearance from an area can

serve as an early warning sign of environmental degradation, pollution, or habitat loss. Scientists

often monitor toad populations as part of broader environmental monitoring programs to assess

the health of ecosystems and detect potential threats to biodiversity. Therefore, conserving and

protecting toad populations can have far-reaching implications for the overall health and stability

of ecosystems Monitoring toad populations can provide insights into the overall health of

ecosystems and the effectiveness of conservation efforts. Declines in toad populations may

signal underlying environmental problems that require attention. Additionally, toads are highly

sensitive to changes in moisture levels and habitat structure, making them excellent indicators of

habitat quality and fragmentation. Their reliance on both aquatic and terrestrial environments

during different life stages makes them particularly vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation.

Therefore, by studying toad populations and their habitat preferences, conservationists can assess

the impacts of habitat alteration and inform management strategies aimed at preserving

biodiversity and ecosystem integrity (Rowley et al., 2010).

Toads also play a role in seed dispersal. Some species of toads consume fruits and seeds, aiding

in the dispersal of seeds across their habitats (Santos et al., 2016). Through their feeding habits,

toads inadvertently consume a variety of fruits and seeds during their nightly explorations

(Bakkegard et al., 2018). This consumption aids in the dispersal of seeds across different

habitats, promoting the establishment of new plant colonies and enhancing genetic diversity

within plant populations (Hocking and Babbitt, 2014). By carrying seeds within their digestive

systems, toads contribute to the spatial distribution of plant species, influencing vegetation

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dynamics and promoting ecosystem resilience. Moreover, the unique digestive physiology of

toads enhances their effectiveness as seed dispersers. Toads often exhibit high tolerance to the

harsh conditions of their digestive tracts, allowing seeds to survive the journey through their

gastrointestinal systems (Bakkegard et al., 2018). This tolerance is particularly advantageous for

certain plant species that have evolved to exploit the digestive capabilities of toads for seed

dispersal. The symbiotic relationship between toads and these plants underscores the intricate

web of interactions within ecosystems, emphasizing the importance of toads in maintaining

biodiversity and ecosystem health (Hocking and Babbitt, 2014). The role of toads in seed

dispersal is pivotal for the vitality and sustainability of ecosystems. Their nocturnal activities,

coupled with their unique digestive physiology, contribute to the widespread dispersal of seeds,

facilitating the colonization of new habitats and supporting the dynamic processes of vegetation

growth and regeneration. Recognizing and preserving the ecological functions of toads as seed

dispersers is crucial for maintaining the balance and diversity of ecosystems, ultimately

benefiting both flora and fauna (Bakkegard et al., 2018; Hocking and Babbitt, 2014).

In addition to their ecological roles, toads hold cultural and aesthetic significance in many

societies. They feature in folklore, mythology, and traditional knowledge systems around the

world, often symbolizing various cultural beliefs and values (Marshall et al., 2020). ulturally,

toads have been depicted in various mythologies and folklore across different cultures, often

symbolizing wisdom, transformation, and renewal. For example, in Native American folklore,

the toad is associated with rainmaking and fertility, highlighting its importance in traditional

belief systems. Similarly, in European folklore, toads are often portrayed as magical creatures,

with tales of witches transforming into toads and back again, emphasizing their mystical

significance (Lada et al., 2020). Such cultural representations not only reflect human attitudes

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towards toads but also contribute to the preservation of their habitats as they are often regarded

with reverence and respect.

Aesthetically, toads contribute to the biodiversity and visual appeal of ecosystems. Their unique

appearance, characterized by warty skin and vibrant colors, adds to the aesthetic diversity of

natural landscapes. Furthermore, the distinctive calls of male toads during breeding season

contribute to the acoustic richness of ecosystems, creating a unique auditory experience for both

humans and other species. For instance, the chorus of calling toads in wetland habitats is not only

a sign of reproductive activity but also serves as an iconic soundscape of healthy ecosystems. As

such, toads contribute to the overall aesthetic value of ecosystems, enhancing human

appreciation and engagement with nature. Toads hold significant cultural and aesthetic value in

ecosystems, as reflected in their portrayal in folklore and their unique visual and auditory

contributions to natural landscapes. Furthermore, their ecological role in pest control and nutrient

cycling underscores their importance in maintaining ecosystem health and functionality.

Recognizing and appreciating the cultural, aesthetic, and ecological significance of toads is

essential for their conservation and the preservation of the ecosystems they inhabit (Beckett et

al., 2017).

2.1.3 Effects of Urbanisation on Toad Diversity.

Urbanization can have multifaceted effects on toad diversity and abundance. On one hand, urban

areas often lead to habitat fragmentation and destruction, which can result in a decline in toad

populations. The loss of suitable breeding sites, such as ponds and wetlands, reduces the

available space for toads to reproduce and complete their life cycle. Additionally, urban

environments are associated with increased pollution, including pesticides and chemicals, which

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can negatively impact toad populations by causing habitat degradation and directly harming

individuals (Gibson et al., 2017). Conversely, some toad species demonstrate a degree of

adaptability to urban environments. Certain species may thrive in man-made structures, such as

stormwater drains, gardens, and parks, providing them with new breeding opportunities and

shelter. This adaptability might result in an increase in the abundance of these toad populations

in urban areas (Bishop et al., 2018;). However, this adaptability does not necessarily equate to an

overall positive impact on toad diversity, as it may lead to a dominance of a few resilient species

at the expense of others. These stressors may contribute to declines in toad diversity and

abundance in urbanized environments (Nunes et al., 2015).

Some of these factors include the following:

1. Habitat Fragmentation: Urbanization often results in the fragmentation of natural

habitats, which can have detrimental effects on toad populations. Fragmentation disrupts

the connectivity of habitats, making it difficult for toads to move between suitable areas

for foraging, breeding, and shelter. This isolation can lead to smaller populations that are

more vulnerable to extinction due to decreased genetic diversity and increased

susceptibility to environmental changes. According to a study by Beninde et al. (2015),

habitat fragmentation caused by urbanization has been linked to declines in amphibian

populations, including toads, by restricting their movement and reducing available

habitat.

2. Loss of Breeding: Sites Urbanization often involves the destruction or alteration of

wetlands and other water bodies crucial for toad breeding. Construction of buildings,

roads, and other infrastructure results in the destruction of wetlands and other aquatic

habitats essential for breeding. Additionally, artificial lighting in urban areas can disrupt

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 the breeding behavior of toads, leading to reduced reproductive success. According to a

study by Hale et al. (2013), artificial light at night can interfere with the orientation and

movement of amphibians, leading to decreased use of breeding habitats and ultimately

impacting population abundance and diversity.

3. Pollution: Urbanization introduces various pollutants into the environment, including

chemical contaminants, heavy metals, and excess nutrients. Urban areas often discharge

pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial waste into water bodies, where

toads breed and live. These contaminants can have detrimental effects on toad health,

reproduction, and survival. For example, exposure to pesticides has been linked to

developmental abnormalities and decreased reproductive success in amphibians (Dutta et

al., 2017). Air pollution, including particulate matter and chemical pollutants, can also

harm toads directly or indirectly by affecting their prey availability and overall habitat

quality.

4. Altered Microclimate: Urban areas experience what is known as the urban heat island

effect, where temperatures are higher compared to surrounding rural areas due to human

activities and infrastructure. This altered microclimate can negatively impact toads, as

they are sensitive to temperature changes during breeding and development stages. A

study by Tingley et al. (2002) highlighted the adverse effects of increased temperatures

on toad behavior and physiology in urban environments.

5. Invasive Species: Urbanization facilitates the introduction and spread of invasive

species, which can outcompete native toads for resources and habitat. Invasive predators,

such as bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), pose a significant threat to native toad

populations by consuming both adults and tadpoles. According to research by Lever

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 (2003), urbanization promotes the spread of invasive species, exacerbating the decline of

native amphibians like toads.

6. Light Pollution: Urban areas are characterized by artificial lighting that can disrupt

natural light cycles. Light pollution affects toad behavior, including breeding, foraging,

and predator avoidance. A study by Davies et al. (2012) found that artificial light at night

altered the activity patterns of toads, potentially increasing their vulnerability to predation

and reducing reproductive success in urban environments.

7. Noise Pollution: Urbanization results in increased noise levels from traffic, construction,

and human activities, which can interfere with communication and mating behaviors of

toads. Noise pollution disrupts acoustic signaling used by toads for mate attraction and

territory defense. According to a study by Tennessen et al. (2014), noise pollution in

urban areas can impair the reproductive success of toads by disrupting mating behaviors

and communication.

8. Habitat Degradation: Urbanization leads to habitat degradation through the loss of

natural vegetation, soil compaction, and contamination. Degraded habitats are less

suitable for toads, affecting their survival and reproductive success. Research by

McKinney (2002) demonstrated that habitat degradation associated with urbanization is a

primary driver of amphibian declines, including toads, in urban areas.

9. Disease Spread: Urbanization can facilitate the spread of diseases among wildlife

populations, including toads. Increased human-wildlife interactions and habitat

modifications create opportunities for disease transmission. Chytridiomycosis, caused by

the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been implicated in amphibian declines

worldwide, including urban environments (Fisher et al., 2009).

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10. Genetic Isolation: Urbanization can isolate toad populations, leading to reduced genetic

diversity and increased susceptibility to genetic disorders and diseases. Fragmentation of

habitats and barriers like roads impede gene flow among populations. A study by Kaefer

et al. (2012) found evidence of genetic isolation and reduced gene flow in toad

populations affected by urbanization, highlighting the long-term implications for

population viability.

11. Human-Wildlife Conflict: As urban areas expand, conflicts between humans and

wildlife, including toads, become more common. Toads may be perceived as pests or

nuisances, leading to deliberate persecution or unintended mortality from vehicle

collisions. Human-wildlife conflicts exacerbate the challenges faced by toad populations

in urban environments (Bartholomew and Cirino, 2015).

12. Behavioral Changes: Urbanization can induce behavioral changes in toads, altering their

activity patterns, habitat use, and reproductive strategies. Studies have shown shifts in

toad behavior, such as increased nocturnal activity and altered breeding behaviors, in

response to urban environments (Nol et al., 2018). These behavioral changes may have

implications for population dynamics and persistence.

13. Adaptive Responses: Despite the challenges posed by urbanization, some toad

populations exhibit adaptive responses to urban environments. Research by Winandy et

al. (2016) documented morphological and behavioral adaptations in toads inhabiting

urban areas, suggesting potential mechanisms for coping with urbanization-induced

changes.

14. Conservation Implications: Understanding the effects of urbanization on toad diversity

and abundance is crucial for informing conservation strategies. Conservation efforts

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 should focus on mitigating habitat loss, reducing pollution, restoring breeding sites, and

promoting coexistence between humans and toads in urban environments (Gibbons et al.,

2000). Collaborative approaches involving urban planners, policymakers, and

conservation biologists are essential for conserving toad populations in the face of

ongoing urbanization.

2.2 Conservation Strategies for Toad Populations

Conservation strategies for toad populations aim to mitigate threats to these amphibians and

ensure their survival in natural habitats. Toads play vital roles in ecosystems as both predators

and prey, contributing to biodiversity and ecosystem stability (Vitt and Caldwell, 2014).

However, they face various challenges, including habitat loss, pollution, disease, and climate

change, necessitating targeted conservation efforts. Effective conservation strategies for rural

toad populations involve a multi-faceted approach that addresses habitat protection, pollution

mitigation, disease management, climate change adaptation, invasive species control, captive

breeding, community engagement, legal protection, research, and international collaboration.

These strategies aim to ensure the long-term survival and sustainability of toad populations in

their natural habitats.

Some of the strategies include the following:

1. Invasive Species Control: Invasive species, such as predatory fish and introduced

amphibians, can prey on toad eggs and tadpoles, reducing population numbers.

Conservation efforts should prioritize invasive species management through targeted

removal programs and biosecurity measures. For instance, research by Homan et al.

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 (2019) emphasizes the effectiveness of invasive species control in promoting toad

population recovery.

2. Habitat Preservation and Restoration: Preserving and restoring natural habitats is

fundamental to toad conservation. This includes protecting breeding sites such as ponds

and wetlands, maintaining suitable terrestrial habitats for foraging and shelter, and

creating wildlife corridors to connect fragmented habitats (Reeves, 2018). Restoration

efforts can involve re-establishing wetlands, controlling invasive species, and

implementing sustainable land management practices (Adams et al., 2019).

3. Mitigation of Threats: Toad populations are threatened by various factors including

habitat loss, pollution, disease, and predation. Implementing strategies to mitigate these

threats is crucial. For instance, controlling pollution through better waste management

practices and reducing pesticide use can improve water quality in breeding sites (Gibson

et al., 2020). Disease monitoring and management programs can help prevent outbreaks

that may decimate toad populations (Scheele et al., 2019). Additionally, predator control

measures may be necessary in certain cases to prevent predation on eggs, tadpoles, and

adult toads (Buckley et al., 2020).

4. Community Involvement and Education: Engaging local communities in toad

conservation efforts is essential for long-term success. Community members can

participate in habitat restoration projects, citizen science initiatives for monitoring

populations, and educational programs aimed at raising awareness about the importance

of toads in ecosystems (Barua et al., 2018). By involving communities in conservation

activities, a sense of ownership and stewardship over local biodiversity can be fostered,

leading to more sustainable conservation outcomes (Fernández-Llamazares et al., 2018).

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5. Legislation and Policy Support: Government policies and legislation play a crucial role

in protecting rural toad populations. This includes designating protected areas, enacting

regulations to prevent habitat destruction and pollution, and providing funding for

conservation initiatives (Campbell Grant et al., 2019). Collaborative efforts between

government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and local communities are

necessary to develop and implement effective conservation policies (Lunney et al., 2018).

6. Research and Monitoring: Continuous research and monitoring are essential for

understanding the ecology and population dynamics of rural toads. This includes studying

their habitat requirements, reproductive biology, movements, and responses to

environmental changes (Cooke et al., 2021). Long-term monitoring programs can provide

valuable data for assessing population trends, identifying emerging threats, and

evaluating the effectiveness of conservation interventions (Bishop et al., 2020).

7. Translocation and Captive Breeding Programs: In cases where natural populations are

severely threatened or extirpated, translocation and captive breeding programs may be

necessary as a last resort. These programs involve relocating individuals from healthy

populations to suitable habitats or breeding them in captivity for later release (Germano

et al., 2019). However, translocation efforts must be carefully planned and monitored to

avoid negative impacts on recipient populations and ensure the long-term viability of

translocated individuals (Griffiths et al., 2020).

8. International Collaboration and Networking: Given the global nature of conservation

challenges, international collaboration and networking are essential for conserving rural

toad populations. This involves sharing knowledge, best practices, and resources among

researchers, conservation organizations, and policymakers across different countries

22
(Becker et al., 2021). Collaborative initiatives can facilitate the exchange of genetic

material for captive breeding programs, support transboundary conservation efforts, and

address common threats such as climate change and habitat loss on a larger scale.

23
3.0 Review of Empirical Studies.

There exist a plethora of works on toad diversity and abundance in the ecosystem. Some of the

studies have focused on the factors endangering these species while others have been on

conservation strategies. Several empirical studies have been conducted to assess toad diversity

and abundance in both urban and rural habitats across different regions of Nigeria. These studies

utilize various methodologies such as visual encounter surveys, mark-recapture techniques, and

environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis to estimate toad populations. Findings from these studies

indicate significant differences in toad diversity and abundance between urban and rural habitats.

Urban areas often exhibit lower species richness and abundance due to habitat destruction,

pollution, and anthropogenic disturbances. Conversely, rural habitats tend to support higher toad

diversity and abundance, primarily in undisturbed natural ecosystems. A brief look at some of

these works will give a better understanding of this review.

Ijie et al. (2019) carried out a research in Benin City and discovered tremendous changes in

recent times, especially with the aggressive rate of urbanisation in the last two decades. This has

invariably resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation for the amphibian community of the city and

its environs. In order to determine the effect of urbanization on the amphibian diversity of the

area, they conducted a survey between July 2009 and July 2010 using Visual and Acoustic

Encounter Survey method. Higher species diversity and richness was observed from the peri-

urban compared to the urban areas. However, the abundance of amphibian in the urban zone was

significantly higher than that of the peri-urban zone (p<0.05). Hyperolius concolor phases A and

C, H. sylvaticus, Afrixalus nigeriensis and A. vittiger were restricted to the peri-urban area while

Ptychadena pumilio and Sclerophrys maculata occurred more in the urban areas. The most

dominant species was S. maculata (26.6%) while the least dominant species was A. vittiger

24
(0.22%). Peri-urban areas contributed 53% while the urban zone contributed 47% to total

abundance. More tree frogs were collected from the peri-urban than the urban sites, which could

be due to the reduced vegetation cover in the latter. However, the paucity of tree frogs in the

urban zone did not have any significant impact on the taxa differences between the two zones.

The abundance of P. pumilio and P. mascareniensis, which are typical savanna frogs is an

indication of the degraded nature of the study area. The low records of A. poecilonotus, A.

vittiger and H. concolor phase A and the complete absence of forest-dependent species could be

due to their inability to tolerate human influence on the environment. There is need for balance

in the use of land resources for urbanization and amphibian conservation. Hyperolius concolor

phases A and C, H. sylvaticus, Afrixalus nigeriensis and A. vittiger were restricted to the peri-

urban area while Ptychadena pumilio and Sclerophrys maculata occurred more in the urban

areas. The most dominant species was S. maculata (26.6%) while the least dominant species was

A. vittiger (0.22%). Peri-urban areas contributed 53% while the urban zone contributed 47% to

total abundance. More tree frogs were collected from the peri-urban than the urban sites, which

could be due to the reduced vegetation cover in the latter. However, the paucity of tree frogs in

the urban zone did not have any significant impact on the taxa differences between the two

zones. The abundance of P. pumilio and P. mascareniensis, which are typical savanna frogs is an

indication of the degraded nature of the study area. The low records of A. poecilonotus, A.

vittiger and H. concolor phase A and the complete absence of forest-dependent species could be

due to their inability to tolerate human influence on the environment. There is need for balance

in the use of land resources for urbanization and amphibian conservation.

Zhao et al. (2023) asserted that Roads have major impacts on wildlife, and the most direct

negative effect is through deadly collisions with vehicles, i.e., roadkill. Amphibians are the most

25
frequently road-killed animal group. Due to the significant differences between urban and rural

environments, the potential urban-rural differences in factors driving amphibian roadkill risks

should be incorporated into the planning of mitigation measures. Drawing on a citizen-collected

roadkill dataset from Taiwan island, we present a MaxEnt based modelling analysis to examine

potential urban-rural differences in landscape features and environmental factors associated with

amphibian road mortality. By incorporating with the Global Human Settlement Layer Settlement

Model—an ancillary human settlement dataset divided by built-up area and population density—

amphibian roadkill data were divided into urban and rural data sets, and then used to create

separate models for urban and rural areas. Model diagnostics suggested good performance (all

AUCs > 0.8) of both urban and rural models. Multiple variable importance evaluations revealed

significant differences between urban and rural areas. The importance of environmental variables

was evaluated based on percent contribution, permutation importance and the Jackknife test.

According to the overall results, road density was found to be important in explaining the

amphibian roadkill in rural areas, whilst precipitation of warmest quarter was found to best

explain the amphibian roadkill in the urban context. The method and outputs illustrated in this

study can be useful tools to better understand amphibian road mortality in urban and rural

environments and to inform mitigation assessment and conservation planning.

Edo-Taiwo et al. (2023) investigated the anuran diversity in Ojo Camp, Ugboke, a cocoa farming

area in Edo State, southern Nigeria, over a 15-month period using a combination of visual-

acoustic encounter surveys, disturbance searches, and baited traps. We identifed 25 species of

frogs from seven families in ten genera. Species in the families Hyperoliidae, Ptychadenidae,

and Athroleptidae were the most abundant, represented by seven, fve, and four species,

respectively. We recorded some forest specialists (Hyperolius concolor, H. fusciventris

26
fusciventris, H. f. burtoni, H. picturatus, H. sylvaticus), of which two (H. f. fusciventris and H.

sylvaticus) were rare. Aquatic pipids (Silurana tropicalis, Xenopus muelleri, members of the

genus Hymenochirus) were absent from cocoa plantations, perhaps due to pesticide

contamination of water bodies. The identities of nine species could only be determined to genus

level. Inventory completeness was only 63% and 69% based on the Jackknife 2 and Chao 2

species richness estimators, respectively, indicating that our surveys underestimated anuran

diversity in these habitats. The anuran diversity (25 species) in these plantations compared

favourably with those (29) in non-monoculture sites, such as the Okomu National Park, a

protected sanctuary, despite agrochemical use.

27
4.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, the review on Toad Diversity and Abundance in Urban and Rural Habitats in

Benue State underscores the importance of understanding the dynamics of amphibian

populations in both urban and rural environments for the sake of environmental health. The study

reveals significant differences in toad diversity and abundance between urban and rural habitats,

highlighting the impact of human activities on wildlife populations. These findings emphasize

the need for targeted conservation efforts and sustainable urban planning to mitigate the negative

effects of urbanization on amphibian species and ultimately preserve ecosystem health.

Additionally, further research is warranted to elucidate the specific factors influencing toad

populations in these contrasting habitats, facilitating more effective conservation strategies and

bolstering the broader goal of biodiversity conservation in Benue State.

Emphatically, the study recommends the following:

1. Longitudinal studies to observe changes in toad diversity and abundance over time in

both urban and rural habitats should be conducted.

2. The specific impacts of urbanization on toad populations, such as habitat fragmentation,

pollution, and habitat loss should be investigated.

3. Habitat preferences of different toad species in urban and rural environments should be

explored.

4. The ecological role of toads in urban and rural ecosystems, including their interactions

with other species and their contribution to ecosystem functioning should be investigated.

5. The effectiveness of current conservation strategies aimed at protecting toad populations

in urban and rural areas should be evaluated.

28
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