Laboratory 1: Make sure: Activities:

Cells, microscopes -Each drawing or diagram ACTIVITY 1: Leaf tissue – this

andbiological drawings. should have a title, information activity requires you to
about the specimen such as record/draw two observations
phylum, class and genus. Make made through the microscope.
sure to underline the genus 1.The upper and lower
and species names as they are surfaces of most leaves are
latin names. usually distinctly different.
Think about why this may be
the case.
Role:
The upper surface is more
Preparing your own slide green and shinier compared to
of Elodea, a common
the lower surface because the
aquarium plants chloroplasts are concentrated
epidermal leaf tissue. in the upper layers of the leaf
and helps the plant cells to
trap the sunlight quickly. The
upper surface is also where the
-All diagram and drawings epidermis is located, giving
should be large, more than half the upper surface of the plant
a page and done on plain white the shinier effecr as the
paper. epidermis is covered by a
-Lines for labelling waxy, waterproof layer. While,
diagram/drawing should be the lower surface of the leaf is
ruled and touch the subject where most is where stomatal
- Specimen is a Whole mount. pores are located on the
WM ventral side of the leaf so the
- Magnification of pores do not face direct
specimentshould be recorded: sunlight which could result in
Can be calculated by rapid dehydration due to
multiplying by the objective accelearted loss of water
and eyepiece magnification. through rapid evaporation due
- Most slides will be of organs, to direct sunlight. Ultimately
composed of several types of the plants death. Part 1A:
tissues, in each case make Prepare a drawing of 2-3
observations of only one type aggregated leaf cells under
of tissue. high power. Fully label the
drawing.
Completed on Book.
Diagram

Part 1B: Can you work out

which is the upper and lower
surface of the leaf (you should
be able to tell from the shape
of the section)?
Below the epidermis of Elodea
leaves is the mesophyll. The
mesophyll contains of two
arrangments of parenchyma
cells: palisade parenchyma and
spongy parenchyma. Palisade
is aids in photosyntesis and
column shaped and tightly-
packed. It can also be present
in 2-3 layers under the
epidermis. Below is are the
spongy parenchyma. Which
are loosely-arranged and have
an irregular shape. The air-
space allows for gaseous
exchange between the leaf
and the outside atmosphere
though the stomata. Both
layers of mesophyll contain
chloroplasts.
2. Prepare a diagram (tissue
map) of the transverse section
of the leaf. Your diagram
should clearly show the two
epidermal layers, stomata and
guard cells, cuticle, palisade
mesophyll and spongy
mesophyll.

ACTIVITY 2: Connective &

muscle tissue – this activity
requires you to answer two
questions based on
microscopic observations.
Answer this question: Why do
the erythrocytes appear pale
in the middle and dark on the
outside?
RBC lack nuceli and the
natural colour is due to
hameglobin. Given the shape
of RBX’C which have a
biconcave shape, the
hemoglobin will be
concentrated around the
edges and virtually lacking at
the narrow centre. Therefore
the edges of the cells will be
red and the centre will be pale.
Answer this question: Why do
you think there are many
blood vessels associated with
the muscle fibres?Every
skeletal muscle is also richly
supplied by blood vessels for
nourishment, oxygen delivery
and waste removal. Skeletal
muscles are important for
controlling locomotion through
contraction. For this reason,
they receive approximately
20% of cardiac output at rest,
which can increase up to a
maximum of approximately
80% with exercise. Due to the
requirements for large
amounts of oxygen and
nutrients, muscle vessels are
under very tight autonomous
regulation to ensure a
constant blood flow, and so
can have a large impact on
the blood pressure of
associated arteries. Each
muscle is supplied by many
capillaries. This close
association reduces the
diffusion distances, allowing
for the efficient exchange of
oxygen and nutrients required
for contraction and the rapid
removal of inhibitory waste
products.
ACTIVITY 3: Mammalian
epithelial tissue – this activity
requires you to make a
drawing based on
observations made through
the microscope.
Prepare a drawing showing
the different types of cells
lining the inner surface of the
digestive tract. Identify the
mucous-secreting goblet cells.
Exocrine cells contains:
1. Mucous cells
Secrete mucous, a fluid like
substance. Lubricates our
stomach lining, prevents
degradatio, Provide
protection to epithelieal
cells and lining.
2. Chief cells
Release ‘chief’ zymogen of
the stomach called
pepsinogen. Once released
into duct, if the ph is low
enoguh then pepsinogen
will transform into pepsin.
Pepsin is responisble for
breaking proteins into
smaller polpeptides.
3. Perietal cells
Generate HCL acid and
release into ducts of
Stomach. Decreasee the ph
and increase acidity which
stimulates the chief cells to
release pepsinogen into
stomach lumen. Transfom
pepsinogen into pepsin.
Denatures protein into
primary sequence.

4. G cells
Relase hormones called
gastrine. Gastrine
Stimulates our parieral cell
to release HCL acid into the
stomach lumen. G cells are
 stimulated by acetal coline
molecules.

ACTIVITY 4: Dissecting
microscopes – this activity
requires you to describe
two specimens viewed
under the dissecting
microscope.
Prepare descriptive notes
about two specimens of your
choice and calculate the
magnification that you found
most useful viewing these
specimens.
ACTIVITY 4: Dissecting
microscopes – this activity
requires you to describe
two specimens viewed
under the dissecting
microscope.
Prepare descriptive notes
about two specimens of your
choice and calculate the
magnification that you found
most useful viewing these
specimens.
Magnification of
specimentshould be recorded:
Can be calculated by
multiplying by the objective
and eyepiece magnification

Laboratory 2: Make sure: Activities:

Aware of diffusion and Osmosis. Exercise 1: Osmosis in
Cell membranes erythrocytes
Part A: Notice the difference
between the first and second
tube, why is this solution
Translucent?
0.9% NaCl is isotonic to red
blood cells resulting in
opaqueness.While, DIstilled
water is hypotonic to RBC’s
leading to RBS’s to swell and
haemoglobin leaks from the
cell.
Part B: Erythrocytes in
solutions of Different NaCl
Concentrations.
Record data
Exercise 2: Microscopy of
erythrocytes
Images at each station show
photographs of the red blood
cells in 0.9%, 5% and 0.5%
NaCl respectively. Describe the
appearance of the cells in
detail. We have not provided a
demonstration of cells in
<0.5% NaCl. Why not?
0.9%: Gives an isotonic
solution as the intracellualr
and extracellular fluid are
in an osmotic equilibrium
across the cell membrane
and there is no nte influx
or efflux of the water.
5%: Gives an hypertonic
environement. RBC’s will
fill with water and burst. Or
the water will move out of
the cell due to osmosis
leading to shrinkage
eventually collapse of the
cell.
0.5%: Gives an hypotonic
environement leading to
an influx of water. The cells
swell and the integrity is
 disrupted allowing the
escape of Hameglobin –
hemolysis is occured.
Explain what happens when
red blood
cells are placed into different
concentrations of NaCl
solution.
Refer to Osmosis

LABORATORY 3 Make sure: Activities:

Aware of cellular respiration Part 1: Setting up
Cellular process. germination treatments
Respiration. When selecting germinated
peas, check that each has a
small root tip showing to
ensure that the bean has
commenced growing (think:
why is this important?).
Germinating peas are growing
at a fast rate and they need
energy to grow, so they use
cellular respiation. The need
for oxygen grows, too, so the
more germinating, the rate
increases.
Repeat steps one and two
using the same volume (not
the same number!) of glass
beads. This is your control
treatment. (think: why is it a
control treatment?)
To make sure that the same
amount of air was in each of
the vials and displacement
would be comparable. No
respiration would occur in this
respirometer so it could be
used to correct any variances
occuring in the surroundings.
Part 2: Making a
respirometer

Laboratory 4: Make sure: Activities:

Cell reproduction Aware of cell reproduction and Exercise 1: Observing
gene expression. mitosis in broad bean root
and gene
expression. tip cells

Exercise 2: Understanding
transcription and
translation
Question 1: Write out the
letters representing the mRNA
molecule that would be
transcribed from the above
DNA strand.

5’ AUGGGAUCGCCCAAGCGC
3’.

Question 2: What are the six

codons of the nucleotide
bases in the mRNA molecule
from question 1?
2. AUG (start codon)
3. GGA
4. UCG
5. CCC
6. AAG
7. CGC

Question 3: What are the 6

tRNA anticodons that would
pair with the six mRNA codons
identified in question 2?

8. AUG (mRNA codon)

pairs with UAC (tRNA
anticodon)
9. GGA (mRNA codon)
pairs with CCU (tRNA
anticodon)
10. UCG (mRNA codon)
pairs with AGC (tRNA
anticodon)
11. CCC (mRNA codon)
pairs with GGG (tRNA
anticodon)
12. AAG (mRNA codon)
pairs with UUC (tRNA
anticodon)
 13. CGC (mRNA codon)
pairs with GCG (tRNA
anticodon)

Question 4: Use the table

below to identify the amino
acids carried by tRNA
molecules with the anticodons
identified in question 3. What
is the amino acid sequence
coded for by the DNA strand
given above?
Based on the table provided in
the image and the analysis of
the content, we can determine
the amino acids carried by the
tRNA molecules with the
anticodons identified in
question 3. The tRNA
anticodons identified in
question 3 are:

14. CCU
15. AGC
16. GGG
Referring to the table:

• CCU anticodon
corresponds to the
amino acid glycine
(gly).
• AGC anticodon
corresponds to the
amino acid serine (ser).
• GGG anticodon
corresponds to the
amino acid proline
(pro).
Therefore, the amino acids
carried by the tRNA molecules
with the anticodons identified
in question 3 are glycine,
serine, and proline.

To determine the amino acid

sequence coded for by the
DNA strand given above, we
 would need the specific DNA
sequence provided in the
question. If you could provide
the DNA sequence, I can help
you decipher the
corresponding amino acid
sequence.

.
ACTIVITY 4: Dissecting microscopes – this activity requires you to describe two
specimens viewed under the dissecting microscope.

6. Prepare descriptive notes about two specimens of your choice and calculate the
magnification that you found most useful viewing these specimens.