LINGUISTICS 2

M1 LESSON 4
INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Contents:
– Complementisers: that and whether
– The functions of that- and whether-clauses
– Adverbial clauses
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

– Recursion -> a constituent can contain constituents of the same

category as itself
– Sentences that contain sentences as constituents => sentential
recursion

complex sentence
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES
– COMPLEX sentence: it contains a sentential structure as a constituent
• S2 is SUBORDINATE to S1
• S1 is SUPERORDINATE to S2
• Subordinate sentential structures are traditionally called SUBORDINATE clauses (less
traditionally, ‘embedded sentences’)

• Every clause has a lexical verb. So

we can identify clauses in terms of
their lexical verbs
• The clause that is not subordinate
to any other clause is the main
clause.
• The lexical verb of the main clause
is the main verb.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES
– Abbreviated Clausal Analysis (ACA)

S1[I thought S2[Georgette said S3[she burned the fritters] ] ]

4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES
– He reminded the men that he was in command at every opportunity.

S1[He reminded the men that S2[he was in command] at every opportunity]
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES
– The fact that you received no greeting from Mars doesn’t mean that
it is uninhabited.

S1[the fact that S2[you received no greeting from Mars] doesn’t mean that
S3[it is uninhabited] ] ]
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Complementisers: that and whether

– THAT is a marker of clausal subordination. It serves to introduce
subordinate clauses.
COMPLEMENTISER
that-clause
– The complementiser position – ‘C’ – is defined as: daughter of S-bar
(S’) and sister of a following S.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Complementisers: that and whether

– When the complementiser is absent, think of it as having been
ellipted.
The fact that you received no greeting from Mars doesn’t mean it
is uninhabited.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Complementisers: that and whether

– Auxiliary-fronting is possible only in main clauses, never in
subordinate clauses
because complementiser that and fronted auxiliaries occupy the
same position and auxiliaries can’t be fronted to a position already
occupied by a complementiser.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
2. Complement of V (within VP).
3. Complement of A (within AP).
4. Complement of N (within NP).
5. Complement of P (within PP).
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
That the king was in his counting house disconcerted her
That the book had a missing chapter was noticed by the critics
That Rashid’s disguise was a success is undeniable
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
- A characteristic of CLAUSAL SUBJECTS is that they can be EXTRAPOSED from
under the subject NP node to the end of the sentence.
– It disconcerted her [that the king was in his counting house].
– It was noticed by the critics [that the book had a missing chapter].
– It is undeniable [that Rashid’s disguise was a success].
– IT is empty of meaning => ‘dummy’ subject.
=> EXPLETIVE IT

A syntactic expletive (abbreviated EXPL) is a form

of expletive: a word that in itself contributes nothing
to the semantic meaning of a sentence, yet does
perform a syntactic role.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
It disconcerted her [that the king was in his counting house].
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
- When the verb is TRANSITIVE or INTENSIVE, extraposition of the clause subject
was OPTIONAL
It disconcerted her that the king was in his counting house. (trans)
=> That the king was in his counting house disconcerted her.
It was worrying them whether Rory should be fired. (intens)
=> Whether Rory should be fired was worrying.
- When the verb is INTRANSITIVE, extraposition is OBLIGATORY
It seems [that the recipe involves some dubious ingredients] (intrans)
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
That the squid sauce was a mistake soon became clear.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
It isn’t my fault Max crushed your monocle.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

1. Subject – and extraposed subject.
It was noticed by the critics that the book had a missing chapter.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

2. Complement of V within VP.
I thought S2[Georgette said
S3[she burned the fritters]]
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

2. Complement of V within VP.
Anna told him (that) his shirt was hanging out.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

3. Complement of A within AP.
She made him aware that he had overstepped the mark.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

3. Complement of A within AP.
The men seemed AP[happy [they had not been chosen]].
Hassan was AP[unsure [whether he should sacrifice that pawn]].
She made him AP[aware [that he had overstepped the mark]].
Drivers AP[anxious [that they had made mistakes]] complained.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

3. Complement of A within AP.
Drivers anxious that they had
made mistakes complained.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

3. Complement of A within AP.
Compare
It is certain that her hair is dyed.
And
William is certain that her hair is dyed.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

3. Complement of A within AP.
It is certain that her hair is dyed. William is certain that her hair is dyed.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

4. Complement of N within NP.
the fact that you received no greetings from Mars.

Noun complement clauses can only complement ABSTRACT nouns like fact, rumour, idea, news,
claim, suggestion, message, indication, etc.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

4. Complement of N within NP.
The clause is said to ‘complement the noun’ because it’s in the same relation to
the N within NP as clauses that complement the V in VP.
Compare the following:
• His absence [INDICATES that he disapproves]. (VP)
• His absence is [INDICATIVE that he disapproves]. (AP)
• His absence is [an INDICATION that he disapproves]. (NP)
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

4. Complement of N within NP.
the fact that you received no greetings from Mars.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

4. Complement of N within NP.
The following sentences include a that-clause following a noun, but only in two
of them does that-clause function as noun-complement clause within an NP.
Identify them.
• It is a disappointment that his monocle was not stolen.
• One small difficulty is the fact that dinosaurs were extinct by then.
• It was a message that the party had been cancelled.
• It is a well-known fact that beavers build dams.
• It is our contention that you could dispense with that silly monocle.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

5. Complement of P within PP.
▪ The question of whether they should revamp the website was raised.
▪ Sarah’s concerns about whether anyone had enough time were ignored.
▪ It depends on whether the rations arrive in time.

An interrogative (whether-) clause can function as the complement of a

preposition within PP
That-clause cannot function as complement to a P within PP
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

5. Complement of P within PP.
The question of whether they should revamp the website was raised.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• The functions of that- and whether- clauses

5. Complement of P within PP.
▪ after, until, before, since are prepositions that can take either a clause (S) or
an NP as complement.
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Adverbial clauses
▪ Abverbial clauses are introduced by SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
▪ Subordinating conjuctions: although, unless, if, because, once, as, now, so,
while, since.
▪ These are subordinating conjunctions – rather than prepositions – because
they can only introduce clauses (not NPs).
▪ Subordinating conjunctions occupy the complementiser position, C. They carry
extra meaning that allows the clause they introduce to function as an
adverbial.

Things will be rather dull if Hieronimo leaves

4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Adverbial clauses
Things will be rather dull if Hieronimo leaves
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Adverbial clauses
Taxes are rising because the bankers need huge bonuses
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Adverbial clauses
▪ IF makes the subordinate clause function as a CONDITIONAL adverbial clause
(same with UNLESS)
▪ BECAUSE => adverbial clause of REASON/RESULT
▪ SO => adverbial clause of PURPOSE
▪ Adverbials can’t modify N or NOM
▪ Now that, so that, except that, as if, in case, in order that, as soon as =>
Complementiser (use triangle to represent them in phrase markers)
4.1 SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

• Adverbial clauses
▪ Adverbial clauses can also function as S-adverbials
▪ Unless I’m gravely mistaken, you are King Kong.
▪ Since you ask, my name is Ozymandias.
▪ That’s my toothbrush, in case you were wondering.
LINGUISTICS 2
M1 LESSON 4.2
INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Contents:
– Wh-questions
– Subordinate wh-clauses
• Subordinate wh-interrogative clauses
• Relative clauses
– Omission of the wh-phrase
– That again
– Restrictive vs non-restrictive
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
– Clauses that include a wh-word are called WH-CLAUSES
– Wh-words can appear in main or subordinate clauses
– Wh-word in a MAIN clause => QUESTION => WH-QUESTION
• Yes/No question asks whether something is the case or not.
• A Wh-question questions some constituents (the subject, direct object, etc.)
=> constituent questions.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

Vince is taking what to Athens?
=> Unfronted Question => Echo-question: they are used to echo – and ask about –
something said earlier

What is Vince taking to Athens?

=> Wh-question
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

Vince is taking what to Athens?
What is Vince taking to Athens?
– The formation of Wh-questions include:
• The fronting of the wh-phrase
• The fronting of the tensed auxiliary
• Wh-phrase moves above-and-beyond the C position of tensed auxiliary => a
second higher C position => introduce S” (S-double-bar)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

Vince is taking what to Athens? What is Vince taking to Athens?
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– C1 (lower): Daughter of S-bar (S′) and sister of S
• Filled, in subordinate clauses, by that, whether, and subordinating
conjunctions.
• Filled, in main clauses, by fronted tensed auxiliaries.
– C2 (higher): Daughter of S-double-bar (S″) and sister of S-bar (S′)
• Filled, in both main and subordinate clauses, by fronted wh-expressions.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– THAT/WHETHER: simply complimentisers
– WH-expressions in C2 are always fronted from within the clauses
have functions within the clauses (indicated by the gap)
belong to categories of NP, AP, PP, AdvP
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– Which books are you giving • to Bill? (• = NP)
– (i) Who will Julia give the pen to • ? (• = NP)
– (ii) To whom will Julia give the pen • ? (• = PP)
– How quickly did he drink that beer • ? (• = AdvP)
– How tall is Max • ? (• = AP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– Which books are you giving • to Bill? (• = NP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– (i) Who will Julia give the pen to • ? (• = NP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– (ii) To whom will Julia give the pen • ? (• = PP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– How quickly did he drink that beer • ? (• = AdvP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– How tall is Max • ? (• = AP)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– Consider this case:
Who is taking Violetta’s icon to Athens?
– Should a Wh-SUBJECT be represented as actually being in the
subject position or represented as fronted to the C2 position?
• C2 position
– Should there be auxiliary-fronting in this case?
• YES
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

Who is taking Violetta’s icon to Athens?
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

– For where, when, how, and why, decide on the most likely category
of the gap it has left behind:
• AdvP
• PP
• AP

How are you? => (Possible answer: well/good.)

Where did Lisa put it? => (Possible answer: under the bed.)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

How are you? => (Possible answer: well/good.)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Wh-questions (MAIN Wh-clauses)

Where did Lisa put it? => (Possible answer: under the bed.)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
How about…
– Whose poem did Stevens suggest would be ideal for the lecture?
– Who did Leopold think Haydn admired?
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
– Whose poem did Stevens suggest would be ideal for the lecture?
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
– Who did Leopold think Haydn admired?
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Subordinate wh-interrogative clauses
• Martha enquired why he wore it on his foot.
• How he would fare on the trapeze preoccupied him.
• It is my affair what I wear at night.
• Marcel wasn’t certain who he sent the flowers to.
• The immediate problem was where they could hide those fritters.
• The little matter of who is going to pay for all this has yet to be resolved.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Subordinate wh-interrogative clauses
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
Marcel wasn’t certain who he sent the flowers to.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
Martha enquired why he wore it on his foot.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
It is my affair what I wear at night.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• Non-interrogative wh-clauses
• Function as MODIFIERS
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• The conclusion [that Mars was inhabited]. noun complement clauses

• The conclusion [which Gomez disputes]. relative clauses

noun complement clauses
• The thought [that he should have done the washing up].

• The thought [which occurred to him]. relative clauses

• The claim [that syntax is good for the brain]. noun complement clauses

• The claim [with which he ended his lecture]. relative clauses

4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• The NOUN-COMPLEMENT CLAUSES in [a] give us central information about
the head noun (the ACTUAL CONTENT)
• The RELATIVE CLAUSES tell something else about the head noun
(PERIPHERAL CONTENT)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• As complements, NOUN-COMPLEMENT CLAUSES are sisters to the head N
within NOM.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• As modifiers, RELATIVE CLAUSES are represented, not as sisters-of-N, but as sisters-of-
NOM within a higher NOM.
• Relative clauses can be thought of as ADJUNCTS in NP.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• *The one that Mars is inhabited.
• The one which Gomez disputes.
• *The one that he should have done the washing up.
• The one which occurred to him.
• *The one that syntax is good for the brain.
• The one with which he ended his lecture

One is a pro-NOM: it stands in place of NOMs, not Ns.

[One + relative clause]: grammatical
[One + complement clause]: ungrammatical
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
the claim with which he ended his lecture
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• Omission of the wh-phrase:
– In many cases, the wh-form in a relative clause can be omitted (by ellipsis)
The trampolines ^ they bought yesterday were dangerous.

– The fronted wh-form cannot be ellipted:

» when it functions as subject
» when other material has been fronted with it
*The fool ^ lent you all that money lent me some, too.
*A friend ^ house we borrowed needs it back next week.
*The claim with ^ he ended his lecture.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
The trampolines ^ they bought yesterday were dangerous.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• That again:
– Compare:
This is a proposal that we should support (•).
This is a proposal that we should support the strike.

The news that she had given John (•) shocked them all.
The news that she had given John a good kick shocked them all.
=> Relative clauses always include a gap
=> In that-clause (not Relative clauses), that is not fronted so the clause itself is
complete.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
a proposal that we should support (⚫)
4.2 WH-CLAUSES
a proposal that we should support the strike
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• Restrictive vs. non-restrictive:
– The books which John has consulted are out of date. restrictive
non-restrictive– The books, which John has consulted, are out of date.
– The dogs which have rabies are dangerous. restrictive
non-restrictive– The dogs, which have rabies, are dangerous.

RESTRICTIVE relative clauses specify more exactly which of the things picked out by the head
noun are being mentioned.
NON-RESTRICTIVE relative clauses serve to add extra – parenthetical – information, without
restricting the set of things (triangles, dogs, books, etc.) being mentioned.
– The dogs, which are mammals, are dangerous.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• Restrictive vs. non-restrictive:

As the modifier of a complete NP, the non-restrictive relative clause

must be represented as the sister of that NP within a higher NP
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• SUBORDINATE Wh-clauses
– Relative clauses
• Restrictive vs. non-restrictive:
– the wh-phrase/word in non-restrictives can’t be ellipted and it can’t be replaced by
that.
4.2 WH-CLAUSES

• Summary:
3 kinds of clauses that can appear within NP:
– Noun-complement clause: sister of N (within NOM).
– Restrictive relative clause: sister of NOM (within NOM).
– Non-restrictive relative clause: sister of NP (within NP).