Hindawi

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2023, Article ID 6688500, 33 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6688500

Review Article
Hole Cleaning during Drilling Oil and Gas Wells: A Review for
Hole-Cleaning Chemistry and Engineering Parameters

Mohammed Al-Rubaii ,1 Mohammed Al-Shargabi ,2 and Dhafer Al-Shehri1

1
Department of Petroleum Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
2
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin Avenue, Tomsk 634050, Russia

Correspondence should be addressed to Mohammed Al-Rubaii; g200453260@kfupm.edu.sa

Received 13 April 2023; Revised 7 November 2023; Accepted 27 November 2023; Published 7 December 2023

Academic Editor: Anil Singh Yadav

Copyright © 2023 Mohammed Al-Rubaii et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Efcient hole cleaning during drilling operations is critical to maintain a high rate of penetration and smooth drilling, leading to
minimum drilling problems and economical drilling efciency. Tis process involves several important factors, including pipe-
sticking incidents, higher cuttings concentrations in the annulus, noisy vibration of the drill string, erratic equivalent circulating
density, lost circulation incidents, well control incidents, geomechanical hole section instability, tight spots during tripping
operations, and excessive usage of chemical additives for conditioning hole sections and mud. Various approaches, including
correlations, methodologies, developments, algorithms, equipment, charts, feld experience, chemicals, and studies involving
experiments, can be used to enhance the efciency of hole cleaning. Te development of hole-cleaning models is important for use
as hole-cleaning indicators to ensure optimized drilling efciency. Tis paper presents a comprehensive overview of the complex
feld of hole cleaning in the oil and gas industry. It includes techniques, tools, models, and chemical additives. It also encompasses
drilling engineering, operations, and chemistry. To facilitate the transit of drill cuttings, maintain hole section stability, cool and
lubricate the drill bit, and transmit hydraulic horsepower, this article outlines the important roles of drilling fuids. Te sig-
nifcance of chemical additives, including nanoparticles, natural and modifed polymers, and synthetic polymers, in preserving
wellbore stability, improving drilling efciency, and lowering drill bit wear is also covered in the study. It concludes by making
recommendations for further study to clarify hole cleaning for the reader to facilitate and boost drilling efciency.

1. Introduction the drilling fuid, for instance, water- or oil-based mud, to

Optimization of downhole cleaning during drilling can be
achieved either by improving engineering aspects or en-
hancing chemical efciency and, most of the time, by ap-
plying both appropriately. While the vision of the drilling
industry is to achieve excellence in drilling operations, its
main mission is to plan, design, and drill high-quality wells
in an optimum time and cost efectively in a safe and en-
vironmentally friendly manner. Drilling wells require
a comprehensive understanding of the exploration, ap-
praisal, evaluation, and development of felds [1, 2].
In planning and designing drilling wells, drilling time
and fat time must be appropriately optimized to obtain the
best drilling efciency and cost efectiveness. Te ability of
efectively and efciently carry and transport generated and
suspended drilled cuttings during drilling is identifed as
hole cleaning. Hole cleaning is an efective tool used to
overcome wellbore instability during drilling in case cutting
accumulation and shale sloughing and caving are encoun-
tered. Cutting accumulation and caving will lead to difcult
tripping operations resulting from pipe sticking [3].
Hole cleaning during drilling plays a signifcant role in
reducing the drilling time by ensuring a proper rate of
penetration (ROP) and the fat time by minimizing tripping
operations, pumping sweep pills, time of circulation, time
spent running casing, and improving cementation integrity
and efciency. Improper hole cleaning causes drilling
problems such as high or erratic trends of equivalent
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
circulating density, torque and drilling drag, wellbore in-
stability, high annulus pressure, lost circulation, areas of
tight hole sections encountered during tripping, and stuck
pipe and well control incidents. Tirty-three percent of stuck
pipe incidents are due to insufcient hole-cleaning efciency
and are responsible for a large portion of all stuck pipe events
[4, 5].
If drilling problems cannot be controlled, they will ul-
timately lead to economic losses or take more time for
drilling. Hole cleaning is better with water-based muds, as
cuttings can split from water-based muds (WBMs) more
easily than from oil-based muds (OBMs) [6]. However, some
studies have suggested that OBMs may have higher hole-
cleaning efciency than WBMs due to their lower viscosity
and higher lubricity [7]. Te rheology of WBMs is non-
Newtonian, while the rheology of OBMs is more Newtonian,
with WBMs demonstrating more thixotropic fuid behavior
than OBMs. Inadequate hole cleaning can lead to the ac-
cumulation of drill cuttings in the annulus of open hole
sections, and the drilling rate will decrease. Drilling in
complicated geological zones, such as faults, joints, fractures,
layered formations, and weak bedding planes, normally
leads to instability problems in hole sections. Hole cleaning
efciency can be afected by mechanical and chemical in-
fuences or a combination of both. Mechanical efects are
normally due to the density of mud (too high or too low) and
drilling mud parameters or the use of inappropriate drilling
practices (such as the penetration rate, infuence of vibra-
tion, torque, and drag, and not performing wiper trips when
the drilled hole section demands) [8–10].
On the other hand, chemical efects are due to the use of
drilling fuids with improper rheological properties and
improper concentrations of inhibitors or chemical additives
added to manage the anticipated rheology adjustments.
Non-Newtonian fuids are more efcient than Newtonian
fuids because the rheological parameters of drilling fuids
afect their lifting capacity and contribute to optimizing the
carrying capacity and transportation ability, efciency, and
energy of muds. Most models of drilling fuids, including
Bingham plastic, power law, and Herschel–Bulkley, are
based on the non-Newtonian behavior of fuids. Te
Bingham plastic model is more applicable for spud-drilling
fuids, which are mainly WBMs composed of water and
bentonite [11, 12]. Te yield point of used drilling fuids or
drilling muds of this type enhances the carrying capacity of
muds during drilling. Other models based on non-
Newtonian fuids are applicable to both types of drilling
fuids, i.e., WBMs or OBMs [13–15].
In deviated, highly deviated, or horizontal hole sections,
a fow regime with high enough turbulence to exceed the
critical Shield’s number is required to dislodge and mobilize
accumulated cuttings on the lower side of the hole section
and underside of the drill string. Finally, the drilling fuid is
selected based on the lithology of the drilled formation,
which is an uncontrollable factor taken into consideration
during the planning phase of the well design. In the feld,
mud solid control equipment, such as shale shakers,
degassers, desanders, desilters, mud cleaners, and centrifuge
devices, must be taken into consideration to ensure proper
hole cleaning. Mud solid control efciency and the loop
contribute to practical hole cleaning to ensure the efcient
performance of mud solid control equipment, the faster rate
of penetration (ROP), the maintenance of proper mud
rheological properties, and the control of the additional
amount of dilution and mud chemical additives in drilling
fuids [16, 17].
Knowledge of the chemistry of drilling mud is important
to understand the performance of chemical hole cleaning
[18, 19]. Chemical infuences and the efects of reactions on
the lifting capacity of the drilling fuid can ensure proper
downhole cleaning if they are appropriately manipulated
and are compatible with the WBM or OBM used. As mud
chemical materials are extensively used in drilling, un-
derstanding chemical factors is essential to maintain optimal
drilling efciency [19]. Terefore, the novelty of this paper
lies in its comprehensive review of published literature on
drilling engineering, operations, and chemistry of hole
cleaning, which provides strong insights to bridge gaps in
current knowledge and improve drilling efciency. Te
paper presents major fndings in a clear and concise format
through tables, which helps readers better understand the
complexities of hole cleaning in oil and gas drilling. By
highlighting the importance of proper hole cleaning, this
paper contributes to the advancement of drilling technology
and the optimization of drilling operations. Te review
covers critical aspects of hole cleaning, including drilling
fuid functions, physical and chemical properties, and the
role of chemical additives. Overall, this paper ofers valuable
insights for drilling professionals seeking to improve drilling
efciency and reduce costs.
2. The Analysis of the Efficacy of Oil-Based and
Water-Based Muds in Hole Cleaning
Numerous studies have investigated the contrasting be-
haviors of OBMs and WBMs, but varying conclusions have
been drawn. Most conclusions are based on empirical in-
quiries, with some studies showing inconsistencies com-
pared to others. Despite having similar rheological
properties, OBMs and WBMs have varying hole-cleaning
performance, indicating variations in efciency despite their
similar properties [5].
Seeberger et al.’s study found that OBMs and WBMs
showed similar efcacy in hole cleaning and cutting
transport when fuid velocity exceeded a threshold. How-
ever, WBMs had slightly better hole-cleaning capacity than
OBMs at velocities below the threshold. Te study also found
that OBMs tend to experience sliding at reduced inclination
angles, and it is preferable for the cutting bed to move
cohesively rather than as individual particles in a fuidized
state [6].
Moreover, Hareland et al. compared the efcacy of hole
cleaning between OBMs and WBMs. Te study was con-
ducted on a 50% eccentric annulus with inclinations ranging
from 0 degrees to 90 degrees. Te results showed that hole
cleaning was comparable in both fuids under high in-
clinations, especially when both had a low yield point (YP)
and plastic viscosity (PV). However, WBMs demonstrated
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
superior hole-cleaning capabilities in deviated wells with
inclinations of 40° and 50°. Te study found that an increase
in YP and PV reduced the rate of cutting transportation
across all inclinations, except for vertical and horizontal
orientations. OBMs had a greater impact. By reducing YP
and PV, increasing fow rates, and enhancing hole-cleaning
efectiveness, water-based fuids demonstrated superior
hole-cleaning performance [20]. Furthermore, Hemphill
and Larsen analyzed hole-cleaning efciency between OBMs
and WBMs with similar API YP. Te study focused on the
critical fow rate, the threshold fuid velocity at which
a cutting bed begins, and the critical transport fuid velocity,
the minimum velocity needed for particles to move upward.
Subcritical velocities were fuid velocities that fell below the
critical velocity threshold, leading to cutting accumulation.
Te researchers found that WBMs had superior efcacy in
impeding cutting bed formation at inclination angles of 45°,
65°, and 85°. OBMs required a 20 to 25% higher fuid velocity
to achieve the critical fuid velocity, primarily due to density
disparity [21]. Another study by Saasen and Loklingholm
found that OBMs performs better than WBMs, even with
similar viscosity profles. OBMs have a continuous oil phase,
enhanced with emulsifed water and organophilic clay for
desired viscosity. WBMs have a brine phase viscosifed using
polymers. Te gelling properties in water-based fuids
contribute to challenges in hole cleaning. Te performance
of drilling fuids is superior when exhibiting low shear
thinning, as oil inertness on solid particles eliminates the
particle-particle gel-forming efect, enhancing hole-cleaning
efcacy. Te study highlights the importance of oil inertness
in drilling fuid systems [22].
Recently, Sayindla et al. compared the efcacy of OBMs
and WBMs that containing potassium chloride (KCl) in
hole-cleaning performance, considering eccentricity and
rotation efects. Te study found signifcant variation in
hole-cleaning efcacy across the fuids. OBMs performed
better in the absence of drilling string rotation due to its
more elastic behavior. However, at high rotation speeds, the
drilling string’s rotational motion disrupts gel structures in
both fuids, resulting in comparable hole-cleaning perfor-
mance. Te study highlights the importance of considering
eccentricity and rotation efects in drilling fuid selection and
application [23].
Te worldwide experience reveals that drilling fuid
properties, not just viscosity, have a signifcant impact on
hole-cleaning performance. Te fuid’s ability to establish
a gel structure within the cutting bed is also crucial. OBMs,
infuenced by gravity, retain cuttings within the bed. WBMs,
composed of polymers, create a robust gel structure, re-
ducing deformation resistance. Tis results in a more
compacted layer and enhanced erosion resistance. Tere-
fore, the viscosity of drilling fuids does not primarily in-
fuence hole-cleaning performance.
3
3. The Impact of Rheological Properties and
Parameters on Hole-Cleaning Efficiency in
Oil and Gas Wells
Te rheological properties and parameters of drilling fuid,
including the PV, apparent viscosity (AV), YP, fow index
(n), consistency index (k), density, fuid loss, gel strength,
and regime of drilling fuids, are critical for efective hole
cleaning during drilling operations [8, 24, 25]. PV is
a measure of the internal friction in the fuid under fow.
Fluids with higher PV are more viscous and can suspend
cuttings better. An increased yield point enhances the ef-
fcacy of solid suspension; however, it necessitates a greater
pump pressure for circulation. AV is the measured viscosity
at a given shear rate, and higher AV fuids have more cutting
carrying capacity but also more frictional pressure losses. YP
is a measure of attractive forces in the fuid. A higher YP
indicates a more gel-like fuid that can suspend cuttings
when the fow stops, but too high YP can cause excessive
gelation. Te fow index (n) indicates whether a fuid is
Newtonian or non-Newtonian. Non-Newtonian fuids ex-
hibit shear-thinning or shear-thickening behavior, thereby
enabling them to fow at increased velocities while experi-
encing reduced pressure. Te consistency index (k) is
a measure of a fuid’s viscous properties. A higher k indicates
more viscosity. Density is important for maintaining good
stability and preventing blowouts. Higher density fuids can
exert a greater buoyant force on cuttings to improve lifting
but also increase hydrostatic pressure. Fluid loss is a measure
of how much fuid flters into the formation. Lower fuid loss
is better for building flter cakes, while high fuid loss can
destabilize the hole. Gel strength is a measure of attractive
forces that allow the fuid to suspend cuttings when cir-
culation stops. Moderate gel strength is good, but too high
causes pumping problems [2, 26]. More importantly, the
rheological behavior of drilling fuids is typically described
using four primary models: Newtonian, Bingham plastic,
pseudoplastic, and dilatant models (Figure 1) [15]. Fluids are
classifed into Newtonian and non-Newtonian categories,
with the viscosity of a Newtonian fuid remaining constant
regardless of shear rates. Non-Newtonian fuids can be
categorized into three main types: dilatant behavior, pseu-
doplastic behavior, and plastic behavior. Dilatant behavior is
observed in fuids such as water-based polyethylene glycol
drilling fuid, while pseudoplastic behavior is seen in fuids
with high clay content, waxy crude oil, and paint. Plastic
behavior is a characteristic of aqueous solutions and
emulsions of polymer compounds. Te viscosity of dilatant
fuids increases with higher shear rates, while the viscosity of
both pseudoplastic and plastic fuids decreases with in-
creased shear rates. Plastic fuids initiate fow only when
a specifc shear stress threshold is exceeded, while pseu-
doplastic fuids can fow under any applied shear force.
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Dilatant behavior is infrequently observed in drilling fuids,

as most are characterized by plastic and pseudoplastic
properties. Te rheological curve of drilling fuids helps in tic
as
assessing the equivalent circulating density, cutting capacity, n Pl
a
and hydraulic parameter optimization [15, 27]. ni
wto
Ne t ic
Among them, the Bingham plastic model can estimate n- Plas
o g ham
the minimum pressure required to initiate fow (yield point) N l Bin
Idea
and the resistance to fow (plastic viscosity) of the drilling
fuid to evaluate cutting transport [28, 29]. Tis parameter is
crucial in determining the fuid’s ability to carry cuttings and )
<1
(n
maintain efcient hole cleaning during drilling operations n g

Shear stress
i a in
on n
[30]. More importantly, the yield point to plastic viscosity e wt -thin
N r
ratio (YP/PV), a parameter derived from the Bingham n- e a
No ic/sh
plastic model, was initially proposed by Hussaini and Azar s t
pla
(1983) as a metric to assess the efectiveness of solids in udo
e
drilling fuid hole-cleaning capacity. Te fndings of these ps 1)
n (n=
experiments revealed that an increase in YP/PV leads to i a
on
enhanced cutting transportation, regardless of the in- wt 1)
Ne >
ian (n
clination angle [31]. ton ning
w e
Table 1 shows the problems while drilling and their Ne ck
o n- r-thi
impact based on diferent parameters, such as PV and YP. As N ea
sh
indicated in Table 1, several logical reasons explain why t ant/
l a
exceeding the limit can induce hole problems. Te preferred di
drilling fuid regime, i.e., laminar, transition, or turbulent, Shear rate
depends on the type of drilled hole section, including
whether vertical or directional. In vertical drilling, the Figure 1: Rheological models exhibited by various types of fuids,
preferred fuid fow regime is laminar, which provides an namely, Newtonian fuid, plastic fuid, pseudoplastic fuid, and
dilatant fuid [15].
efcient bouncy efect and a maximum annular velocity
profle at the walls of the drilled hole section to ensure
a proper lifting capacity [32, 33]. jet circulation techniques [35, 36]. Te principle of vortex
More importantly, identifying the factors that afect circulation involves the utilization of a jet pump bit, which
cutting transport during drilling is a complex task, as no efectively extracts annular drilling fuid from the region
single explanation can fully account for all the observed beneath the bit and subsequently introduces it through ofset
phenomena. However, numerous studies have concluded nozzles located at the face of the bit [36]. Tis phenomenon
that the mud’s ability to transport rock fragments is de- results in the generation of rotational fow patterns, which
pendent on various factors, including mud type, density, and enhance the efciency of cutting and lifting operations by
rheology, as well as the rate of mud fow or annular velocity. simultaneously reducing the overall fow rate and diferential
Other factors that afect cutting transport include the size pressure. Te optimization of nozzle quantities, orientations,
and density of the cuttings, borehole angle, RPM, ROP, and and dimensions is of utmost importance to achieve optimal
drill pipe eccentricity. Tese parameters are shown in Fig- vortex systems while minimizing pressure losses. In an al-
ure 2, which highlights the direct infuence of variables such ternative approach, the process of hydraulic jet circulation
as borehole size and drilling fuid rheology on borehole- involves the circulation of a high-velocity jet fow through the
cleaning efciency. In addition, indirect factors such as drill string, which efectively propels the cuttings in an up-
cutting size, density, shape, and ROP can also moderately ward direction [35]. Te utilization of an adjacent placement
impact borehole-cleaning efciency [32]. of the jet nozzle to the bit nozzle obviates the need for any
However, some variables can have a negative impact on external pumps. Studies have shown that the utilization of
the borehole-cleaning efciency. For example, inclinations systems incorporating multiple staggered nozzles has resulted
can signifcantly afect borehole-cleaning efciency, making it in enhanced transport efciency compared to designs uti-
difcult to achieve optimal results. Conversely, certain factors lizing a single nozzle [35, 36]. Furthermore, the use of pulsed
can signifcantly improve borehole-cleaning conditions. Te jets can enhance cutting removal at the bottom of the well.
fow rate and RPM are examples of variables that can have Pulsed jets are created using tools that modulate the con-
a positive efect and optimize the cleaning process. Terefore, tinuous fow of drilling fuid into intermittent pulses, gen-
it is essential to consider all the factors that can impact erating fuctuations in the pressure and fow rate at the
borehole-cleaning conditions to achieve the best possible bottom hole. Pulsed jets have been shown to improve the
results [24, 34]. More importantly, the enhancement of penetration rate by efectively fracturing rock formations.
cutting transport during drilling operations can be achieved However, the exact mechanism of how they afect cutting
by reducing the diferential pressure at the bottom hole. Two removal remains unclear [37]. As an example, Heqian et al.
primary techniques that have been examined for the purpose developed a numerical model to simulate pressure and fow-
of achieving this objective are vortex generation and hydraulic rate changes induced by a pulsed jet, accounting for factors
 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 1: Problems by diferent parameter scenarios while drilling and their impact on hole cleaning.
Problems Impact
(i) Poor cutting transport in deviated and horizontal wells
Increased PV, YP, gels, and 6 and 3 revolution per minute (RPM) readings (ii) High equivalent circulating density (ECD) and possible breakdown of formation
and lost circulation
Increased fuids loss/thick flter cake (i) Diferential sticking and high torque and drag
Slow ROP (i) Chip hold down pressure
(i) Possible breakdown of the formation
Increase in density
(ii) Increase dilution and addition of chemicals to maintain proper density
Poor cement displacement (i) Channels that allow pressure communication up the wellbore
Increased abrasion and wear of mud pumps and downhole motors and tools (i) Increased cost and lost time
Increase disposal cost of drilling waste (i) Environmental and health safety
5
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Borehole Borehole
size angle Pills
Mud
Flow
density rate
Cuttings
size
Fluid Cuttings
rheology shape
RPM
Cuttings
density
Drill pipe
Fluid eccentricity
type
Direct effect
Indirect effect
Figure 2: Parameters and their efect on borehole cleaning.
such as drilling fuid properties, wellbore geometry, and pulse
tool design. Figure 3 elucidates the mechanism underlying the
removal of cuttings at the bottom hole through the utilization
of pulsed jet technology. Te model was solved using char-
acteristics and coupled pressure-fow equations to capture
wave propagation efects. Te results showed that fow-rate
fuctuations decrease sharply with increasing depth, but more
gradual changes occur above 4000 m. In addition, pressure
oscillations near the tool are reduced by enlarging the tool
fow area. Te fow-rate fuctuations promoted by the pulsed
jet help alter the mechanical state of the cuttings at the
bottom. Te mathematical model considers forces acting on
individual cutting particles under the jet, considering pa-
rameters such as drag, buoyancy, gravity, and hydraulic
pressure diferences [37].
Moreover, under high-pressure and high-temperature
(HPHT) conditions, higher density mud is used to control
pressure, accelerating the sagging of solid barite particles.
Tis settlement is infuenced by drilling fuid properties and
drilling parameters, potentially leading to stuck pipes,
wellbore instability, loss of circulation, and irregular rheo-
logical properties [38, 39]. Studies have explored various
remedies for sagging in drilling operations [40], including
using antisagging agents and rheology modifers, reducing
particle size in weighting materials such as micronized barite
and ilmenite, and implementing a combination of diferent
weighting materials [40–43]. Tese approaches aim to im-
prove drilling fuid rheology and prevent sagging issues in
drilling operations [41].
4. Hole-Cleaning Chemistry and
Engineering Parameters
Tis section covers hole-cleaning chemistry, hole-cleaning
engineering, and operations, including methodologies used
in drilling practices, tools, modeling, and chemical additives
ROP
Borehole
cleaning
Drill string
size
Significant negative effect
Significant positive effect
in hole-cleaning applications. Te key purpose of this section
on hole cleaning is to understand the functions of drilling
fuids, including how physical and chemical properties
contribute to achieving the needed objectives. A drilling
fuid facilitates the transport of drill cuttings produced by
drilling on the surface if the full path of fuid circulation is
established. In addition, maintaining a balance in the drilled
hole section to prevent formation fow, maintaining hole
section stability, cooling, lubricating the drill bit, and
transmitting hydraulic horsepower to the drill bit are critical
functions of the drilling fuids.
Te physical and chemical properties that contribute to
the efcient transport of cuttings are the yield point, ap-
parent viscosity, average annular mud velocity, cutting slip
velocity, and gel strength. Te density of the drilling fuid is
extremely important to balance the drilled hole section to
prevent formation fuid fow and to maintain wellbore
stability mechanically in the case of shale caving or
sloughing. In addition, introducing chemical additives such
as shale inhibitors can maintain reactive shale formation,
while other chemicals can enhance ROP, increase mud ef-
fciency, reduce drill bit wear, avoid bit and bottom hole
assembly (BHA) balling, and condition the hole section and
drilling mud. Annular velocity cools the drill bit, and density
and annular velocity transmit hydraulic horsepower to the
drill bit using the appropriate viscosity and bit nozzles with
a size similar to the total fow area.
4.1. Chemical Materials and Wellbore Instability.
Chemical materials used in drilling fuids can afect wellbore
stability, which in turn can impact hole-cleaning efciency.
Wellbore instability can result in the formation of cutting
beds, pack-ofs, and mud rings, all of which can impede the
fow of drilling fuids and hinder the transport of drill
cuttings [17, 18]. Terefore, in this subsection, the most
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Jet velocity
Wellhead device
Jet pressure
Drill pipe
Formation
Casing
Pulsed jet
generator
• Cuttings tumble away from the bottom hole
Bit
Figure 3: Mechanism underlying the removal of cuttings under the force of a single particle in the bottom hole through the utilization of
pulsed jet technology [37].
successful studies from 1906 to 2023 are explained and
highlighted.
Knowledge of basic chemistry is important to optimize
chemical hole cleaning and address drilling problems safely
and in an environmentally friendly manner [44].
Chemical additives are also used to optimize drilling
efciency, minimize wellbore instability, and assist tripping
drilling operations. Te rheology of drilling fuids can
minimize drilling problems, including drill bit balling,
drilling tight spots during tripping drilling operations, drill
bit wear, and problems encountered in other drilling ap-
plications. Chemical additives can be viscosifers, friction
reducers, weighting agents, fuid loss agents, hole and mud
conditioners, deformers, inhibitors, rheology modifers, and
defocculating agents (see subsections 4.1.1–4.1.3)
[17, 18, 45]. As cations play an important role in controlling
the properties of drilling muds, their radii before and after
hydration are provided in Table 2. For instance, calcium ions
are commonly used in drilling muds to increase their vis-
cosity and improve their ability to suspend cuttings. Mag-
nesium ions, on the other hand, can help to reduce the
viscosity of mud and improve its fow properties. Sodium
ions can also be added to the mud to improve its ability to
dissolve and remove drill cuttings [17, 18, 45].
Te chemical properties of drilling fuids are crucial for
maintaining the stability of drilling fuids during drilling
operations. Parameters such as pH, electrical stability, sa-
linity, and the concentration of reactive clays determined
using the methylene blue test (MBT) are important in
obtaining a fuid with stabilized rheological properties,
which can be achieved using chemical additives. Chemical
7
Time
Nozzle
Time
Pulsed jet
Fracture
Cuttings
Bottom hole
additives can ensure chemical compatibility to prevent
wellbore problems such as tight holes and swelling shales
and help in hole cleaning by strengthening mud efciency,
minimizing time spent on wiper trips during tripping op-
erations, and minimizing tripping time for pull out of hole
(POOH) [46, 47]. More importantly, zeta potential is
a crucial parameter in understanding drilling fuid behavior
during hole-cleaning operations. It afects the fuid’s ability
to remove cuttings and maintain hole stability and afects its
rheological properties and fltration behavior [47, 48]. Te
American Petroleum Institute recommends a range for zeta
potential in drilling fuids to ensure efective hole cleaning
and stable wellbore conditions. Te zeta potential should be
within a certain range for optimal performance [49–51].
Table 3 shows the main range for zeta potential in drilling
fuids to ensure efective hole cleaning and stable wellbore
conditions.
As seen in Table 3, a drilling fuid’s zeta potential is
a crucial parameter when evaluating its potential for hole
cleaning [49–51]. A zeta potential between − 20 and − 30 mV
is considered stable and nonaggregating, reducing the
likelihood of particles or agglomerates causing issues. Tis is
often associated with lower viscosity and better lubricity,
which can reduce friction and improve hole-cleaning ef-
ciency. A zeta potential between − 40 and − 50 mV is mod-
erately aggregating, forming particles or agglomerates that
can cause issues. Tis range may also be associated with
higher viscosity and reduced lubricity, making hole cleaning
more challenging. A zeta potential less than − 50 mV is
highly aggregating, forming signifcant particles or ag-
glomerates that can cause issues. In this case, additional
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Table 2: Ionic radii of cations before and after hydration.
Name of ionic radii of cations
Sodium (Na+)
Potassium (K+)
Cesium (Cs+)
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Calcium (Ca2+)
Table 3: Te recommended range for zeta potential in drilling fuids.
Zeta potential range
− 20 to − 30 mV
− 30 to − 40 mV
− 40 to − 50 mV Moderately aggregating fuid, may require additional treatment
Highly aggregating fuid, may require signifcant additional treatment or change in
<− 50 mV
treatment or fuid formulation changes may be necessary
[47, 48]. Furthermore, the lubricity of drilling fuid can
impact hole cleaning, with high lubricity causing cuttings to
stick to wellbore walls, making removal more challenging
[52–55]. Additives in drilling fuids create a protective layer
between the drill bit and the formation, enhancing lubri-
cation. Teir long-chain structure and high molecular
weight minimize friction and wear. Adsorption occurs on
the drill bit surface, forming a lubricating flm that reduces
frictional forces. During rotational motion, shear forces
form a protective layer [52–54, 56, 57]. For instance, latex,
a novel polymer, was synthesized using potassium persulfate
and emulsion polymerization. When incorporated into
drilling fuid, the lubrication ratio decreased by 64.4%. Te
polymer’s lubricating capabilities are evident, as it uses
micro “rolling” and “flm creation” processes. Te nano-
particles, with their spherical morphology, act as “roller
bearings,” reducing torque and transforming sliding friction
into rolling friction [58]. Terefore, this can give rise to
a phenomenon commonly referred to as “sticking,” wherein
the cuttings adhere to the walls of the wellbore, resulting in
an obstruction that hinders the unimpeded fow of the
drilling fuid [58]. More importantly, the HPHT conditions
signifcantly impact hole cleaning during drilling, as high
pressure and temperature can cause cuttings to stick to
wellbore walls, causing “sticking” and preventing drilling
fuid fow, resulting in reduced efciency, increased
equipment wear, and loss of wellbore integrity [59]. For
instance, bentonite drilling fuid formulations showed a 22%
reduction in fltration loss under HPHT conditions, while
a 42% decrease was observed under low-pressure and low-
temperature conditions. Te rheological characteristics,
such as viscosity and gel strength, improved. Te grass el-
ement analysis revealed a signifcant presence of calcium
(54%), potassium (19.83%), and chlorine (16%), suggesting it
can function as a pH regulator to manage alkalinity levels
during operational activities [60, 61]. Moreover, the pH of
mud samples signifcantly impacts the efectiveness of
bentonite in hole cleaning during drilling. Bentonite,
a common additive, is most efective in neutral to slightly
alkaline conditions with a pH range of 7–9. If the pH is
Angstroms (before) Angstroms after)
1.90 5.50–11.2
2.66 4.64–7.6
3.34 4.60–7.2
1.30 21.6
1.90 19.0
Description
Stable, nonaggregating fuid
Slightly aggregating fuid, may require additional treatment
fuid formulation
outside this range, bentonite’s efectiveness can be reduced.
In acidic conditions, bentonite’s efectiveness decreases due
to reduced swelling capacity, while in basic conditions, it can
be less efective due to increased swelling capacity, leading to
increased viscosity and decreased fuid loss [5, 7, 59].
More importantly, efective mud with shale inhibitors or
clay coating agents can eliminate, minimize, or manage
drilling tight spots, movable formations, and caving or
sloughing shale formations. An appropriate pH can ensure
mud stability to prevent degradation and reduction of mud
rheological properties. Electrical stability (ES) controls the
viscous oil phase of the drilling fuid to manage reactive shale
formation to ensure that the oil phase is the dominant phase
compared to the water phase during drilling, as OBM is
composed of a ratio of water equal or less and chemical
additives. Water is used with OBMs to ensure that water-
soluble chemical additives dissolve in the mud to initiate the
needed chemical reaction. Salinity and the concentration of
reactive clays (identifed using the MBT) in the drilling mud
facilitate drilling across shale or movable formations. Ele-
vated salinity levels have the potential to augment the vis-
cosity of drilling fuids, a phenomenon that is not desirable
in the context of WBMs. Tis is because heightened salinity
can induce an upsurge in the plastic viscosity of the mud,
consequently leading to a decline in the lifting capacity and
overall efciency of the mud. Clays identifed by the MBT are
more suitable for reactive shale formations because they
possess a high cation exchange capacity (CEC). Te colloidal
fraction of a drilling fuid contains small reactive solid
particles, which carry surface electrical charges and allow
them to react with chemicals added to the mud [47].
Te common clay minerals encountered during drilling
operations are kaolin, illite, montmorillonite, and chlorite.
Tables 4 and 5 summarize the properties of these clay
minerals. CEC is an important characteristic of clays, which
characterizes the actual capacity of clay to exchange ions by
isomorphous substitution in the crystal lattice. Cation ex-
change will depend on factors such as concentration, ex-
change sites, and the nature of the mineral. Tese clays are
divided into two basic classes: expandable (swelling) and
nonexpandable (nonswelling). Crystalline swelling is due to
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
surface hydration caused by the adsorption layers of water
on the crystal surfaces. Osmotic swelling is caused by the
change in the concentration of cations in solution between
the layers. Polymers can play a major role in handling clay
reactions, which can be inorganic or organic in nature and
natural or synthetic in origin [47, 63].
A typical natural inorganic polymer is asbestos, and
a typical synthetic inorganic polymer is silicone. Organic
polymers can be classifed into three basic categories: nat-
ural, synthetic, and modifed. Natural organic polymers
include proteins, carbohydrates (sugar and starch), and
untreated cellulose (see subsections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2). Syn-
thetic organic polymers include hydroxyethyl cellulose
(HEC), and typical modifed organic polymers include
polyanionic cellulose (PAC). Physically, a polymer can be
linear, branched, or cross-linked. A typical oilfeld polymer
is carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Polymers can be clas-
sifed based on their chemical nature into anionic, cationic,
nonionic, and amphoteric polymers. Anionic polymers are
formed by organic molecules with negatively charged
functional groups. Typically, they are formed by the dis-
sociation of an acid group (-CO-O-H). Most polymers
commonly used in oilfelds today are anionic in nature
[47, 64].
Cationic polymers are formed by organic molecules with
positively charged functional groups. Often, these are
amine-type compounds. Nonionic polymers are formed by
organic molecules with little or no charge. Often, they are
polymers of ethylene oxide or propylene oxide. Amphoteric
polymers are formed by organic molecules that contain both
positively and negatively charged functional groups. For
applications in oilfelds, polymers must be able to withstand
high bottom hole temperatures, high shear rates that can tear
apart a polymer chain, and oxygen that can react and break
parts of the polymer chain. Te common polymer used as
a viscosifer in feld drilling operations is xanthan gum [47].
Some chemical additives, such as acorn shell powder and
tamarind gum, are used with mud to increase their hole
cleaning efciency [7]. Glenn and Slusser controlled solid
invasion by muds using solid weighting material such as
KCl, manganese tetroxide (Mn3O4), and calcium carbonate
and barite (CaCo3/barite) with an optimum size to prevent
impairment of productivity in two primary ways: plugging
pore throats and increasing capillary pressure [65]. Einstein
developed a new formula to calculate the efective viscosity
by including the infuence of the concentration of solid
particles. Te accuracy of the equation is low at concen-
trations higher than 0.02 [66].
McCollum et al. used a reformulated OBM and upgraded
the equipment used for controlling solids in mud to improve
hole cleaning and minimize environmental impacts. Te
modifcation provided low PV and low YP, resulting in low
mud rheology for enhancing hole-cleaning performance.
Te results of this study led to a reduction in the accu-
mulation of cuttings, oil remaining on cuttings, and
upgrading of equipment for controlling solids in mud [67].
Liang et al. conducted experimental work to determine the
pH value corresponding to the isoelectric point of alumina-
coated titanium dioxide (TiO2) and observed the
9
stabilization of aqueous dispersions of colloidal particles. At
the pH corresponding to the isoelectric point, the contri-
bution of the charge on the particle surface to the stabili-
zation of the dispersion cannot be determined owing to the
difculty of predicting the rheological properties of dis-
persion and signifcant interparticle interactions of
dispersions [68].
In addition, at the pH corresponding to the isoelectric
point, the zeta potential is zero, which corresponds to the
neutralization point. Te relationship between the zeta
potential and pH is almost linear. In addition, the power law
model was modifed by including the squared diference of
pH (delta pH), which is exactly equal to the value of
pH minus the pH value corresponding to the isoelectric
point (pHiep) (τ � K (c) n + pHiep). Te viscosity at diferent
pH values can be estimated. Te efect of pH on viscosity was
determined after pHiep was decreased. Wilkes and Bir-
mingham defned kinematic viscosity as the ratio of viscosity
to density, showing the importance of dividing dynamic
viscosity by density to demonstrate the coexistence of sig-
nifcant viscous and gravitational forces. Te density of most
liquids is a linear function of temperature [69].
Pejcinovic et al. modifed the K and n of the rheological
properties of the power law model by including the con-
centration of solids. Te results show that K increases with
increasing solid concentration, while n decreases [70].
Rismanto and Zwaag confrmed the oil content of OBM
(inverted emulsion) using nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) relaxation time measurements at a 2 MHz proton
resonance frequency (T2). Variable oil-water ratios were
used, and the static barite sagging behavior of an oil-based
drilling mud was observed using an experimental 1D profle.
NMR can diferentiate OBMs with a high oil-water ratio
from OBMs with a low oil-water ratio due to the efect of
a higher oil-water ratio on T2 [71]. Abedian and Kachanov
developed a modifed model for determining the efective
viscosity of a Newtonian fuid with rigid spherical particles,
which is more accurate at higher concentrations of solid
particles [72]. Benyounes and Benmounah investigated the
impact of the addition of salts such as calcium chloride,
sodium chloride, and KCl on power law rheological pa-
rameters and determined the K and n of a diluted sodium
carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) dispersion. K decreases
with the amount of salt added, and n increases as salinity
increases. Te zeta potential of CMC dispersions increases
when the concentration of added salts is increased. Te
results show that K can be increased, while n can be de-
creased with increasing salt concentration [73].
Moreover, Economides introduced two types of mud
fltrate invasion methods, including dynamic fltration,
which occurs above the bit while the mud is circulating. Te
rate of fuid loss during this stage is normally higher than
that during tripping. Te other type is static fltration, which
occurs during tripping or periods of noncirculation. In
addition, he concluded that there are four major flter cake
parameters that can control mud fltrate invasion. Te dy-
namic fuid loss coefcient for the flter cake can be de-
termined from the laboratory (in3 /in2 .hr1/2 ), the exposure
time (h), the mechanical stability constant of the flter cake
 10

Table 4: Properties of clay minerals [62].

Property Kaolin Mica (illite) Montmorillonite Chlorite
Chemical formula Al2Si2O5(OH)4 (K, H3O)(Al, Mg, Fe)2(Si, Al)4O10[(OH)2, (H2O)] (Na, Ca)0.33(Al, Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2·nH2O (Mg, Fe)3(Si, Al)4O10(OH)2·(Mg, Fe)3(OH)6
Sheet 1 :1 2 :1 2 :1 2 :1
Structure Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet
Shape Hexagonal Wide-ranging plates Flake Plate
Size (microns) 5_0.5 Large sheets to 0.5 2_0.1 5_0.1
BET-N2 15_25 50_110 30_80 140
BET-H2O — — 200_800 —
CEC 3_15 10_40 80_150 10_40
Viscosity in water Little Little High Little
Infuence of salts Flocculates Flocculates Flocculates Flocculates
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Table 5: Surface area of clay minerals [62].
Surface area m2g
Sample
Nitrogen
Montmorillonite 38
Kaolinite 16
Illite 56
of reported values from the lab 2 × 10− 8 to 5 × 10− 7
(Cm3 /Cm2 ), and the rate of shear at the wall (Sec− 1 ). Te
most important parameter of flter cakes is their dynamic
fuid loss coefcient [74].
Gerogiorgis et al. developed a parametric rheological
model for multivariate viscosity and yield stress based on the
Herschel–Bulkley model of a smart drilling fuid containing
nanoparticles. Te model takes into consideration the im-
pact of activation energy and its infuence on rheological
parameters of the Herschel–Bulkley model [75]. Aber-
oumand et al. conducted an experimental study on nano-
fuid OBM viscosity with the bulk temperature, nanoparticle
diameter, and nanoparticle concentration included in the
analysis to evaluate their infuence on the viscosity. Teir
results show that thermal conductivity increases with in-
creasing temperature of nanofuids, while previous models
showed a reduction. Increasing the nanofuid concentration
increases the viscosity. In addition, they developed a new
correlation based on a database to evaluate the combined
efects of thermal conductivity and concentration of
nanofuids [76]. Ihenacho et al. studied the infuence of
OBM with a low oil-water ratio compared to conventional
OBM. Te OBM with a low oil-water ratio is more efcient
in terms of fuid loss and viscosity owing to the low fuid loss
and consistent and slight increase in viscosity due to rota-
tion. Te results show that less fuid loss and higher viscosity
can be achieved with a half-half oil-water ratio, indicating
that higher fuid efciency and consistency can be achieved
[77]. Ahmed, S et al. modeled foam viscosity, K, and n using
the power law model for a polymer-free carbon dioxide
(CO2) foam fracturing fuid using the surfactant concen-
tration, salinity, and shear rate by including concentration
and salinity. Te experimental results show that increasing
the concentration and salinity increases apparent foaming
viscosity [78].
Özkan investigated the efect of multiwalled nanotubes
(MWNTs) on WBM (spud mud) to evaluate the improve-
ment in rheological properties, loss of fltration, and mud
cake thickness. Variable concentrations of MWNT were
used with a pH in the range of 9.5–10. Te addition of
MWNT to WBM can signifcantly impact the rheological
properties of the drilling fuid, with noticeable improve-
ments in PV, YP, apparent viscosity, and gel strength.
However, it is important to note that the optimal concen-
tration of MWCNTs can vary depending on the specifc
application and desired properties of the drilling fuid. For
example, in some cases, lower PV and YP may be desirable to
reduce the risk of lost circulation, while in other cases, higher
PV and YP may be required to ensure adequate wellbore
stability. Similarly, the apparent viscosity and gel strength
can be afected by the concentration of MWNTs, and fnding
11
Water area
Water Nitrogen area
20+/250 5.3/6.6
12+/12 0.8
52+/82 0.9/1.5
the appropriate balance is critical to achieve the desired
drilling performance. Te use of an appropriate concen-
tration of MWNTs can also help to minimize undesirable
mud cake thickness [79].
Deng proposed a new approach for the optimized se-
lection of drilling fuid additives to evaluate the hole-
cleaning capacity of Herschel–Bulkley (yield-power-law)-
type fuids. He investigated the efect of diferent additives
(bentonite and biopolymers) on the rheological properties of
water-based drilling fuids and the hydraulic behavior as well
as hole-cleaning capacity indicators. Experimental results
show that adding more bentonite or a biopolymer increases
the yield stress and annulus pressure loss, which indicates
higher suspension and a lower sweeping capacity. Te se-
lection of the right concentration depends on the real
conditions, such as the velocity level, pump capacity, and
allowable annular pressure. Samples with a higher bentonite
concentration and a lower biopolymer concentration nor-
mally showed better hole-cleaning capacity. A lower annulus
pressure loss can not only enhance the sweeping capacity
and widen the plug width but also reduce the risk of
hydrofracture and allow higher fow velocity [80].
Gamal et al. studied the efect of pH on WBM with
bentonite to investigate rheological properties such as PV,
YP, a low share yield point (LSYP), a YP/PV ratio, and the
strength of gels. Tey also evaluated the volume of fltration
and mud cake thickness. Te results showed that the increase
in pH can diminish the rheological properties, increase the
fltration volume, and increase the mud cake thickness.
Tese results are not applicable in real-world drilling op-
erations, as stable pH levels must be maintained to ensure
appropriate mud rheological properties that promote sta-
bilization [81]. Boyou et al. experimentally evaluated the
application of nanosilica WBM to determine the hole-
cleaning efciency in directional drilling compared with
conventional WBM using the foor loop system at diferent
rotational speeds. Te results showed that the use of
nanosilica WBM improves the transport efciency of cut-
tings due to the colloidal interaction between nanosilica and
cuttings, which improves the transport performance of
cuttings [82].
Amorin and Bediako evaluated the rheological drilling
fuid properties of pseudo OBM with the addition of three
antioxidants (citric acid, red onion skin extract, and propyl
gallate) used as thermal stabilizers for enhancing geothermal
drilling applications. Tree distinct temperature values were
used (49.8, 93.3, and 121.1°C), with a 121.1°C temperature
used for the fltration test at 500 psi. Te results of the study
using aged and unaged muds showed that PV, YP, electrical
stability, and gel strength values at 10 sec and 10 min and
that the pH of vegetable oil evidently improved. Hence,
12
OBM with antioxidants is more suitable for high-
temperature drilling operations than conventional OBM.
Te hole-cleaning index of the carrying capacity index (CCI)
was used to better understand drilling fuid rheology and to
determine the impact of optimized rheology on hole
cleaning and their contributions to enhancing hole-cleaning
efciency. Te CCI values were above the selected value of
0.5 (CCI > or � 0.5), indicating that the rheological param-
eters are appropriate for proper hole cleaning [83].
Ofei et al. studied the efect of variable concentrations of
barite on drilling fuid rheological parameters K and n. At
higher barite concentrations, K increases, while n remains
constant. Moreover, the results revealed that the augmen-
tation of drilling fuid density through the addition of barite
resulted in a consistent and incremental rise in both yield
stress and surplus stress, with the index remaining relatively
stable [84].
Sargani et al. experimentally evaluated the infuence of
varying oil-water ratios (60/40, 70/30, 80/20, and 90/10) on
the rheological properties of a biodiesel-based drilling fuid.
Vegetable oils obtained after the transesterifcation of oils
from groundnuts and soybeans were used in the test and
validated against a conventional oil-based drilling mud. Both
drilling fuid formulations used the same common chemical
additives. Mud density, pH, ES, PV, YP, gel strength, and
apparent viscosity were evaluated using drilling fuids based
on groundnut and soybean oils. CCI was used to evaluate the
optimized impact of the rheology of biodiesel drilling fuids.
Te results show an improvement in the rheological
properties, an appropriate pH, and high PV, YP, gel
strength, apparent viscosity, and mud density at an oil-water
ratio of 60/40. After adding a viscosity reducing agent, PV
decreased and YP increased. ES was high at an oil-water ratio
of 90/10 with and without the viscosity reducing agent, and
to obtain a highly stable emulsion and a continuous oil
phase, they selected the 90/10 oil-water ratio. CCI showed
a high value at a 60/40 oil-water ratio due to the presence of
optimal rheological properties [85].
Moreover, Steiger and Leung reported that more than
75% of drilled formations are shale formations and that at
least 90% of wellbore stability problems are caused by shale
formations. A research test program was implemented to
determine the mechanical parameters of shale formations to
classify their characteristic mechanical behavior [86].
Frenkel et al. conducted a study on clay minerals, in-
cluding kaolinite, illite, and smectite, to determine the
dispersion tendency and found that kaolinite is the most
dispersive, followed by illite, while smectite is not highly
dispersive [87]. Zhou explained clay-swelling mechanisms,
i.e., crystalline or osmotic, and concluded that the expansion
of clay is due to the increase in spacing between the clay
layers [88]. Stephens et al. conducted swelling tests on
several drilling fuids and concluded that a high swelling
percentage is a clear indicator of low efciency of drilling
fuid inhibition against swelling. Wellbore instability (mud/
rock interaction) is caused by two efects. First, osmotic
difusion (the transfer of water from low-salinity regions to
high-salinity regions (formation)) causes shale to swell and
weaken due to elevated internal pore pressure [89].
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Te activity of a fuid (the ratio of the vapor pressure of
pure water to the vapor pressure of the fuid) can be used to
control its salinity. Te activities of typical water-based muds
vary from 0.8 to 0.9, while for shale, they vary from 0.75 to
0.85. Te swelling of shale is due to the increase in vapor
pressure within shale, leading to weakening of adherence
and development of washout. Te second efect causing
wellbore instability is chemical difusion (transfer of specifc
ions from a region of high concentration to a region of lower
concentration) [90]. Al-Arfaj et al. discussed the physico-
chemical and chemicomechanical infuences on the in-
teractions of shale formations with drilling fuids and
reviewed several test methodologies for evaluating the po-
tential interactions of diferent drilling fuid systems.
Moreover, they presented mechanisms for inhibiting shale,
which made drilling shale formations smoother [91].
Ideally, numerous experimental studies have been
conducted to optimize hole-cleaning efciency during
drilling operations. Tese studies have explored the use of
various chemical additives, such as silica nanoparticles,
nanosilica nanoparticles, low-density polyethylene beads,
polyethylene and polypropylene beads, viscoelastic fuids
using polymers, sweeping pills, biodegradable fber, alkyl-o-
glucoside (APG) biosurfactant, and limonene antiaccretion.
Te goal of these studies is to enhance the physical and
chemical properties of drilling fuids to improve their
rheology and induce interactions between particles and
nanoparticles, forming spiderweb-like networks in the fuid
that can lift drill cuttings and prevent them from settling.
Te use of diferent types of polymers with low molecular
weights and gelation has also been explored to improve the
viscosity and lifting capacity of drilling fuids. In addition,
studies have compared the efectiveness of using hole-
cleaning fbers with polymeric pills and evaluated the per-
formance of drilling fuids containing KCl and NaCl at low
concentrations. Te ultimate aim is to optimize the efciency
of hole cleaning during drilling operations, which is critical
for maintaining the integrity of the wellbore and ensuring
safe and efcient drilling operations [92–107].
Table 6 shows a summary of the major fndings of all the
most successful studies. Te table highlights that the addi-
tion of nanoparticles, biopolymers, and other additives for
modulating drilling fuid properties has been a major re-
search focus for improving hole-cleaning ability. Re-
searchers have explored various nanomaterials, polymers,
surfactants, and other chemicals to optimize drilling fuid
rheology and create “smart” fuids with superior hole-
cleaning capacity.
4.1.1. Well-Cleaning Capabilities Associated with Natural
Polymers. Tere exist several classifcations of both natural
and modifed polymers that are used in drilling fuids,
serving to improve the rheological characteristics and boost
the efcacy of well-cleaning operations [5]. Natural poly-
mers (biopolymers), such as starch [112], quebracho [113],
xanthan gum [114], guar gum [115], welan gum [116–118],
scleroglucan [118], locust bean gum [119, 120], and ligno-
sulfonates [121, 122] are considered very suitable. However,
 Table 6: Summary of the major fndings of all the most successful studies (hole-cleaning chemistry).
Number Year Author Type Technique Output Ref
Efective viscosity is signifcantly infuenced by the concentration of solid particles
in the drilling fuid. As the solid particle concentration increases, the efective
1 1906 Einstein New formula Rheology [66]
viscosity of the fuid also increases, making it more difcult for the fuid to remove
rock fragments from the wellbore
Controlled solid invasion using KCl, Mn3O4, and CaCO3/barite to prevent
impairment of productivity in oil and gas wells, ensuring efcient hydrocarbon
2 1957 Glenn et al. Materials Solid weighting material [65]
recovery and minimizing operational costs, while maintaining wellbore stability and
mitigating formation damage
Kaolinite exhibits the highest dispersivity among the three clay minerals, followed
3 1992 Frenkel et al. Study Wellbore instability by illite, while smectite displays limited dispersivity, which can impact the [87]
efectiveness of the drilling fuid
Te expansion of clay is primarily caused by the increase in spacing between the clay
layers, which results in a greater distance between the negatively charged clay plates,
4 1997 Zhou Study Clay-swelling mechanisms [88]
leading to a decrease in the electrostatic forces between them and an increase in the
volume of the clay
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Approximately 75% of drilled formations are shale formations, which are notorious
5 1992 Steiger and Leung Study Wellbore instability for their poor wellbore stability, with at least 90% of wellbore stability problems [86]
being attributed to shale formations
Low mud rheology, reduction in the accumulation of cuttings, and controlling
6 1998 McCollum et al. Mud formulation Rheology solids in mud are all critical aspects of drilling fuid management that can help [67]
improve wellbore stability and reduce operating costs
Te stabilization of aqueous dispersions of colloidal particles is a complex process
7 2005 Liang et al. Experimental work Rheology that involves the interaction of various factors, including particle size, shape, and [68]
surface chemistry, as well as the properties of the surrounding fuid
Te kinematic viscosity and density of liquids are strongly correlated with
temperature, allowing for accurate predictions of their behavior. Tis linear
8 2006 Wilkes and Birmingham Study Rheology relationship enables engineers to design efcient heat transfer systems, optimize [69]
chemical reactions, and predict fuid fow in various industrial and scientifc
applications, thereby enhancing the efciency of heat transfer systems
Te consistency index and the fow behavior index by including the concentration of
9 2007 Pejcinovic et al. Modifcation Rheology [70]
solids
NMR can diferentiate OBMs with a high oil-water ratio from OBMs with a low oil-
10 2007 Rismanto and Zwaag Experimental work Rheology [71]
water ratio
High swelling percentage is a clear indicator of low efciency of drilling fuid
11 2009 Stephens et al. Experimental work Swelling tests [89]
inhibition against swelling
Swelling of shale is due to the increase in vapor pressure within shale leading to
12 2007 Zoback Study Wellbore instability [90]
weakening of adherence and development of washout
13 2010 Abedian and Kachanov Methods Rheology Efective viscosity of a Newtonian fuid with rigid spherical particles [72]
14 2012 Benyounes Materials Rheology K and n of a diluted sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) dispersion [73]
15 2014 Al-Arfaj et al. Study Wellbore instability Mechanisms for inhibiting shale, which made drilling shale formations smoother [91]
16 2015 Gerogiorgis et al. Methods Rheology Multivariate viscosity and yield stress containing nanoparticles [75]
17 2016 Aberoumand et al. Experimental work Rheology Nanofuid OBM viscosity [76]
18 2016 Ihenacho et al. Experimental work Rheology Less fuid loss and a higher viscosity [77]
19 2017 Ahmed et al. Experimental work Rheology Te apparent foaming viscosity [78]
13
 14

Table 6: Continued.
Number Year Author Type Technique Output Ref
20 2018 Özkan Materials Rheology MWNT is critical to avoid undesirable mud cake thickness [79]
Higher bentonite concentration and a lower biopolymer concentration normally
21 2018 Deng Materials Rheology [80]
showed better hole-cleaning capacity
22 2019 Gamal et al. Experimental work Rheology Stable pH levels [81]
23 2019 Boyou et al. Materials Rheology Nanosilica WBM improves the transport efciency of cuttings [82]
24 2020 Amorin and Bediako Materials Rheology OBM with antioxidants is more suitable for high-temperature drilling operations [83]
25 2020 Ofei et al. Materials Rheology Increasing mud density, hole-cleaning efciency can be increased [84]
26 2021 Sargani et al. Experimental work Rheology CCI showed a high value at a 60/40 oil-water ratio [85]
MgO showed the highest improvement in hole cleaning, while TiO2 resulted in the
27 2020 Alsaba et al. Experimental work Rheology [108]
lowest improvement
Cellulose nanoparticles as a perfect substitute for oil-based muds improve the
28 2021 Abbas Experimental work Rheology [109]
transport efciency of cuttings
29 2022 Mohammed et al. Experimental work Rheology Shape memory polymer increases viscosity at low shear rates for better hole cleaning [110]
Novel nanocomposite-based thermoassociating polymer/silica nanocomposite
30 2023 Xie et al. Experimental work Rheology [111]
enhanced the overall hole cleaning
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
drilling operations face extreme conditions such as high
temperatures, pressures, and chemical environments, re-
quiring modifed polymers to maintain performance and
prevent degradation of natural polymers [5]. CMC [123],
PAC [124], HEC [125], and styrene copolymer [126, 127] are
examples of modifed polymers. Te functions of these
polymers can signifcantly impact the processes of hole
cleaning and cutting transfer in oil and gas wells (Table 7).
Viscosity, the resistance to fow, determines the fuid’s ability
to traverse the wellbore and eliminate cuttings. A fuid with
high viscosity may face difculties in traversing the wellbore,
resulting in insufcient hole cleaning and suboptimal cutting
conveyance. Conversely, a fuid with low viscosity has en-
hanced fowability, facilitating efcient cutting removal but
potentially resulting in wellbore losses [137]. Loss control
refers to a drilling fuid’s ability to mitigate drilling mud loss
into the geological formation. A fuid with favorable loss
control qualities can minimize the volume of fuid needed
for pumping and reduce the risk of wellbore blockage,
enhancing drilling efciency and cost reductions [5].
Flocculation and defocculation, or thinning, are phenom-
ena in drilling fuids where particles aggregate to form larger
clusters, facilitating cutting removal from the wellbore. Shale
inhibition is the ability of a drilling fuid to impede the
suspension of shale particles, reducing issues such as lost
circulation or pipe blockage [138]. A fuid with excellent
shale inhibitory capabilities can mitigate these challenges
and improve drilling process efciency [137]. For instance,
PAC and CMC have a negative charge, which can help to
neutralize positive charges on the rock surface and improve
the fuid’s ability to wet the rock and remove cuttings [124].
Table 6 shows the main functions of most natural polymers
or modifed polymers in drilling fuids.
4.1.2. Well-Cleaning Capabilities Associated with Synthetic
Polymers. Te use of synthetic polymers in some instances
may improve the efective transport of cuttings throughout
the drilling process by ensuring that the drilling fuids
possess desirable rheological properties, including high YP,
low PV, and suitable gel strength [139–141]. Te quad-
ripolymer (DMDAAC) was synthesized via solution-free
radical polymerization using AMPS, dimethyl diallyl am-
monium chloride, sodium p-styrenesulfonate (SSS), and
acrylamide (AM) as monomers [141]. Te quadripolymer
system exhibited YP/PV ratios of up to 0.80, indicating its
remarkable shear-thinning characteristics, at a polymer
concentration of 0.9 weight percent. Te gel strength of
a drilling fuid is indicative of its capacity to maintain the
suspension of drilling cuttings after fuid circulation ceases.
Te enhanced gel strength may be attributed to the in-
termolecular interactions among polymer molecules. Con-
sequently, the use of a quadripolymer drilling fuid devoid of
bentonite has exceptional efcacy in transporting cuttings
[141].
Te efcacy of conveying drilling cuttings and facili-
tating hole cleaning was enhanced by the use of a synthetic
polymer known as an amphoteric polymer (PEX) [142]. PEX
was synthesized by quaternizing Na2EDTA with a DPF
15
quaternizing agent under carefully regulated temperature
conditions in DMF (N,N-dimethylformamide). Te addi-
tion of 0.3 weight percent PEX resulted in the formation of
a three-dimensional network molecular structure, which
exhibited the ability to increase fow resistance and fuid
viscosity. Te use of a drilling fuid possessing an appropriate
viscosity serves to mitigate the settling of drilling cuttings,
thereby diminishing the likelihood of drill pipe sticking.
Moreover, in comparison to other muds, WBDF with PEX
exhibited elevated gel strengths of 10 s/10 min. Te gel
profle of the drilling fuid allows for the sustained transport
of cuttings even when circulation is temporarily halted [142].
It is worth noting that the specifc cleaning capabilities of
synthetic polymers in drilling fuids may vary depending on
the polymer type, concentration, and specifc challenges of
the drilling operation. Formulations can be customized to
optimize the cleaning functions needed for each drilling
project.
4.1.3. Well-Cleaning Capabilities Associated with NP.
Nanoparticles can be modifed in drilling fuids to enhance
their behavior and properties for well cleaning. Tese mod-
ifcations can be achieved through surface functionalization,
coating with ligands, or altering their structure. Tese changes
enhance the interaction with solids in the drilling fuid and
their ability to retain and remove solids from the well
[57, 109, 143]. Previous studies have shown that NPs have the
ability to augment the transport of cuttings and the efcacy of
hole cleaning in drilling fuids [82, 109, 144–146]. Te use of
carbon NPs (CNPs) has been shown to enhance the trans-
portation and circulation of drill cuttings via the improve-
ment of the yield stress and fow consistency coefcient of the
drilling fuid [147]. SiO2 NPs have been used for the purpose
of enhancing the conveyance of cuttings in water-based
drilling fuids. In the conducted investigation, the in-
corporation of SiO2 NPs led to a notable enhancement in the
transport of cuttings, as shown by an increase in density from
1078.44 to 1318.1 kg/m3 compared to untreated water-based
drilling fuids operating at a rotational speed of 150 RPM
[147]. Moreover, Alsaba et al. experimentally studied the
efect of the addition of several types of nanoparticles on the
rheological parameters of WBM. For this purpose, the values
of PV, YP, and gel strength were optimized by adding alu-
minum oxide (Al2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO), titanium
dioxide (TiO2), and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles to
WBM containing 7% bentonite at two diferent concentra-
tions, i.e., 0.5% and 1.5% by volume. Te results show sig-
nifcantly enhanced and higher gel strength when the
concentration of nanoparticles is 1.5%. PV was high with TiO2
at both concentrations of 0.5% and 1.5%, and MgO yielded
the highest YP. Te transport ratio index of hole-cleaning
efciency was used to evaluate the improved rheological
properties with diferent simulated hole sizes, densities, and
sizes of cuttings and fow rates. Te transport ratio index is the
diference between the average annular velocity and average
slip velocity divided by the average annular
velocity (transport ratio index � 1 − slip velocity /average a
nnular velocity). Te average slip velocity in diferent fow
16
Table 7: Natural polymers or modifed polymers.
Fluid loss
Name Viscosity
control
Starch and its derivatives − +
Guar gum + −
Locust bean gum + −
Hydroxypropyl guar + −
Carboxymethyl cellulose + +
Polyanionic cellulose + +
Carboxymethyl ethyl cellulose + +
Hydroxyethyl cellulose + +
Chrome-complexed LSO3 − +
Scleroglucan + −
Xanthan gum + −
Welan gum + −
regimes was considered. MgO showed the highest im-
provement in hole cleaning, while TiO2 resulted in the lowest
improvement [108]. Abbas et al. examined the efects of
varying concentrations (ranging from 0.15 wt% to 0.60 wt%)
of cellulose NPs in crystalline CNCs and carbon nanofbers
(CNFs). Te incorporation of CNCs and CNFs resulted in an
augmentation of the shear stress exerted on the base fuid and
an elevation of its efective viscosity. Te inclusion of CNCs at
a weight percentage of 0.60 resulted in an enhancement in the
cutting transport rate. Specifcally, the transport rate in-
creased by 18.75% for small cuttings, 13.88% for medium
cuttings, and 14.69% for large cuttings when compared to the
base fuid [143]. Te enhanced performance of water-based
drilling fuids may be attributed to the favorable interaction
between cuttings and CNCs due to their high surface area to
volume ratio, as well as the higher colloidal forces involved.
Te behavior of CNFs was shown to be superior, particularly
at elevated annular fuid velocities, owing to their elongated
structure and capacity to create intricate networks via en-
tanglement [109].
Te use of CNTs and CNFs in drilling fuids has shown
diverse levels of efectiveness in transporting drill cuttings.
CNFs, due to their distinctive characteristics, have shown
exceptional efcacy in augmenting the transport capacity of
drilling fuids for cuttings [57, 109, 143]. Moreover,
a nanopolymer made of polyethylene and nanosilica
modifed with sodium dodecyl sulfate was developed to
study its efects on fuid fltration loss and rheological
properties. Te nanopolymer, with a size range of 82 to
410 nm and a specifc surface area of 41.4 m2/g, increased the
viscosity of drilling fuid and controlled fltration loss by
sealing pores within drilled formations. Te optimal
nanopolymer concentration was 1.5 g, resulting in a slender
flter cake with low permeability on the borehole’s inner
surface [148]. Furthermore, Oseh et al.’s study found that
modifed SiO2 particles showed stability even at 150°C,
suggesting long-term stability in high-temperature envi-
ronments. A separate study found signifcant adsorption and
binding of cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium
bromide molecules onto nanoparticles’ surfaces due to
electrostatic interaction between microorganisms. Te
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Flocculation/defocculation
Shale inhibition Ref
(thinning)
+ + [128]
− − [129]
− − [120, 130]
− − [131]
+ − [123]
− + [132]
− − [133]
− − [133]
+ − [134]
− − [135]
− − [114]
+ − [136]
stability of NPs is typically determined by their charges and
the concentration of suspended NPs when surfactants are
present, indicating the potential for long-term stability in
high-temperature environments [149].
It is crucial to acknowledge that the performance and
efcacy of NPs in drilling fuids may be contingent upon
many elements, including concentration, size, and surface
modifcation. Additional investigation and experimentation
are required to comprehensively comprehend the pro-
spective advantages and constraints associated with the
utilization of diverse nanoparticle variants for enhancing the
efcacy of hole cleaning in drilling procedures.
4.2. Rheology, Modeling, Factors, Indicators, Experiments, and
Software. Rheology is crucial in hole cleaning, as it in-
fuences the ability of drilling fuids to transport drilling
cuttings to the surface. Rheology studies the deformation
and fow of matter, and in drilling fuids, it refers to the
fuid’s response to applied stress. Modeling is another im-
portant tool in hole cleaning, as it helps predict fuid be-
havior and optimize drilling operation design. Factors
afecting hole cleaning include drilling fuid properties,
drilling parameters, drill cutting size and shape, wellbore
geometry, and obstructions. Indicators of hole-cleaning
efciency include cutting concentration, pressure drop
across the bit, and penetration rate. Experiments can
evaluate fuid performance and optimize design, including
laboratory tests and feld tests. Software can also be used to
model and optimize drilling operations, allowing for sim-
ulation of fuid fow and prediction of cutting transport
[16, 150]. Terefore, in this subsection, the most successful
studies from 1941 to 2023 are explained and highlighted.
First, Pigott recommended that the cutting concentra-
tion in the annulus must remain less than 5% [151]. Williams
and Bruce found that pipe rotation initiates the unstable
turbulent fow regime, which takes the drill cuttings to the
center, with the annular velocity lifting them to the surface
[152]. Mitchell suggested a new method to calculate the
cutting concentration in the annulus, which should be
within the range of 5% to 8% and accounts for connection
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
and circulation [153]. Mitchell reported that the American
Petroleum Institute (API) has developed a new model to
calculate the cutting concentration in the annulus using the
transport ratio. Newitt et al. calculated the cutting con-
centration in the annulus (CCA) based on the ROP, hole
size, mud pump fow rate, and transport ratio
(CCAAPI � ROP ∙ OH2 /1471 ∙ GPM ∙ TR) [154]. Hopkin
investigated the relationship between the maximum and
average slip velocities using the Marsh funnel, yield point,
and mud weight. Te experiments involved tests with more
than 2000 dynamic particles and vertical tubes of 8 feet
length and 4 ½ inches diameter with 13 types of drilling
muds and 52 particles of diferent shapes and sizes. He used
diferent fow regimes (laminar, transitional, and turbulent)
to circulate the particles from the bottom of the tube to the
top and mud Marsh funnel viscosities ranging from 26 to
1000 seconds/qt. Te results show a signifcant reduction in
both maximum and average cutting slip velocities with an
increase in the Marsh funnel viscosity, yield point, and
drilling fuid density. Knowledge of the densities and sizes of
generated drill cuttings is vital for estimating the slipping
velocities of drill cuttings [155]. For that reason, Moor in-
dicated that drill cuttings generally have a specifc gravity of
2.3 to 3, with an average assumed to be 2.5 [156].
Annis and Smith observed that the increase in plastic
viscosity of drilling fuid can increase the density of the
drilling fuid due to uncontrolled solids in the used drilling
fuid during drilling and decrease YP [157]. Siferman et al.
conducted experimental studies on generated cuttings in the
annulus for three mud systems with low, medium, and high
rheological properties using a model approximately 100 feet
long and found that the higher the yield point, the higher the
transport ratio [158].
Zeidler determined that an annular velocity of 164 ft/min
is required to clean holes with clear water in two felds in
Canada [159]. Black found that a higher flter cake pressure
drop resulting from a drilling fuid based on a low-solid
nondispersed water-based mud (LSND-WBM) can reduce
the rate of penetration due to an incremental diferential
pressure rise. Te rate of penetration is also reduced owing
to the impacted and restricted drill-sting rotation and
movements with a lower weight applied on the drill bit [160].
Hussaini and Azar found that drilling mud rheology
has a signifcant impact on the transport of drill cuttings
when the annular velocity is less than 120 ft/min. Tis is
due to mud rheology being adversely afected when the
annular velocity in the gauged hole is higher than 120 ft/
min. Hence, the transport ratio will be afected only in the
washout zones of the wellbore. Hussaini and Azar con-
ducted tests using drilling fuids with apparent viscosities
ranging from 20 to 40 cP. Obviously, the results obtained by
Hussaini and Azar are not applicable when drilling fuids
with low values of apparent or efective viscosities are used
[31]. Walker and Li showed that efcient hole cleaning with
low viscosity fuids requires having a turbulent fow regime
in the annulus. Te reason for this is that turbulent fow in
the annulus creates a more uniform distribution of fuid
velocity and pressure along the wellbore, which helps to
remove cuttings and debris more efectively. In contrast,
17
laminar fow in the annulus can lead to poor hole-cleaning
efciency, as the fuid velocity and pressure are not uni-
form, and cuttings and debris may not be efectively re-
moved [82]. O’Brien conducted experimental work on the
size of cuttings and drilling fuid yield point and found that
a higher yield point value is needed with larger cuttings
[161]. Becker and Azar demonstrated the infuence of the
density of the drilling fuid on the formation of the cutting
bed. Tey found that improving mud rheological param-
eters, particularly low shear rate viscosity, improved cut-
ting transport performance. Te efciency of cutting
transport was enhanced when the drilling fuid operated
under a laminar fow regime and was higher when oper-
ating in turbulent fow regimes. Te impact of mud rhe-
ology on cutting transport was more pronounced during
laminar fow conditions in vertical wellbores, but no sig-
nifcant infuence was observed under turbulent fow re-
gimes. Te study suggests that mud rheology can
signifcantly infuence cutting transport performance [162].
Luo et al. conducted a study on fow-rate predictions for
cleaning deviated wells. Tey developed a prediction model
to estimate the critical fow rate, which is the minimum fow
rate needed to remove cuttings from the lower side of the
wellbore or prevent accumulation within the annulus. Te
model’s validity was confrmed using experimental data
from an 8-inch wellbore. Te model and the computer
program were then simplifed, resulting in charts designed
for ease of use and application at rig sites [163].
Rasi proposed that if the height of the free region above
the bed of cuttings is greater than the critical bed height,
pulling through the cutting bed would increase without
contributing to circulation. From a study of 50 larger di-
ameter directional wells in the North Sea, Rasi observed that
when the hole-cleaning ratio (HCR) was greater than 1.1,
stuck pipe incidents did not occur. Problems do not occur if
the ratio is greater than one. However, if the ratio is less than
one, problems can be expected. For example, stuck pipes
always occur when the HCR is less than 0.5 [164].
Ford et al. conducted several experimental and theo-
retical studies with the objective of improving the hole-
cleaning performance. For example, the factors studied
include the annular velocity needed in the annulus, mud
properties, mud system, and frictional pressure losses [165].
Beck developed qualitative relationships between the rate of
penetration and the rheological properties of the drilling
fuid. An increase in PV, n, and efective viscosity of drilling
fuids can reduce the drilling rate due to the high shear rate
of efective viscosity and the thixotropic infuence of the fow
behavior index being higher than the shear-thinning in-
fuence as well as more total solids in drilling fuids con-
tributing to an increased PV [166]. Pitt introduced a new
formula to determine the efective viscosity using the Marsh
funnel, which can be used to determine the fow regime
[167]. Adari et al. ranked the hole-cleaning factors in drilling
their control in a feld application and determined that the
time to efectively clean the wellbore increases as the angle
increases. A sufcient fow rate alone can remove cuttings
without rotation if sufcient time for circulation is allowed
[168].
18
Mitchell found that the same factors that afect hole
cleaning in a vertical hole section also afect hole cleaning in
deviated and horizontal hole sections. Te single major efect
on hole cleaning in deviated and horizontal sections is due to
the angle of inclination. Te inclination will produce a bed of
cuttings and increase the settling tendency of drill cuttings.
Te cutting bed will increase the volumetric drill cutting
concentration in the annulus. He concluded that at
a moderate angle of 30 to 60 degrees, the drilling fuid fows
along the top of the hole in a laminar fow environment.
Critical pipe rotation should lead to good hole cleaning due
to the formation of a flm owing to “viscous coupling” [4].
Lapeyrouse developed a model for calculating the av-
erage bulk density of drill cuttings using a mud balance, with
a graph giving a quick direct reading of the average bulk
density [169]. Te equation developed by Wright et al. to
calculate the economic cost per foot was applied to calculate
the minimum total operating cost. A maximum ROP based
on 5% CCA and ECD was considered to be appropriate, as
the annular pressure loss is less at this value of ECD. Te slip
velocity of the cuttings was calculated using Bingham and
power law models, and it was concluded that the power law
model has more economic value. Overall, the power law
model has more economic values than the Bingham model
because it can predict slip velocity more accurately, reduce
operating costs, reduce wear and tear on equipment, and
improve wellbore stability. By using the power law model,
operators can optimize their drilling operations and achieve
cost savings while also improving the safety and efciency of
their operations [170].
Robinson and Morgan developed a relationship between
mud weight and low gravity solids (LGSs). Te mud weight
increases as LGS increases, resulting in an increase in the
plastic viscosity as well [171]. Robinson and Morgan de-
veloped a simple empirical index CCI to predict hole
cleaning for vertical and near-vertical wells with an in-
clination of 0 to 30 degrees. A hole-cleaning index of 1 or
greater indicates good hole cleaning. When the CCI value is
0.5 or less, hole cleaning is inefcient because the cuttings
are more rounded and small. Good hole cleaning can be
achieved by increasing the value of K and annular velocity
[171]. Duru et al. applied transport efciency (TE), which is
(1 – slip velocity over average annular velocity), to determine
the economic cost of maintenance and fuel consumption
with two diferent drilling fuids. In addition, they identifed
appropriate drilling fuid models, including Bingham and
power law models, to enable a drilling fuid to have ac-
ceptable hole-cleaning efciency [172].
Berg et al. developed a fowchart for ensuring efective
displacements for wellbore cleanliness of open holes and
cased holes prior to running completion by depending on
nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), which are a measure
of the opacity of the fuid used for displacements. Te main
indication of fuid cleaning efectiveness during wellbore
cleaning displacement is no remaining drilling mud in the
top of the upset connections [173]. Njobuenwu and Wobo
conducted an experimental study and concluded that the ES
of an oil-based drilling fuid decreases as the concentration
of modifed bentonite (organophilic clay) increases.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Organophilic clay is reactive and will reduce the surfactants
and emulsifers in the OBM system, disrupting the stability
of the continuous oil phase. Te addition of modifed
bentonite decreases the emulsion formed in the drilling
mud, afecting ES [174]. Sharif et al. developed a model for
computing the cutting concentration based on eccentricity.
Eccentricity was computed using the ratio of the equivalent
diameter to the hydraulic diameter. Te equivalent diameter
was determined based on the ratio of the inner to outer
diameter of the annulus. Te models were developed using
experimental data, and the efect of the inclination was
considered for simulating downhole conditions [175].
Saasen et al. demonstrated that the drill pipe drags
a large proportion of the bed by rotation to the top of the
annulus of a deviated hole. An appropriate fow rate can
remove the bed of cuttings, and optimal hole cleaning can
be achieved [176]. Qahtani and Amanullah developed
a model for correlating hole cleaning with relevant pa-
rameters. Te model is based on the temperature, PV, ratio
of the cutting size and density at YP, ratio of PV and ef-
fective mud viscosity, and annular diameter. Normalized
water viscosity and plastic viscosity mud rheology are
reduced with an increasing temperature [177].
Unegbu found that the efect of drill pipe rotation on
hole cleaning is signifcant in inclined wells [178]. Several
models have been used to optimize hole cleaning [179, 180].
Malekzadeh and Salehi combined Larson’s model with
Moore’s correlation to determine the optimum fow rate,
ensuring both good hole cleaning and drilling hydraulics in
a directional well to achieve an optimized ROP. Te results
show that the selection of an appropriate fow rate leads to
less drilling torque, a higher rate of penetration, and better
hole-cleaning conditions. Te average or equivalent size of
the drill cuttings can be estimated using the rate of pene-
tration and drill string rotation as RPM [181].
Te average size of drill cuttings in inches is estimated
using equation 0.2 (ROP/RPM), where 0.2 is the conversion
factor proposed by Guo and Liu [182]. In addition, they
modifed n and K by including LSYP in their equations. Te
assumption is that the log-log slope of the Herschel–Bulkley
fow equation is numerically close to that of the power law
fow equation. In an experimental study conducted in the
feld, Erge et al. evaluated the infuence of the increasing and
decreasing rates of drill string rotation on annular pressure
loss to determine the hole-cleaning efciency and accu-
mulation of cuttings in the annulus [183]. Nwagu et al.
applied hole-cleaning tubes (HCTs) to help in hole cleaning
integrated into a drill string design to ensure efcient hole
cleaning in deviated wells in which drill cuttings have
a signifcant tendency to accumulate in the lower part of the
drilled hole section. Te tool has a special spiral shape with
stabilized blades that can allow cuttings to be lifted while
executing sufcient drill string rotations. After applying
HCT, the feet per day increased, while drag, of-bottom
torque and hook load decreased [184].
Hossain and Al-Majed introduced drilling fuids with
diferent types of gel strengths in their book and identifed
the desirable type that is preferred for applications as drilling
fuids. Te desirable gel strength is low-fat gel strength in
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
muds. Progressive or high-fat types provide less fuid ef-
ciency during static conditions when circulation stops or the
mud pump is switched of, making the carrying capacity of
drill cuttings insufcient [185]. Ramsey states in his book
that even though new drill bit teeth are always longer than 3/
8 inches practically, the drill bit cutters do not remove 3/8
inches of rock with each revolution. Tis means that the
maximum equivalent or average size of drill cuttings gen-
erated is 0.375 inches [186]. Alkinani and Al-Hameedi
studied the infuence of PV, YP, and solid content (SC)
on ECD using data collected from 1000 wells drilled in
thirteen oilfelds in Iraq. Te data were tested and evaluated
for normality to determine the appropriate methodology for
statistical analysis, and the Pearson correlation coefcient
was used to develop a tornado chart, which defnes the
dependence of ECD on the three selected parameters. ECD
increases with PV and SC, while it decreases slightly or is
mostly stable with increasing values of YP [187].
Mahmoud et al. developed a new cutting capacity index
to determine the extent of hole cleaning applicable to de-
viated hole sections [188]. Te original carrying capacity
index was modifed by taking into consideration the efect of
inclination on the annular velocity and equivalent circulating
density. Mohammed and Almahdawi experimentally evalu-
ated the cutting transport ratio (CTR) at diferent inclination
angles to monitor the variation in CTR as a function of the
fow rate, size and density of cuttings, and the yield point of
drilling mud. Te results of the study indicate that annular
velocity is crucial in improving CTR and that CTR ensures
efcient cleaning under diferent drilling scenarios, including
varying inclinations, sizes, and shapes of cuttings. In this
study, CTR was computed as the ratio of collected dry cuttings
to the fnal total dry cuttings collected [189]. Ahmed et al.
provided a numerical model to compute the important pa-
rameters for hole cleaning and provided an engineering
methodology to consider hole enlargement by using a Monte
Carlo simulator. Te optimum fow rate with rheological
properties was determined to be applicable during unstable
formations, such as shale formation lithology [190]. Hovda
and Sangesland studied and analyzed drill pipe movements
laterally rather than pulling the pipe up and down, which
could cause surge and swab troubles [191].
Experimental work and cutting transport models were
performed to conclude that the interaction between the drill
pipe and cutting solids by induced lateral movement can
induce jet fows that can help considerably for cutting
transport to ensure efective downhole cleaning perfor-
mance. In addition, Ji et al. developed software for pre-
dicting cutting bed thickness in shale gas horizontal wells by
using the continuity equation of two phases to propose the
optimum fow rate and pipe rotation to be applied across
cutting bed accumulation. Based on that suggested drilling
tool, a cutting bed remover (CBR) was used to remove
cutting accumulation in the predicted cutting bed place-
ments [140]. Petrie and Doll deployed a continuous cir-
culation system (CCS) in an extended-reach oil well to
alleviate and manage ECD by controlling the bottom hole
pressure. CCS is a drilling tool installed in the drill string
with each stand to ensure continuous circulation even while
19
making connections. Continuous circulation while making
connections can contribute to this, and the equivalent static
density (ESD) cannot be experienced in the wellbore. ESD
represents cuttings and mud weights in static conditions
(ceased circulation) [192]. Jimmy et al. used a numerical
approach to establish a new cutting lifting factor to rep-
resent the ability of drilling fuid to carry cuttings and assess
the hole-cleaning efciency in hole sections [193]. Te
model is a ratio of cutting annular velocity to cutting slip
velocity, which is (β1) a function of the annular velocity,
cutting concentration, mixed annular velocity of cuttings
and mud velocity, slip velocity, cutting sizes, and annular
area. A value of the developed coefcient greater than 1 is
better for hole-cleaning efciency, and a lower fow rate can
be obtained for lift cuttings. Xiao-Feng et al. performed
experimental work and applied an analytical model to re-
design a hydraulic-magnetic rotary hole-cleaning tool by
changing the magnetic thickness by 12 mm of magnetic
couples inside the hydraulic rotary hole-cleaning tool. Te
purpose of this change is to increase the rotation of the
tool’s spiral cutting cleaning blades for better downhole
cleaning efectiveness by increasing the magnetic torque.
Te tool is composed of spiral cutting cleaning blades,
turbine assembly, magnetic axis drive assembly, overload
decoupling devices, and tool housing [194]. Holt and Ruel
applied computer vision cameras in rigs as a proof of
concept (POC) to assess the shaker load estimate (SLE)
[195]. Te cameras were used as a sensor to capture the
image and then preprocess the image by considering the
sizes, resizing the image to match the deep neural network
(DNN), and applying a convolution neural network (CNN),
which is a deep-learning method for computer vision tasks.
Te result of applications of SLE, CNN and DNN can
continuously generate profle of SLE with images of cuttings
on shakers for evaluating cuttings while drilling operations
in real time bases. Awojinrin developed an artifcial in-
telligence (AI) workfow for estimating cutting concen-
trations to assess hole-cleaning conditions by considering
the rheology of drilling fuid and drilling parameters using
several machine-learning techniques that are accessible as
open-source packages in the Python environment. A
heatmap was generated to determine the correlation matrix
of cutting concentrations and drilling fuid and drilling
parameters [196]. Elmgerbi utilized two interconnected
models to enhance drilling hydraulics. Tey employed
predictive and analytical models to forecast, calculate, and
optimize surface drilling parameters [197].
Rathgeber investigated the efciency of cutting transport
and its correlation with factors such as pipe eccentricity, drill
pipe rotation rates, pipe-to-hole area ratios, and wellbore
fow areas. Te author also analyzed the impact of the pipe-
to-hole area ratio and the fow area within the wellbore on
the drill pipe rotation and the occurrence of fow channeling
[1]. More recently, Davoodi et al. developed and tested
a novel prediction framework based on hybrid machine-
learning models. Te intelligent prediction framework de-
veloped substantially reduced prediction errors in estimat-
ing the FV, PV, and YP of diferent water-based drilling
fuids deployed in actual oil and gas felds [198].
 20
Table 8: Summary of the major fndings of all the most successful studies (engineering).
Number Year Author Classifcation Type Technique Output Ref
1 1941 Pigott Engineering Experiment Indicators Cutting concentration in the annulus must remain less than 5% [151]
2 1951 Williams and Bruce Engineering Method Factors Pipe rotation initiates the unstable turbulent fow regime [152]
3 1955 Mitchell et al. Engineering Method Modeling Cutting concentration in the annulus [153]
4 1961 Newitt et al. Engineering Method Modeling Cutting concentration in the annulus [154]
5 1967 Hopkin et al. Engineering Experiment Rheology Signifcant reduction in both maximum and average cutting slip velocities [155]
6 1986 Moore Engineering Study Factors Drill cutting-specifc gravity [156]
Increase in plastic viscosity of drilling fuid can increase the density of the
7 1974 Annis and Smith Engineering Study Rheology [157]
drilling fuid and decrease the yield point
8 1974 Siferman et al. Engineering Experiment Indicators Te higher the yield point, the higher the transport ratio [158]
9 1974 Zeidler Engineering Method Factors Annular velocity of 164 ft/min is required to clean holes with clear water [159]
10 1983 Hussaini and Azar Engineering Study Rheology Signifcant impact on the transport of drill cuttings [31]
Higher flter cake pressure drop resulting from a drilling fuid can reduce
11 1985 Black et al. Engineering Experiment Factors [160]
the rate of penetration
12 1985 O’brien and Dobson Engineering Experiment Factors A higher yield point value is needed with larger cuttings [161]
13 1991 Becker et al. Engineering Study Factors Impact of inclinations on cutting bed and cutting concentration [162]
Rheology and Te rheology factor and the corrected minimum needed the fow rate with
14 1992 Luo et al. Engineering Experiment [163]
factors the used ROP and induced washout during drilling
15 1994 Rasi and Member Engineering Experiment Indicators Cutting bed height and hole-cleaning ratio (HCR) [164]
16 1994 Ford et al. Engineering Experiment Factors Improving the hole-cleaning performance [165]
Qualitative relationships between the rate of penetration and the
17 1995 Beck et al. Engineering Study Rheology [166]
rheological properties of the drilling fuid
18 2000 Pitt Engineering New formula Modeling Efective viscosity using the Marsh funnel [167]
Ranked the hole-cleaning factors in drilling and the time to efectively clean
19 2000 Adari et al. Engineering Study Factors [168]
the wellbore
Te minimum total operating cost with a maximum ROP based on 5%
20 2003 Wright et al. Engineering Method Modeling [170]
CCA and ECD
Rheology and Relationship between MW, PV, LGS, and developed CCI to predict hole
21 2004 Robinson and Morgan Engineering Study [171]
factors cleaning
Flowchart for ensuring efective displacements for wellbore cleanness of
22 2006 Berg et al. Engineering Method Modeling [173]
open hole and cased hole prior to running completion
Electrical stability (ES) decreases as the concentration of modifed
23 2007 Njobuenwu and Wobo Engineering Experiment Rheology [174]
bentonite (organophillic clay) increases
24 2007 Yu et al. Engineering Experiment Factors Eccentricity and cutting concentration [175]
Drill string rotation in a deviated hole with an appropriate fow rate can
25 2009 Saasen et al. Engineering Method Factors [176]
remove the bed of cuttings and an optimal hole cleaning can be achieved
26 2010 Qahtani and Amanullah Engineering Method Modeling A model for correlating hole cleaning with relevant parameters [177]
Factors and Drill pipe rotation on hole cleaning is signifcant in inclined wells and
27 2010 Unegbu Engineering Method [178]
modeling developed CCI for deviated hole section
28 2011 Guo and Liu Engineering Method Modeling Modifed n and K by including LSYP in their equations [182]
Malekzadeh and Mohammad Te optimum fow rate ensuring both good hole cleaning and drilling
29 2011 Engineering Method Modeling [181]
Salehi hydraulics in a directional well to achieve an optimized ROP
Te economic cost of maintenance and fuel consumption, appropriate
30 2011 Calgary Engineering Study Indicators [172]
drilling fuid models and transport efciency
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
 Table 8: Continued.
Number Year Author Classifcation Type Technique Output Ref
Drill string rotation on the annular pressure loss to determine the
31 2014 Erge et al. Engineering Experiment Factors [183]
hole-cleaning efciency and accumulation of cuttings in the annulus
32 2014 Nwagu et al. Engineering Method Indicators Hole-cleaning tubular to help in hole cleaning [184]
33 2015 Hossain and Al-Majed Engineering Study Rheology Types of gel strengths [185]
34 2015 Lyons et al. Engineering Method Modeling Average bulk density of drill cuttings [169]
35 2019 Ramsey Engineering Study Factors Average size of drill cuttings generated is 0.375 inches [186]
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

ECD increases with PV and SC, while it decreases slightly or is mostly stable
36 2019 Alkinani et al. Engineering Study Rheology [187]
with increasing values of YP
37 2020 Mahmoud et al. Engineering Method Modeling Cutting capacity index [188]
Annular velocity is crucial in improving the cutting transport ratio and
38 2020 Mohammed and Almahdawi Engineering Experiment Factors [189]
ensures efcient cleaning under diferent drilling scenarios
Te important parameter for hole cleaning with an engineering
39 2021 Ahmed et al. Engineering Method Modeling [190]
methodology to consider the hole enlargement
Drill pipe movements laterally can induce jet fows that help considerably
40 2021 Hovda and Sangesland Engineering Study Factors [191]
for cutting transport
Predicting cutting bed thickness and based on that, the cutting bed remover
41 2021 Ji et al. Engineering Method Software [140]
tool was used to remove cutting accumulation
Continuous circulation system drilling tool showed the equivalent static
42 2021 Petrie and Doll Engineering Method Indicators [192]
density cannot be experienced in the wellbore
Redesign the hydraulic-magnetic rotary hole-cleaning tool for obtaining
43 2021 Xiao-Feng et al. Engineering Experiment Factors [194]
better hole cleaning by increasing the rotation
44 2022 Jimmy et al. Engineering Method Modeling A new cutting lifting factor [193]
45 2022 Holt and Ruel Engineering Method Software Shaker load estimate [195]
Te impact of the pipe-to-hole area ratio and the fow area within the
46 2023 Rathgeber et al. Engineering Method Factors [1]
wellbore on the drill pipe rotation and the occurrence of fow channeling
21
 22

Table 9: A compilation of diferent models that depict the conditions related to cutting transport or borehole cleaning.
No Name of model Equations∗ Defnition Ref
Te HCR is a quantitative measure that compares the
vertical distance of the drilling fuid in the annulus to the
1 Hole-cleaning ratio (HCR) HCR � Hr /Hcrit critical height of the cutting bed. Tis metric is frequently [200]
employed in the evaluation of potential pipe-sticking
hazards during drilling activities
Te CCI serves as a quantitative measure to assess the
2 Cutting carrying index CCI � MW K Vann/400000 efectiveness of borehole cleaning in vertical sections of [171]
a wellbore
CCA2 is frequently employed for evaluating the
Cutting concentration in CCA1 � − 1/2(Vann /Vs − 1) +
3 discontinuation of circulation during connections and the [154]
annulus (1/4(Vann /Vs − 1)2 + (Vann /Vs )(Vc/(GPM/7.48)))0.5
preconnection circulation
Te CCA2 method is frequently employed for the evaluation
Cutting concentration in 1/CCA2 � 1 + (1 − (OD2 /OH2 )) (V ann − Vs/30 )(1800/ROP) +
4 of the equilibrium state of lifting solid particles within [153]
annulus (Vs/(24.5GPM/OH − ODc) − Vs)Tc
a vertical tube
TR is employed for the purpose of assessing the efectiveness
5 Transport ratio TR � (Vann − Vs/Vann) [158]
in which cuttings are extracted from the wellbore
β1 is employed in the assessment of borehole-cleaning
characteristics pertaining to the optimal capacity for lifting
2.014
6 Lifting coefcient β1 � 0.11519 ∙ Qm /Aa ∙(1 − Cf )− 1 ∙(dc )− cuttings and the coefcient associated with the lifting of [193]
cuttings. Tese factors establish the necessary conditions for
efectively removing cuttings within a wellbore
TI is employed for the purpose of assessing the efcacy of the
7 Transport index TI � (GPM ∙ RF ∙ MW /100)or � RF ∙ AF ∙ MW drilling fuid in the removal of cuttings and the preservation [163]
of a pristine wellbore
∗
All abbreviations can be found in nomenclature.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
Moreover, the real-time models for oil and gas well hole
cleaning optimize performance and safety, reduce envi-
ronmental impact, save costs, and enhance regulatory
compliance. Recently, a novel transport index model (TIm)
was developed to optimize borehole-cleaning performance
in real time based on Luo’s 1992 and 1994 models [163, 199].
It considers factors such as mud weight, hydraulic velocities,
drilling fuid properties, fow regime, cutting properties, and
equivalent circulating density. Te model has shown po-
tential in achieving optimal drilling performance. Two in-
novative models were developed: one for computing the
modifed angle factor using interpolation at various borehole
angles and another for determining the rheology factor. Te
TIm model performed well across various drilling fuid
compositions and well profles, providing precise and timely
real-time data [16]. Moreover, a novel cutting transport ratio
(CTRm) model has been developed for real-time drilling
operations based on Tom Siferma’s model [158], ofering
a reliable and comprehensive measure of hole-cleaning ef-
fectiveness. Te model was tested and validated, demon-
strating accurate hole-cleaning efectiveness in detecting
stuck pipes. Te CTRm model also showed a 52% increase in
ROP, indicating its potential for improved drilling efciency
[32]. A novel hole-cleaning index (HCI) model has been
developed and utilized, potentially leading to cost savings by
preventing incidents such as stuck pipes and reducing
nonproductive time, resulting in more efcient drilling
operations [150]. Te adoption of these particular models
has the potential to exert a substantial infuence on drilling
operations, thereby fostering enhanced safety, efciency, and
cost-efectiveness. Table 8 shows a summary of the major
fndings of all the most successful engineering studies.
Table 9 presents a compilation of diferent models that
depict the conditions related to cutting transport or borehole
cleaning. As evidenced by the data presented in Table 1, it is
apparent that each model possesses a distinct collection of
variables that play a critical role in evaluating various facets
of drilling operations. HCR is a widely employed metric in
the assessment of the likelihood of a pipe getting stuck while
conducting drilling operations. Tis is achieved by de-
termining the ratio between the vertical distance of the
drilling fuid in the annulus and the critical height of the
cutting bed [200]. In a similar vein, the CCI (cuttings
carrying index) relies on additional parameters such as mud
weight, consistency factor, and annular velocity. Tis metric
serves the purpose of assessing the efcacy of the drilling
fuid in efectively conveying cuttings away from the well-
bore. Te TR model, conversely, is employed for the eval-
uation of cutting removal efciency by considering annular
velocity and slip velocity [171]. Among the various models
considered, the TI model distinguishes itself by in-
corporating a comprehensive range of variables including
the mud weight, rheology factor, fow rate, and angle factor.
Tese variables play a critical role in the assessment of the
overall efciency of borehole cleaning during drilling op-
erations [163]. Moreover, a multitude of models, tools,
chemicals, charts, methodologies, and correlations were
employed; nevertheless, their applicability, efciency, cost-
23
efectiveness, and feasibility in the context of drilling op-
erations were found to be lacking [154]. Furthermore, it is
important to note that the models employed for the eval-
uation of drilling performance and borehole-cleaning
conditions exhibit numerous notable defciencies. Te
mud weight in both static and dynamic conditions, in-
cluding equivalent circulating density, is not taken into
consideration. In addition, there exist several crucial factors
that are not taken into account, such as hydraulic velocities,
rheological characteristics of drilling fuids (including the
low-shear yield point), fow regime, and properties of cut-
tings. Tese factors possess the potential to signifcantly
infuence the drilling procedure. In brief, every model ofers
a distinct viewpoint on the assessment of cutting transport
and borehole-cleaning conditions in drilling operations,
with the TI model being the most extensive and encom-
passing among them. By rectifying these defciencies, it is
plausible to achieve enhanced precision and dependability in
prognostications, thereby augmenting the security and ef-
fcacy of drilling endeavours.
5. Conclusions and Recommendations for
Future Work
Hole-cleaning chemistry and engineering parameters to
understand hole-cleaning efciency and the process of op-
timization will help to fll the gaps in the knowledge of hole-
cleaning efectiveness, avoid drilling troubles, and ensure
successful drilling. Several points can be summarized as
follows:
(i) High-angle wells require specifc hole-cleaning
strategies to ensure adequate transport of
cuttings.
(ii) Drilling rig and drill bit hydraulics are critical
factors for hole-cleaning optimizations in vertical,
deviated, highly deviated, and horizontal hole
sections. Using appropriate nozzles that balance
ROP optimization versus annular velocity allows
cleaning of holes. In scenarios where rotation is
possible, circulating and cleaning the hole section
with rotation prior to tripping and a single ap-
plication should be sufcient. However,
in situations where rotation is not possible, al-
ternative methods may need to be employed to
clean and circulate the drilling fuid.
(iii) Te chemical and physical properties of drilling
fuids should ensure chemical compatibility and
optimal rheological parameters to prevent drilling
troubles in vertical and directional wells. Using
hole-cleaning indicators can empower drilling
operations by properly evaluating and monitor-
ing hole cleaning.
(iv) High zeta potential drilling fuids are more likely
to move towards charged surfaces, reducing the
formation of particles or agglomerates that can
cause issues. Factors like surfactants, pH, and ions
24
can afect the zeta potential. In addition, the
fuid’s rheological properties, such as viscosity
and gel strength, can be infuenced by its zeta
potential.
(v) Drilling fuid is circulated through a wellbore to
lubricate the drill bit and wellbore walls, reducing
friction between the bit and rock formations.
However, high lubricity can cause cuttings to
stick to the wellbore walls, making it harder to
remove them. Tis phenomenon, known as
“sticking,” creates a blockage that prevents dril-
ling fuid from fowing freely, afecting the hole-
cleaning process. Terefore, drilling fuid’s lu-
bricity is crucial for efcient drilling.
(vi) HPHT drilling signifcantly impacts hole cleaning
due to the high pressure and temperature that can
cause cuttings to stick to wellbore walls, causing
“sticking.” Tis can lead to reduced drilling ef-
fciency, increased wear and tear on equipment,
and even loss of wellbore integrity. To overcome
these challenges, operators often use specialized
techniques and equipment, such as high-viscosity
drilling fuids and advanced drilling technologies
like managed pressure drilling or underbalanced
drilling. Tese technologies help control the
pressure and fow rate of the drilling fuid,
allowing for better hole cleaning and preventing
the adhesion of cuttings to the wellbore walls.
Chemical groups like sulfonate, methyl, phenyl,
furan, lactam, and pyrrolidine enhance the
thermal stability, rheological properties, fltration
control, lubrication characteristics, and salt tol-
erance of synthetic polymers used in drilling
fuids, preventing “sticking,” and facilitating
fuid fow.
(vii) Terefore, it is crucial to monitor the pH of the
mud sample and adjust it to the optimal range for
bentonite to work efectively. A pH adjuster, such
as sodium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid, can be
added to the mud sample. Te pH of the mud
sample also afects the stability of the drilling
fuid, which is crucial for efective hole cleaning
and preventing stuck pipes. Terefore, the pH of
mud samples is a crucial factor to consider when
adding bentonite to hole cleaning.
(viii) Modifed NPs in drilling fuids ofer benefts such
as efcient well cleaning, reduced bottom hole
and solid accumulation, and improved well
productivity and longevity. However, further
research is needed to evaluate their environ-
mental and health efects, and the safety and
sustainability of NPs should be considered during
drilling operations.
(ix) Te optimal ROP for drilling operations depends
on various factors, including the drilling fuid
density and ECD. Controlling ROP is crucial to
prevent overloading of the annulus with cuttings,
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
particularly in situations with restricted circula-
tion or blind drilling. Real-time management of
drilling fuid density and ECD can help optimize
drilling efciency and reduce costs associated
with additional chemical additives.
(x) Modifying a few key factors in real time can
signifcantly enhance hole cleaning during dril-
ling operations. Leveraging artifcial intelligence
and real-time applications, drilling teams can
continuously evaluate and monitor downhole
cleaning performance and receive timely advisory
recommendations to optimize cleaning efec-
tiveness. By taking immediate action based on
these recommendations, drilling teams can pre-
vent potential drilling troubles related to hole
cleaning, ensuring a smoother and more efcient
drilling process.
(xii) To improve hole cleaning during drilling, we
consider a combination of chemical materials,
wellbore stability, and rheology. Chemical ma-
terials such as polymers improve rheological
properties, reduce fuid loss, and increase cutting
fuid carrying capacity. Nanoparticles enhance
colloidal interactions and transport in un-
conventional shale formations with nanosized
pores. More importantly, mud chemistry should
ensure chemical compatibility to prevent well-
bore problems such as tight holes and swelling
shales. Wellbore stability is an important con-
sideration to avoid hole enlargement (washout
and break-out) achieved using a proper mud
weight window.
(xii) Sagging issues can have serious consequences,
especially in highly deviated wells, and managing
it is vital to prevent drilling problems, maintain
good control, and ensure efcient hole cleaning.
Terefore, antisagging agents, such as polymers
or surfactants, can be added to the drilling fuid to
help prevent sagging by reducing the viscosity
and improving the fow properties of the fuid.
Moreover, to combat barite sag in HPHT oil and
gas wells, various strategies can be employed to
improve the rheological properties of the drilling
fuid, such as using antisagging agents, micron-
ized barite or ilmenite (FeTiO3) [42, 43],
substituting barite with alternative materials, and
blending barite with other weighting agents.
(xiii) Maintaining proper borehole pressure and min-
imizing diferential pressure are crucial for
wellbore stability. Monitoring drilling fuid
properties, including rheology, density, and fuid
loss, and using modeling and simulation tools can
optimize drilling parameters and prevent well-
bore instability.
(xiv) Te most controllable parameters that afect
cutting transportation are drill pipe rotation, fow
rate, and mud rheological properties.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 25

(xv) Drilling fuid simulators help optimize drilling AF: Angle factor
parameters and predict fuid behavior, enabling BHA: Bottom hole assembly
efcient and efective hole cleaning by modeling cf: Cutting fraction
and simulating drilling fuid behavior under CaCo3: Calcium carbonate
various conditions.
β1: Cutting lifting factor
(xvi) A well design with minimized hole sizes and CBR: Cutting bed remover
proper casing seat selections will maximize the CCA: Cutting concentration in the annulus
hole cleaning efciency. CCI: Carrying capacity index
(xvii) Cuttings tend to accumulate on the lower side of CCS: Continuous circulation system
the drilled hole section in directional drilling, CEC: Cation exchange capacity
where the annular velocity is signifcantly re- CMC: Carboxymethyl cellulose
duced. In addition, efort should be made to avoid CNN: Convolution neural network
enlargement of open holes. CNC: Cellulose NPs in crystalline
(xviii) Appropriate nozzles should be used that balance CNF: Carbon nanofbers
ROP optimization versus annular velocity, CNPs: Carbon NPs
allowing cleaning of holes. CO2: Carbon dioxide
-CO-O-H:Acid group
(xix) Mud rheology is selected to be high with an LSYP CTR: Cutting transport ratio
and optimal low shear viscosity for wells with CTRm: Modifed cutting transport ratio
inclinations higher than 35 degrees. Te ROP of CuO: Copper oxide
the instantaneous drill rate can be controlled to Hcrit: Te critical height of the free region above the
prevent overloading of the annulus with cuttings, cutting bed
especially with restricted circulation or while Hr: Te height of the free region above the cutting
drilling blind. Viscous pills and dense pills should bed in the annulus
be used only when essential. Special care should dc: Cutting diameter, inch
be taken with Lo-Vis pills to maintain a high fow DMDAAC: Quadripolymer
rate, while dense pills are hole-cleaning in- DNN: Deep neural network
dicators, which should be used only when es- EGBE: Ethylene glycol butyl ether
sential and limit volume to avoid fracture ES: Electrical stability
formation. ESD: Equivalent static density
(xx) Both vortex and hydraulic jet-assisted approaches GPM: Pump fow rate
show promise for reducing downhole pressure HCI: Hole-cleaning index
diferentials and enhancing cutting conveyance HCR: Hole-cleaning ratio
capabilities compared to conventional methods. HCT: Hole-cleaning tubular
Proper design considering factors such as jet HEC: Hydroxyethyl cellulose
momentum and swirl intensity is necessary to HPHT: High-pressure, high-temperature
fully realize their potential for optimized wellbore K: Consistency factor
cleaning in challenging pressure regimes. KCl: Potassium chloride
(xxi) Te models used to evaluate drilling performance LGS: Low gravity solids
and borehole-cleaning conditions have several LSND- Low-solid nondispersed water-based mud
defciencies, including not considering mud WBM:
weight, hydraulic velocities, rheological charac- LSYP: Low shear yield point
teristics of drilling fuids, fow regime, and cutting MBT: Methylene blue test
properties. Tese factors can signifcantly infu- MgO: Magnesium oxide
ence drilling procedures. Addressing these de- Mn3O4: Manganese tetroxide
fciencies could improve precision and reliability MWNT: Multiwalled nanotubes
in prognostications, enhancing drilling safety and MW: Mud weight
efcacy. n: Flow behavior index
NPs: Nanoparticles
Nomenclature NaCl: Sodium chloride
Na-CMC: Sodium carboxymethylcellulose
AV: Apparent viscosity NMR: Nuclear magnetic resonance
Al2O3: Aluminum oxide NTU: Nephelometric turbidity units
AMPS: 2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid OBMs: Oil-based mud
AM: Acrylamide OD: Drill pipe’s outer diameter
APG: Alkyl-o-glucoside ODc: Outer diameter of drill collar
API: American Petroleum Institute OH: Borehole diameter, inch
Aa: Annular area PAC: Polyanionic cellulose
26 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

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