PRACTICAL 4:

HEART AND LUNGS

All animals use oxygen to access energy at a cellular level. The gas exchange surfaces, and the circulatory
systems of vertebrate animals are responsible for supplying this oxygen and removing the waste gas
carbon dioxide. In this practical, you will investigate the heart and lungs of a typical mammal.

Time Activity
0:00 – 0:15 Introduction 15 min
0:15 – 1:40 Activity 1: Lungs – Gas exchange surfaces 85 min
Practical task 1.1: Sheep’s pluck
Practical task 1.2: Density of tissues
Practical task 1.3: Cellular structure of lung tissue
Practical task 1.4: Abnormal lung tissue
1:40 – 2:45 Activity 2: The heart 65 min
Practical Task 2.1: Heart dissection
2:45 – 3:00
Clean up and ensure your participation is recorded.

SAFETY
• Dissecting instruments are used in this practical. Use blunt probes and avoid cuts.
• If you have an existing cut or abrasion on your hands, please speak to your demonstrator.
• Always work to ensure your safety and the safety of those around you.
• Immediately report any injuries or spills to a demonstrator.
• Wash your hands after class.
At the end of this practical you will be able to:
• Recognise and explain the features of an efficient gas exchange surface.
• Relate the key structures of the mammalian heart and lung to their function in the
cardiorespiratory system.

Practical 4
ACTIVITY 1: LUNGS – GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES (85 min)
Practical task 1.1: Sheep pluck
The sheep pluck includes the major organs and vessels in
the thoracic (chest) cavity, the diaphragm and the liver, and
allows us to see their arrangement in situ. As the pluck
comes from an abattoir, many of the organs have been cut
to allow rapid blood drainage and to check for parasites or
disease. This allows us to see inside some of this tissue.

Task
Your head demonstrator will provide an overview of the Figure 1.1: Diagram showing blood vessel
pluck and demonstrate lung inflation. Observe that the connections between a heart and lungs of a
lobes of the lung appear on both sides of the pluck and have mammal.
a very close association with the heart which sits just to the
left of the midline, and the major blood vessels (also Fig. 1.1).
Note the cartilaginous rings around the front (anterior) of the sheep trachea. Gently touch the front of
your own throat and identify these which almost fully encircle the trachea in humans.

Q1.1a. Describe the appearance and texture of the uninflated and inflated sections of the lungs – why
does it change colour?

Q1.1b. Considering the arrangement of organs in the thorax (chest cavity), why might the number of lobes
of the lung be different on the two sides?

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Practical task 1.2: Density of tissues
Different organs in the body are composed of tissues in different structural arrangements related to their
function. The lungs are the site of gas exchange whereas the liver filters toxins out of the blood as well as
producing bile (a digestive secretion). Consequently, we might expect these tissues to be arranged in
different ways and this might affect the density of the tissue.

Task
Working in groups, design a method to investigate the difference in density between two tissue types
using the following materials:

Materials
• 1 piece of lung tissue • Graduated measuring cylinder
• 1 piece of liver tissue • Large beaker
• Weighing scales • Water (at sinks) and forceps

Q1.2a. What does the initial position of the tissue in the cylinders tell you about the densities of the two
types of tissues?

Q1.2b. Calculate the densities of the two tissues.

Q1.2c. Explain the differences in the density of the two tissues.

Q1.2d. If the lung tissue is held underwater, it eventually will sink to the bottom of the cylinder - why?

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Practical task 1.3: Cellular structure of lung tissue
The lung tissue samples shown below are stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H and E) stain. H and E
stain is a mixture of two common stains which stain nuclei blue, and the cytoplasm and extracellular
matrix pink.

Q1.3a. Analyse the below images of lung cross-sections showing a bronchiole, an alveolar duct, and
alveoli, with particular emphasis on the capillaries in the alveoli. Describe how the structural features of
these components facilitates efficient gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems.

Bronchiole (section diameter, 1.5mm)

Alveolar duct (section diameter, 2.5mm)

Alveoli (singular is alveolus) (section diameter, 250µm)

Capillaries (section diameter, 140µm)

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Q1.3b. Bronchi and larger conducting bronchioles are lined with cilia, which are tiny, hair-like structures
that beat together in an upwards direction. Suggest a reason why these air passages have ciliated cells.
How do the cilia contribute to the respiratory system's function?

Q1.3c. The images below show the structure of a venule and arteriole within a normal lung tissue sample
(H and E stain). Compare and contrast the structural features and list how it relates to their function in
the cardiorespiratory system.

Venule (section width, 2mm) Arteriole (section width, 2mm)

Q1.3d: The image of the section (section width, 2mm) shows two even smaller blood vessels between the
size of venules and arterioles, but how can you tell these are not capillaries?

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Q1.3e. In the space below, draw a diagram of a section of the lung tissue (displayed on the monitors set
up in the lab). Try to zoom in and select a section that has an alveolus, alveolar duct (linear open spaces),
bronchiole (often lined with darker tissue) and an artery/vein, and clearly label these structures. Indicate
the position of a capillary.

Checklist for drawings & diagrams

Heading includes:  All required labels with ruled label lines

 The common and scientific name of the organism  Label lines to the centre of the structure.
 Name of the stain used.  Label lines not crossed, without arrowheads
 Clear large drawing: no shading, no fine lines

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An electron microscopy (EM) picture of a very small section of lung tissue below (Figure 1.3a), should help
you visualise the close association between the gas exchange surface and the cardiovascular system.

Figure 1.3a. Electron microscopy image of a very small section of lung tissue.

Q1.3f. Using the EM image above, and the knowledge that the diameter of a red blood cell is 6-8μm,
estimate the distance gas travels from the alveolus to the red blood cell.

Q1.3g. The rate of movement of molecules across a membrane or exchange surface such as the lung
depends on several factors. Fick’s Law describes the relationship between diffusion rate and these factors
and states:

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Having observed the lung tissue describe how the structure of the lung maximises the rate of diffusion
according to Fick’s Law above?

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Practical task 1.4: Abnormal lung tissue
Cancer is an example of abnormal tissue development. Rapidly proliferating cancer cells have a different
metabolism from normal cells. Cancer cells use increased glycolysis for energy and can build up high levels
of lactic acid as a result.
Most patients with suspected cancers will have a biopsy taken. This means a small amount of tissue is
removed from the patient and observed under the microscope.
Now that you've seen what normal lung tissue looks like, in this exercise, you will be working to compare
samples of normal and abnormal tissue. You should make detailed observations of abnormal lung tissue
that could lead to a diagnosis.

Protocol
• The human abnormal lung slide will be displayed on the monitors set up in the lab. Observe the
arrangement of tissue and note any differences when compared to the normal tissue in Table 1.4a.
• If you have time, examine the human normal liver slide image, also displayed on the monitors, and
compare the obvious structural features to that of human normal lung tissue. Reflect on the
relationship between structure and function in both organs in Table 1.4a.
Table 1.4a. Compare structure and function of human normal and abnormal lung, and human normal liver

Human normal lung Human abnormal lung

Human normal liver

Q1.4a. How would the changes in structure observed in human abnormal lung slide affect gas exchange
in the lung?

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ACTIVITY 2: THE HEART (65 min)

Practical task 2.1: Heart dissection

The vertebrate heart is myogenic, meaning that it can beat in the absence of nerve stimulation. Cardiac
muscle cells have the intrinsic property of spontaneously contracting and can rapidly conduct electrical
signals. The heart has a pacemaker that triggers an electrical wave to move systematically across the atria
and then the ventricles. This ensures that the atria contract simultaneously, filling the ventricles, and then
the ventricles contract, expelling blood from the heart to either the lungs or body.

Task
In pairs, dissect the sheep’s heart. Some students may feel unwell during this activity – keep an eye on
each other and call for assistance when necessary.

Equipment:
• 1 heart per pair • blunt dissecting scissors
• wooden dissecting board • blunt dissecting probe

EXTERNAL FEATURES
Step 1:
Lay the heart ventral side up as shown (Figure 2.1a). Reminder: orientate as if the organism is facing you.
Note: Major blood vessels normally coming from the base of the heart (top of Figure 2.1a) may be missing.

Step 2:
Use your finger or a probe to identify which major blood vessel is connected to each chamber of the heart.

Identify the external features:

• Interventricular groove – division between the
two ventricles, mainly filled with fat (ventral side).
• Atrioventricular groove – division between the
atria and the ventricles, mainly filled with fat.
• Pulmonary artery – emerges from the right
ventricle.
• Aorta – emerges from the left ventricle.
• Venae cavae – posterior and anterior, open into
the right atrium.
• Pulmonary veins – open into the left atrium.
• Coronary vessels – visible on the surface of the
heart and supply blood to the heart wall.
Figure 2.1a: Sheep heart, ventral view

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 !
!
PROCEDURE: OPENING THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART !
!
Step 1: !

Cut off the apex: cut at an angle following the line in the diagram
to expose the two ventricular cavities and open both the left and
right ventricles. Note: the right ventricle does not reach the apex. 1
Identify the thin-walled chamber (this is the right ventricle).

Apex of right
ventricle
Apex of left
ventricle

Step 2:
Open the right ventricle: cut through the ventral wall of the right
ventricle parallel to and close to the interventricular groove.

Step 3:
Open the right atrium: continue the cut to the left, along the
atrioventricular groove as far as the pulmonary artery, then
cut through the wall of the right atrium and anterior vena
cava.
Note: turn back the V-shaped flap to expose the lumen of the
right ventricle and the right atrium and note the three parts
of the tricuspid valve.

Step 4:
Open the pulmonary artery: push a probe from the right
ventricle up until it emerges from the pulmonary artery. Use
this as a guide to cut and open the pulmonary artery as
shown.
Note: the three parts of the pulmonary semilunar valve.

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Identify the features on the RIGHT side of the heart:
• Venae cavae (if present) – opens into the right atrium, deoxygenated blood from the body.
• Interatrial septum – wall that divides the right and left atrium.
• Coronary sinus – the main vessel returning used blood from the heart wall.
• Septomarginal trabecula – band or strap between the interventricular septum (wall that divides
the left and right ventricles) and the outer ventricle wall.
• Tricuspid valve – 3 thin, transparent ‘parachute’ flaps of tissue which, when the ventricle
contracts, are forced up to close the atrioventricular opening, preventing backflow of blood into
the right atrium.
• Chordae tendineae – ‘strings’ that attach the tricuspid valve flaps to papillary muscles on the
ventricle walls.
• Pulmonary artery – emerges from the right ventricle, deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary
circuit).
• Pulmonary semilunar valve – 3 thin, transparent ‘half-moon pockets’ of tissue in the pulmonary
artery that prevent back-flow of blood into the right ventricle when the ventricle relaxes.

PROCEDURE: OPENING THE LEFT SIDE OF THE HEART

Step 5:
Open the left ventricle: make an incision in the ventral wall
of the left ventricle parallel to and 1cm from the
interventricular groove as shown in the diagram.

Step 6:
Open the left atrium: make a vertical cut on the ventral
surface to expose the left atrium.
Note: the opening of the two pulmonary veins (these have no
valves) – cut through the pulmonary vein to expose the
lumen of the left ventricle and the left atrium and note the
two parts of the bicuspid (mitral) valve.

Step 7:
Open the aorta: push a probe from the left ventricle up until
it emerges from the aorta. Use this as a guide to cut through
the thick muscle and open the aorta as shown (Figure 2.1b).
Note: the three parts of the aortic semilunar valve. Figure 2.1b. Sheep heart, dissected.

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Identify the features on the LEFT side of the heart:
• Bicuspid (mitral) valve – 2 thin, transparent ‘parachute’ flaps of tissue which, when the ventricle
contracts, are forced up to close the atrioventricular opening, preventing backflow of blood into
the left atrium. Similar in appearance and function to the tricuspid valve, but with 2 flaps.
• Pulmonary vein – opens into the left atrium, oxygenated blood from the lungs.
• Aorta – emerges from the left ventricle, oxygenated blood to the body (systemic circuit).
• Chordae tendineae – ‘strings’ that attach the bicuspid valve flaps to papillary muscles on the
ventricle walls.
• Aortic semilunar valve – 3 thin, transparent ‘half-moon pockets’ of tissue in the aorta that prevent
back-flow of blood into the left ventricle when the ventricle relaxes. Similar in appearance and
function to the pulmonary semilunar valve.
• Coronary arteries – 2 openings just beyond semilunar valve, supplies heart muscle with oxygen.

Q2.1a. How does the thickness of the right and the left ventricle walls relate to their function?

Q2.1b: Label the heart diagram below, indicating the atria, ventricles, direction of blood flow through the
heart, location of valve types, and where the blood oxygenation and pressure may be highest and lowest.

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