RESEARCH ARTICLE

European Journal of Education and Pedagogy

www.ej-edu.org

The University in the United Kingdom in the 19th Century

Matthaios Dimitriou

ABSTRACT
The university scene in Britain in 19th century. The founding of the
University College of London in 1828 and King’s College in 1831. In 1836, Published Online: February 16, 2023
the University of London was founded, which conducted examinations and ISSN: 2736-4534
awarded diplomas to graduates of the University College of London and
DOI: 10.24018/ejedu.2023.4.1.572
King’s College. By the end of the century a recognized teaching university
had been established with faculties, study committees and academic
representation. The British university scene until 1850 was dominated by M. Dimitriou, Ph. D*
Oxford and Cambridge. Major reforms were made in these two institutions Aegean University, Greece
after 1850. (e-mail: mattheosdimitriou@yahoo.com)

*Corresponding Author

Keywords: Britain, Cambridge, Civic Universities, King’s College, 19 th

century, Oxford, University College of London, University of London.

academically, even more so with its upper class and

I. 19TH CENTURY Anglican traditions. Oxbridge contributed to the
reproduction of social stratification: it had high tuition
The university scene in 1800 in Great Britain had one
fees, had its own property and was self-governing when it
university in Ireland (Trinity College-Dublin), four in
was controlled by individuals who were interested in
Scotland (Aberdeen, Edinburg, Glasgow, St. Andrews),
maintaining the existing social structure, presupposed
two in England (Oxford, Cambridge) and none in Wales.
internal education, and offered not professional education
Interestingly, the largest and most powerful metropolis in
but general education, a characteristic element of
the early 19th century, London, did not have a university.
aristocratic life (Kimourtzis, 2003, p. 138). This powerful,
One reason is that once the professions had their own
heterogeneous alliance consisted of Catholics, Jews,
regulations and determined admissions to the professions,
scientists, liberal opponents of the Tory government, open-
and Oxbridge provided plenty of cadres for the Anglican
minded Anglicans. Their goal was a new university in
church, there was little demand for traditional higher
London. It was models from Germany and Scotland that
education schools (Vernon, 2004, 53). From the 13th
motivated the creation of University College in London.
century it dates to the monopoly of Oxford and Cambridge
Henry Brougham, a leading utilitarian, became campaign
in higher education in England. In the early19th century,
leader. A limited liability company called the University of
innovation was foreign to Oxbridge. The two universities
London was established in 1826 and shares were issued to
had remained far from rapid social and political
its supporters. Although the reception was not expected,
developments. This absence of competition, Ben-David
the amounts were enough to start building the facilities in
notes, could have been avoided if there were independent
Bloomsbury (Vernon, 2004, p. 54). In 1828, the university
religious, local or ethnic groups with resources and
opened its doors. In this way, an institution called the
cultural tradition capable of challenging the English
University of London was created, which was later known
aristocracy. Scotland was the only example where such
as University College. The new university had a
conditions prevailed, and its university status was indeed
curriculum which corresponded to the cultural and
very different. There were no religious restrictions for
economic needs of the new industrial era. University
those who came to study at universities. There was also a
College’s curriculum as well as its “opponent” King’s
long tradition of secondary education and smart boys from
College was a combination of classic and contemporary
rural areas were encouraged to go to university.
courses. Along with the Latin and Greek courses, courses
Attendance at the university was adapted to the
in English, foreign languages, modern history, law,
agricultural cycle. While Oxford and Cambridge were
economics, as well as courses in physics, chemistry,
asleep... the Scottish universities maintained a constant
natural history, and geography were offered according to
circulation of ideas, especially with the universities of the
the latest developments in these sciences (Karkanis, 2012,
Netherlands (Halsey-Trow, 1971, p. 41).
p. 102). The medical school evolved into the most
An informal alliance was formed around 1820 by all
successful part of the new institution. The new institution
those who were dissatisfied with what Oxbridge offered
was a utilitarian project on the model of Scottish

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universities.
To a large extent the founding of the University College
was the result of Oxbridge’s inability to offer a curriculum
that meets the needs of the time. This institution was
intended for those who were excluded from Oxbridge
because of religious reasons or were too poor to cope with
college education or were looking for a curriculum more
relevant to modern urban life. From the beginning, the
university targeted the middle classes.
His efforts in 1828 to be recognized by a royal decree
met the reaction of the Oxbridge and the Anglican Church
who suggested the creation of a second college
incorporating the teaching of religion and the worship of
the Church of England in general. This was King’s College
that opened its gates in 1831 by royal decree. Although it
was decided from the outset that it would not be reserved
for members of the Anglican Church, an Anglican general
policy permeated the institution. The college was largely
followed by University College. His senior department
offered a broad curriculum covering sciences, languages,
and commercial subjects with a clear professional
orientation. It also included a medical school. Neither of
the colleges had the right to award academic degrees.
Despite their religious and political opposition, the
University and the Royal College had many elements in
common. Both contributed to providing modern higher
education to London’s middle-class sons. One of their
most important common features was that they both had a
medical school. Interest in medical science has helped
develop higher education, especially in London. Some
medical schools in the provinces, such as Sheffield and
Birmingham, formed the core of later provincial
universities. Doctors played an important role in the
founding of University College London. One of the
reasons why University College with its non-conformist,
utilitarian and radical character and King’s College, an
Anglican institution, managed to overcome their
differences and create the University of London in 1836,
was probably their common interest in medicine (Rothblatt
in: Jarausch, 1983, p. 136).
The founding of University College and King’s College
reversed Oxbridge’s centuries-old monopoly. In addition,
the two institutions integrated science, arts, and social
sciences into their curriculum. Both colleges were based
on departments and schools. From the second half of the
19thcentury, University College managed to elevate its
academic prestige, while King’s College faced difficulties
due to its financial constraints and religious character.
The University of London was founded by the state in
1836 as a result of the debate that had opened up on the
provision of academic degrees and was a compromise that
allowed the two aforementioned colleges to continue the
teaching they desired. In 1850 there were a total of four
universities in England: Oxford, Cambridge, London, and
Durham (Halsey-Trow, 1971, p. 40). Basically, the
University of London was a state institution aimed at
conducting exams and awarding diplomas to graduates of
University College and King’s College. Students at both
colleges could prepare for these exams with state-
appointed examiners, thus guaranteeing impartiality and
equal standards. The University of London was purely an
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
examination center, which did not have its own professors.
Until 1926 (Decree for the University of London) the
university was organized into collaborating colleges,
faculties, and institutions.
Logically, there was no reason why a candidate would
not be prepared at any other college in the territory for the
University of London exams, and so soon institutions from
all over the country were preparing students for the
predetermined course schedule. Slowly, the number of
students and affiliated colleges was increasing. By the
middle of the century there were about a hundred colleges
claiming connection and the right to submit their students
for exams.
The University of London was a state creation. It was
organized and funded by the state, which had the primary
responsibility for its operation. Despite its controversial
and unambiguous nature, the University of London played
a pioneering role in university education in London. New
disciplines related to modern urban society were
developed through colleges linked to the university,
abolished the requirement to reside within colleges even
for attendance and ultimately enabled women to obtain a
degree. One of the achievements of this period to which
colleges and the University contributed is the development
of higher education for women. Women gradually gained
access to University College in the 1860s and later to
King’s College. In 1878, women were granted full access
to exams and degrees (Vernon, 2004, p. 66–68). Also, the
high requirements of the University’s examinations
functioned as university standards and as an instrument for
monitoring and controlling higher education throughout
the Empire. But at the end of the Victorian period, the
University of London as an examination center was
unsuitable in relation to the needs of university education
that emphasized other aspects, such as that of research.
However, the exams were still considered a useful function
and reform efforts focused on integrating new views on the
university, maintaining the old framework. Until 1880,
teachers actually had very little authority over the courses
they taught about the degree. Only the University’s
examiners determined the curriculum.
At the end of the century and after much discussion and
renaissance it appeared that a recognized teaching
university had been created with faculties, study
committees and academic representation, although things
were quite complicated since the University’s professors
were scattered across a large number of independent
institutions. The operation of the external examinations
continued to exist. At least, now the exams were
determined by the teachers. All colleges receive students
from the age of 16, sometimes younger.
However, the reorganization of the university in this
form was not fully satisfied. It was just another stage in the
ongoing effort to find a stable form for the University of
London. The general trend was to move from result
(examinations) to process (learning). An important role in
the whole effort to redefine the role and functioning of the
university was played by R.P. Haldane, who emerged as a
very important figure in the development of English
universities at the end of the century. He came from a
wealthy Scottish family and had studied at the University
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of Göttingen. He admired the German university system.
He played a key role in the creation of Imperial College in
1906, which aspired to be the equivalent of the German
Physical Technical Institute at Charlottenburg (Sanderson,
1972, p. 22).
II. OXBRIDGE
The British university scene until 1850 was dominated
by the two ancient universities which received fewer than
800 students each year, most of which after graduation
were appointed to the Church of England. These two
institutions enjoyed great autonomy because of the great
wealth of the colleges and their close relationship with the
Church of England. In Oxford and Cambridge until 1860,
the vast majority of students came from clergy families
and the landlord class. Students were forced to reside in
colleges and were forced to proclaim their faith in the
Anglican doctrine. Those who did not adhere to the
doctrine of the Church of England were excluded. The
studies had a high cost. Emphasis was placed on the study
of classical literature and the Sacred Scriptures and
generally dominated an anti-business stance. Oxford was
dominated by classical studies, while Cambridge
dominated mathematics, but aimed at practicing students
rather than their applications. In the exams, students at
Oxford were examined in Latin, Greek, logic, philosophy,
and later in ancient history and classical literature, while in
Cambridge from the end of the 18thcentury mathematics
had a central place in the exams.
The college teachers were unmarried, and their position
was for life. The university professor as a secular and full-
time profession, as we know it today, had no place in
Oxford and Cambridge in 1850 (Halsey-Trow, 1971, p.
45). Colleges were the core of teaching and research, while
the university’s main task was to conduct the exams
necessary for graduation. In colleges, gifted graduates who
had a Bachelor’s degree or Master’s degree could teach
and were appointed to oversee practices and
undergraduates during the apprenticeship period. When
they became partners (fellows) they had a permanent
position and could become lecturers, senior lecturers,
readers and professors. They were not civil servants and
did not need to do research or take exams in order to
pursue an academic career (Klinge in: Rüegg , 2004, p.
139).
The privileges and power of Oxbridge (Ziman, 1963, p.
191–208) throughout this period have not been challenged
by either the state or the church. Voices for reform resulted
in the establishment of the Royal Commission in 1850,
which focused on the statutes of the two ancient
universities. It took two laws (in 1854 for Oxford and 1856
for Cambridge) and two executive orders to open the two
ancient universities to non-English students, to strengthen
the administrative structures and teaching functions of the
university vis-à-vis colleges, and to reorganize the college
of professors on professional bases. Also, a law of 1871
abolished all religious examinations for scholarships at
colleges and university positions, and by royal order of
1872, and the executive order of 1877 abolished the rules
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of celibacy for teachers and put relations between each
university and colleges on a satisfactory basis (Perkin,
1969, p. 21). The study content was also broadened with
the teaching of foreign languages and natural sciences.
From the 1850s, teachers began to be appointed according
to the German model of research and teaching for the
purpose of scientific empowerment of the university. In
1884 women were allowed to attend certain schools, but
they were still unable to graduate. Until the 1890s classical
studies dominated Oxford, while mathematics dominated
Cambridge. The ¾ scholarships were for these items. By
the 1920s, the two universities began receiving funding
from the University Grants Committee (UGC). More
generally, Cambridge showed more signs of renewal than
Oxford, which was characterized by an obsession with the
study of ancient texts. Oxford generally had a greater
degree of failure or unwillingness to adapt to new
industrial needs than Cambridge. Oxford until 1907 was
probably the only one of the world’s top non-engineering
universities (Sanderson, 1972, p. 39). Cambridge since
1848 introduced the teaching of natural sciences
(Macleod-Moseley, 1980, pp. 177–195) and founded in
1874 the internationally renowned Cavendish physics
laboratory.
According to Ben David and Zloczower (1963, pp. 65–
68), there were conditions for Oxbridge to become the
world’s most important scientific and research center. The
existence of extraordinary talents and wealth was not
enough to transform the top two universities into research
centers depending on the German of the 19th century or the
American ones. The two researchers attribute this
development to the lack of competition. Research except
in some areas was not a top priority until World War II.
There may have been a high estimate for research, but it
can only be developed in a competitive system of
universities which creates a specific market for it. The
English university system has never been competitive. For
universities, as for many other things in this society, there
was a certain hierarchy.
III. CIVIC UNIVERSITIES
During the second half of the 19thcentury a new group
of institutions was created in the major commercial and
industrial urban centers in order to provide high-level
vocational training. These institutions became known as
civic (urban and provincial) or redbrick (red brick
universities) because of the building material used in the
construction of their buildings. They largely tried to
imitate the pioneer of modern urban university education,
the University College London that offered cheap,
relevant, and accessible middle-class education. These
provincial colleges expressed the local demands of the
Interviktorian period for the expansion of scientific and
technical education. Vernon (2004, p. 94) believes the
term ‘civic universities’ is a little misleading. Strictly if
one sees it, it is also anachronistic, because none of these
colleges were recognized as a university before the end of
the century and the term conceals the uncertain existence
of colleges in the first decades since their founding. The
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term also conceals the role of government grants and
regulations that accompanied them and helped
significantly shape provincial colleges as local variations
of existing university models. Many colleges aspired to
serve these purposes, but only the larger cities were able to
support colleges with the necessary resources and
facilities. In addition, a university college was an element
of prestige and identity for a city. The provincial colleges
were able to develop their activities within the framework
provided by the external examinations of the University of
London. But large provincial cities did not accept
London’s supremacy, and the most ambitious colleges
looked forward to full university status.
In 1832 Durham University was founded, which was an
exclusively Anglican university according to Oxbridge
standards, destined for members of the Church of England
and built from Church money. In 1837 he was granted the
right to award diplomas. The initial design provided for a
broader curriculum and even had a school of engineering,
but the results were not as expected.
Manchester led the developments. In 1851 John Owens,
a wealthy merchant from Manchester, left half of his
fortune to provide university education without religious
restrictions to boys over the age of 14. A board of directors
was formed and quickly ruled that the universities of
London and Scotland were more suitable models than
Oxbridge. In the UK, as far as the academic profession is
concerned, there was a controversy between two traditions.
One tradition was that of Oxbridge, where the monitoring
system was developed. The students were divided into
small groups, the professor taught many subjects, was very
close to his students and was interested in developing both
their character and their minds. In Scotland they adopted
the system of qualified professors in one subject. The
professor was dedicated to research and was far from his
crowded and poor students. Oxbridge’s tradition was more
elitist, while “Scottish” teachers represented the
“democratic intellectual” and were more meritocratic as
they encouraged talent wherever they were. With the
explosion of the industrial revolution, the model that
prevailed was that of Scotland, because it was cheaper and
more suitable for specialization. It is not surprising that
University College adopted the Scottish teaching model as
the basis of teaching and organization. It is also important
that his Anglican opponent, King’s College, adopted the
same system. Durham University, like many new
provincial universities, followed the same practice (Clark,
1987, p. 17). Students could prepare for the University of
London’s external exams, although few could complete
studies that would lead them to a full degree. The college
offered its own exams and certificates for industry. It was,
of course, intended to become a university-level
institution. The Owens College in Manchester made a
request in the mid-1870s to be recognized as a university,
which was rejected, but found the golden compromise: it
was the first founding college of a new federal institution,
Victoria University, founded in 1881 and later
incorporated the colleges of Liverpool and Leeds.
Liverpool University College was incorporated at Victoria
University in 1884 and Yorkshire College in Leeds as the
last and poorest member in 1887. This union lasted about
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20 years. In 1903 Manchester and Liverpool applied and
obtained a separate university statute. Manchester was
allowed to retain the title of Victoria University. Yorkshire
was recognized as the University of Leeds in 1904
(Stewart, 1989, p. 12–13).
In 1897, three institutions joined to form Sheffield
University College: Firth College, Technical School and
Medical School. With help from the municipal authority
and individuals, the University of Sheffield was founded in
1905. Mason College in Birmingham was founded by
wealthy entrepreneur Josiah Mason and initially his main
occupation was scientific teaching. The college was
upgraded to a university in 1900. Birmingham was the first
city to acquire a provincial university in the 20 th century.
University College Bristol was founded in 1876. It was
recognized as a university in 1909. Newcastle was the
result of a series of failed attempts to develop
technological education based at Durham University.
There were four university colleges that were unable to
have independent status until 1914: Reading, Nottingham,
Hartley, and Exeter. See Table I below.
TABLE I: CIVIC UNIVERSITIES IN THE UK (1850–1914)
Original name Upgrade to University
Departments of the Victoria
University
Owens College (1880) Manchester (1903)
Liverpool University College (1884) Liverpool (1903)
Yorkshire College of Science
Leeds (1904)
(Leeds) (1887)
Firth College merged with Mappin
College and the Medical School and
established the Sheffield University
Sheffield (1905)
College (1897)
Scientific College of Sir Josiah
Birmingham (1900)
Mason
Bristol University College Bristol (1909)
Newcastle College of Physical
science (1871), Armstrong College (1904)
Department of University of Durham
Same name. Independent in
Reading University College (1893)
1914
Nottingham University College Same name. Independent in
(1883) 1914
Southampton University College
Hartley College (1862)
(1902). Independent in 1914
Royal Albert Memorial College
Exeter School of Art (1851)
(1865). Independent in 1914
Dundee University College,
Department of the University of St.
Andrews
Source: Papastamou (2009, p. 285).
The contribution of provincial universities to industry
from their initial steps was very important. They were a
leading source of innovation, something Oxford and
Cambridge failed to do. They raised the scientific
standards within the companies and prompted them to start
their own research departments using their graduates. It is
worth noting that in the 1890s and 1900s there were no
research associations and the research within the company
was in infancy. Until 1914, research within the company
was small. Most of the scientific research on industry up to
this time was done by universities in close cooperation
with the industries. Between 1880 and 1914, relations
between the technological departments of provincial
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universities and industries became as close as never
before. After World War I, many industries established
their own research departments, mimicking similar
developments that occurred before the war in Germany
and the United States (Sanderson, 1988, p. 90–104).
The close relationship between provincial universities
and industry confronted them with two problems, which
jeopardized their independence as higher education
institutions. The first was the risk of control and
intervention by the industry. Although these fears were
justified, Sanderson considers that in fact it was not a
serious danger. The risk according to him would be much
greater if industry withdrew its interest and support to
these institutions. Much more importantly, many of these
institutions, which would otherwise remain major
technical colleges, under pressure from Victoria
University, London’s external degrees and government
grants became true universities of many disciplines
(multidisciplinary universities). In this way Britain was
saved from the dual form of higher education as it existed
in Germany. It maintained the mutually beneficial relations
between science and technology at the same institution,
avoided the creation of non-technological “universities”
and thus avoided stigmatizing the centers that were purely
concerned with technology as “second-class” institutions
(Sanderson, 1972, p. 19). The second and most serious was
the excessive superiority of science and technology in the
range of their activities, the tendency of some universities
to over-technological expertise. But there were three
factors that forced colleges to move away from excessive
technological education: the University of London,
government grants and teacher education. As far as the
former is concerned, certain courses in literature and
classical studies were necessary for London’s external
degrees. Colleges were obliged to include them in the
curriculum. Also, from 1889 the state began to subsidize
universities and was very suspicious of institutions that
wanted to be university colleges and in fact they were
nothing more than local technical colleges. He therefore
insisted that a wide range of courses at graduate level
should be a criterion for the provision of a state financial
grant. As for the third factor, the demand for courses in the
arts from students intending to become teachers in primary
and secondary education had a balancing effect. It is worth
mentioning that the students at elementary universities
came more from the middle class than from the working
class.
The aristocracy tolerated the new provincial universities
because they did not jeopardize its interests and for it was
simply a higher degree of “technical education”. The
Government supported them because they were useful in
terms of the international position of the country at risk of
competition. At the Great Fair in London in 1851, Great
Britain won awards for all its products. In 1867 in Paris, he
won awards in only 10 of the 90 sections. This traumatic
experience rekindled fears of delaying the British economy
in the context of international competition (Sanderson
1972, p. 9).
The pre-existing institutions, however remarkable they
were, could not meet the need to establish provincial
universities for two reasons. On the one hand, even if we
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do not take into account industry, an extension of
participation in university education was desirable for
demographic reasons alone. On the other hand, with the
majority of the population moving to the north, new
institutions need to be established there because of the
high cost of studying away. For the population who moved
to these areas, London-based scientific institutions could
not offer much.
Provincial universities since their founding have been
trying to be as similar as possible to Oxford and
Cambridge standards. But they lacked resources, tradition,
the social position of their students, and political
connections to threaten the dominant position of ancient
institutions. This “distinctive departure” from applied
sciences reflects the strength of the university ideal which
the pioneers of the 19th century tried to overcome. The
technological and applied sciences have never gained the
prestige enjoyed by their respective studies in Germany or
France or in American institutions such as the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Halsey-Trow,
1971, p. 55).
Another important factor was the increasing
involvement of the State in the design of those
establishments. From the end of the 19th century, there was
a state involvement in the development of the British
university system through funding, research, and
regulations. Since the late 1880s no university except
Oxbridge could survive without state funding (Vernon,
2001, p. 251–271). At the beginning of the 20thcentury,
development in all sectors was controlled and directed by
the state. There were voices that since 1875 asked the state
to take overall responsibility for the direction of scientific
teaching at all levels. But what was the catalyst in this
direction was the size of development, accompanied by the
evolution of industrial and scientific research in
universities. The move of higher education to a more
important place within the economy that imposed
government oversight of all new departments and
expansion. Since 1889 a state commission, the harbinger
of the University Grants Committee has been giving grants
to the new colleges.
Since their founding, new urban universities have had a
structural advantage in terms of research compared to
Oxbridge. The organization of professors and lecturers in
faculties-Arts, Medicine, Technology, and Commerce gave
all the power over courses, scholarships, appointments,
grades, direct to the faculties, while in Oxbridge until after
World War I responsibility for all this was a complex
matter between university study committees, colleges and
large colleges of students voting on curricula. Another
reason why municipal universities in their early years of
operation did an important job in the field of applied
sciences was the economic need. Teachers’ fees differed
significantly between primary universities but were usually
lower than a gentleman professor needed. The donations
offered an additional amount of income, which was also
affected by tuition fees in workshops and lectures
(Rothblatt in: Jarausch, 1983, pp. 143–144).
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TABLE II: INCREASE OF THE STUDENT POPULATION

Table II a: Full Time Students in Pre-Existing Universities
CAMBRIDG
OXFORD LONDON DURHAM TOTAL
E
1861 1200* 1200* 375* 50* 2825
1871 1750 1940 300 70* 4060
1881 2400* 2310 700 300* 5610
1891 2700* 2400* 1100* 350* 6550
1901 3080 2800 900* 250* 7030
1911 3970 3400 4120 900* 12390
1921 5900 4440 6950 1200* 18490
1931 5600 4572 10281 1446 21899
*Approximation based on returns of graduates for one year only.

Table II b: New University Foundations

1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Birmingham 200 650* 749 1017 1923 1630
Bristol 350* 450* 542 834 1045 954
Exeter 100* 200* 300* 450 650
Hull 100
Leeds 463 973 958 1168 2334 1884
Leicester 9 100*
Liverpool 1290* 974 1401 2665 2220
Manchester 500* 1000 1100 1300* 1194 1660 2397 2477
Newcastle 60 200 350 1900* 1612 1435 1628 1411
Nottingham 1600 1600* 1914 1906 1075 1551
Reading 500* 1083 563 641
Sheffield 400 500 1266 2500 1072 965
Southampton 270 500* 700* 900* 738 940 772
Total 560 1470 4963 9463 10809 14042 16101 15355
*Estimate
Source: Jarausch (1983, p. 45).
The increase in the student population in the new successful quickly realized that they could not rely on
regional colleges was very high. Although by 1931 none of donations and assistance from the local authorities.
them could be compared in size to Oxford, Cambridge, Government funding was absolutely necessary. If the
and the University of London, overall, they formed around philanthropy of the16th and 17th centuries was more
1930 a new part of higher education with a total student successful, this is largely due to the fact that the voracious
population thirty times larger than in the beginning. See appetite of higher education had not yet opened up. The
Tables I and Table II. development of research as a key element of higher
The decades with the greatest growth of university education changed the historical nature of donation. Now
studies were those of 1870 and 1880, the last years before large sums were needed for the creation of laboratories,
the First World War and the 1920s. In Table III below we research libraries in all fields, for the construction of
can see the total number of enrollments and the increase of teaching rooms, for the recruitment of scientific staff as the
the student population in the period 1860–1930. This number of students increased. Private and public
Table III includes old universities and new provincial institutions needed additional support (Rothblatt in:
universities. Jarausch, 1983, p. 139). Throughout the 19th century and
for a part of the 20th century was not stable. This caused
TABLE III: UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT IN THE UK many headaches in the new institutions. The founders of
University enrollment in the UK elementary universities, London and to some extent
Year Number of students
Durham believed that these institutions would attract
1860/1 3.3–3.385
1870/1 5.560 several students whose tuition fees would make it possible
880/1 10.560 to draw up a full curriculum. But the reality was different.
1890/1 1=6.013 Many of the new colleges in the first or second decade
1900/1 17.839 since their establishment survived with great difficulty,
1910/1 26.414
forced to make cuts, and seek funding. When the number
1920/1 34.591
1930/1 37.255 of full-time students at Owens College and Manchester
Source: Jarausch Konrad (1983, p. 13). dropped to very low levels in 1860 and 1870, the number
of staff could not be maintained and afternoon courses and
With official recognition, colleges expanded in the last special courses for teachers were introduced to attract
decade of the century and stabilized their status as centers students and increase tuition revenues. In retrospect, it is
of higher education. Their financial situation remained easy to criticize the institutions’ decision to lead to this
precarious. They were still largely private ventures and kind of education and to risk their prestige in the eyes of
could not be complacent about their future. Even the most older universities, but market conditions have been harsh

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European Journal of Education and Pedagogy
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(Rothblatt in: Jarausch, 1983, p. 137). In the past, state

intervention had been initiated. It was no coincidence that
Oxbridge professors and other professors were addressing
the state for help. Victorian intellectuals preferred to
convince the state rather than private philanthropy of
financial aid. They did not understand the meaning of
industrialization, they were concerned about political
pluralism even when they stood for it, feared the effects of
cultural pluralism after centuries of guidance from the
aristocracy, worried about their own leadership in society.
They were more concerned about the possible influences
of “public opinion” than about the interference of the state,
and as academic professionals they preferred to risk their
independence with the second rather than the first. These
are the reasons why England before World War I moved
towards the European model of centrally supported higher
education rather than the American one based on private,
local, and regional financial support. Central guidance has
always characterized the English state (Rothblatt in:
Jarausch, 1983, p. 148).

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