Topic 6.

HORMONES & REPRODUCTION

Topic Outline AUDIO

 Homeostasis

 Endocrine System

 Hormone Examples

 Reproductive Systems

 Sex Development

 Menstrual Cycle

 In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

Hormones are used when signals need to be widely distributed

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within

physiological tolerance limits – it is responsible for maintaining equilibrium

A disease will ensue when a factor deviates from its normal homeostatic range

DISEASE

EQUILIBRIUM
DISEASE
Negative Feedback

Physiological processes are moderated by feedback loops

STIMULUS
• Changed conditions are detected by a receptor
• A corrective response is initiated by an effector
SENSOR

Homeostasis is maintained via negative feedback

CONTROL
• The effect is antagonistic (opposite) to the stimulus
CENTRE

Feedback loops are involved in a number of homeostatic

EFFECTOR
processes: thermoregulation, blood pH, water balance
BODY SYSTEM:

HORMONES
Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers released from ductless endocrine glands

• They travel within the bloodstream to act on distant target cells

Hormones can be either proteins (insulin, adrenaline) or lipids (testosterone, estrogen)

Endocrine Cells Target Cell

produce with specific
hormone ✗ ✓ receptor
Endocrine System

Components of the endocrine system include:

• Pineal gland: Melatonin (biological clock)

• Pituitary gland: ADH (osmoregulation)
• Thyroid gland: Thyroxin (metabolic rate)
• Adrenal gland: Adrenaline (fight or flight response)
• Pancreas: Insulin / glucagon (blood sugar levels)
• Adipose Tissue: Leptin (appetite control)
• Gonads: Testosterone / estrogen (sex characteristics)
Thyroxin

Hormone: Thyroxin Skin Brain

Endocrine Gland: Thyroid gland

Function: Receptors Hypothalamus

• Activated by signals from hypothalamus

Heat Thyroxin
• Primary role is to increase metabolic rate
• This results in increased in heat production
(i.e. thyroxin regulates body temperatures) Metabolic Rate Thyroid Gland

Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate metabolic rate and help control body temperature
Melatonin
AWAKE ASLEEP
Hormone: Melatonin

Levels in bloodstream (pg/ml)

Endocrine Gland: Pineal gland (in the brain) 60

40
Function:
• Regulates circadian rhythms (i.e. sleep cycle) 20

Melatonin
• Secretion is suppressed by light stimuli that 0
6am 12pm 6pm 12am 6am
are relayed (via retina) to the hypothalamus
Inhibit Activate
• Hence, melatonin levels are higher at night

Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms

Melatonin: Jet Lag

Jet lag is physiological condition caused by a change to normal circadian rhythms

• The pineal gland continues to secrete melatonin according to an old time zone
• Taking melatonin supplements may recalibrate an individual’s sleep schedule
100
(Visual Analogue Scale %)

90
Severity of Jet Lag

80
70 Subject Taking Placebo
60
50
40 Subject Taking Melatonin
30
20
10
0
Test Subjects Arranged in Order of Decreasing Symptoms

Cause of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it

Leptin

Hormone: Leptin
Endocrine Gland: Adipose tissues (fat cells)
FAT CELLS FULL
Function: LEPTIN HUNGER
• Binds to receptors in the hypothalamus
LEPTIN
• Functions to suppress appetite (i.e. satiety)
• Over-eating increases leptin production
while starvation reduces the leptin levels FAT CELLS
SATIETY EMPTY

Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and act on the hypothalamus to inhibit appetite
Leptin: Obesity

As leptin suppresses appetite, it has been considered as a treatment for obesity

• Theoretically, leptin would limit hunger and hence reduce the food intake

Most obesity cases are due to leptin unresponsiveness and not leptin deficiency
• Likely due to down-regulation in the expression of the leptin receptor

This means leptin treatments are not considered an effective obesity treatment
• Few patients in clinical trials experienced significant weight loss with leptin
• However, many patients did experience adverse reactions to leptin treatment

Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to control the disease
Insulin & Glucagon

Hormone: Insulin and glucagon Adipose cells Beta (β) cells:

Insulin
take up glucose insulin
Endocrine Gland: Pancreas
(α cells = Glucagon ; β cells = Insulin)

⬇ blood sugar
Function:
• Insulin lowers blood sugar levels
• Glucagon raises blood sugar levels
• Affected by eating and exercise Alpha (α) cells: Glucagon
Liver releases
glucagon glucose

Insulin and glucagon are released by β and α cells of the pancreas to control blood glucose levels
Insulin & Glucagon: Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder resulting from high blood glucose levels

Type I (IDDM) Type II (NIDDM)

Cause β-cells destroyed (autoimmune?) Insulin receptors down-regulated

Effect Body does not produce insulin Body does not respond to insulin

Onset Early (childhood) Late (adulthood)

Treat Insulin injections required Controlled by managing diet

Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II diabetes

 BODY SYSTEM:
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction Theories

Historically, the mechanism of sexual reproduction has been poorly understood

Aristotle: ‘Soil and seed’ theory

• A male ‘seed’ is mixed with menstrual blood
• An embryo is formed from the ‘seed-blood’ mix

William Harvey: All life must come from eggs Omne

vivum
• He unsuccessfully searched the uterus of deer ex ovo

• But he did debunk the ‘soil and seed’ theory

William Harvey’s investigation of sexual reproduction in deer

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction combines genetic information from both parental gametes

• The male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (ovum) unite during copulation
• Males and females need distinct reproductive systems to form these gametes

Sperm Ovum
Sex Determination

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in all diploid cells

X Y
• 22 pairs of autosomes and the sex chromosomes (X + Y)
X
The Y chromosome contains an SRY gene (Sex Region on Y)
• The gene codes TDF protein (Testis Determining Factor) Gonads Gonads

– SRY + SRY
Production of TDF protein determines sex in offspring:
• Males (XY) develop testes and secrete testosterone Ovaries Testes
• Females (XX) lack the SRY gene and develop ovaries

A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone
Male Sex Development

The main male sex hormone is testosterone Male Sex Characteristics

Libido
It is produced by the testes and is responsible for:
• Pre-natal development of the male genitalia Deep voice

• Sperm production (following onset of puberty) Body hair

• Development of secondary sex characteristics

Muscle mass
• Maintaining the male sex drive (libido)
Genitalia
Women produce testosterone, but in low amounts

Testosterone causes development of male genitalia, sperm production and secondary sex characteristics
Male Reproductive System

Prostate Gland Seminal Vesicle

Ureter
Bladder Bladd
er
Seminal Urethra
Prostate Vesicle
Gland
Erectile
Vas Deferens Tissue

Epididymis Urethra
Epididymis
Penis Testis
Testis Vas Deferens

Annotated diagram of the male reproductive system to show names of structures and their functions
Male Reproductive Organs

Structure Function

Testes Produces sperm and male sex hormones (testosterone)

Epididymis Site where sperm matures and develops capacity to swim

Vas Deferens Carries sperm from the testes to the urethra

Seminal Vesicle Secretes fructose (for sperm nutrition) and prostaglandins

Prostate Gland Secretes an alkali fluid to neutralise vaginal acids

Urethra Carries sperm to the outside of the body (via the penis)
Female Sex Development

Estrogen & progesterone are female sex hormones Female Sex Characteristics

They are produced by ovaries and responsible for: Breast

development
• Pre-natal development of the female organs
• Regulation of menstrual cycles (post puberty)
Wider hips,
• Development of secondary sex characteristics fat deposition

Body hair
Men also produce these hormones, but in different
Genitalia
amounts and with different mechanisms of action

Estrogen & progesterone cause development of reproductive organs & secondary sex characteristics
Female Reproductive System

Uterus Fallopian Tube (oviduct) Ovary Uterus

Bladder
Endometrium Ovary

Fimbriae
Fallopian Tube
(Oviduct) Vagina
Urethra Vagina Cervix

Annotated diagram of the female reproductive system to show names of structures and their functions
Female Reproductive Organs

Structure Function

Ovary The reproductive organ where eggs (ova) are produced

Fimbriae A fringe of tissue that sweeps an oocyte into the oviduct

Oviduct The tube where an ovum passes to the uterus (fallopian tube)

Uterus The organ where a fertilised egg will implant and develop

Endometrium A mucous membrane lining the uterus (shed via menstruation)

Vagina Passage leading to the uterus via which a penis can enter
Gamete Production

Reproductive systems function to produce the gametes for sexual reproduction

In males, spermatozoa are produced continuously from the onset of puberty

• Fertility is effectively life long, although sperm production reduces with age

In females, mature eggs are produced according to a recurring menstrual cycle

• This cycle promotes physiological changes to prepare the body for pregnancy
• If pregnancy occurs, these changes are sustained by the developing embryo
• Otherwise, these changes are reversed (menstruation) and the cycle restarted
Menstrual Cycle

A menstrual cycle describes changes that occur within

Hypothalamus
the female reproductive system to enable pregnancy

Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
• It is controlled by two key groups of hormones Pituitary
Hormones
Pituitary Hormones: FSH and LH
• Act on the ovaries to develop follicles (oocytes) Ovarian
Hormones

Ovarian Hormones: Estrogen and progesterone

Uterus
• Act on the uterus to prepare for pregnancy

The menstrual cycle is controlled by feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones
Stages of the Menstrual Cycle

The events of a menstrual cycle occur over three stages:

Follicular DAY
Follicular Phase Phase 0-14
• Follicles develop under the influence of FSH and LH

DAY
Ovulation OVULATION
14
• A follicle ruptures and releases oocyte into oviduct
Luteal DAY
Luteal Phase Phase 14-28

• Ruptured follicle prepares the uterus for pregnancy

Menstrual Cycle: Follicular Phase

The follicular phase is responsible for the development of follicles within ovaries

• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted from the anterior pituitary

• FSH (and LH) stimulate the growth and development of ovarian follicles

• A dominant follicle begins producing estrogen, which inhibits FSH secretion

• This negative feedback mechanism prevents other follicles from developing

• Estrogen also acts on the uterus to begin to thicken the endometrial layer

The menstrual cycle is controlled by feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones
Menstrual Cycle: Ovulation

Ovulation is when a mature egg (secondary oocyte) is released from an ovary

• Midway through the cycle (~day 14), estrogen stimulates the pituitary

• This positive feedback mechanism creates a spike in luteinizing hormone (LH)

• LH causes the dominant follicle to rupture and release a secondary oocyte

• The secondary oocyte travels down the fallopian tube (oviduct) to the uterus

• The ruptured follicle develops into a slowly degenerating corpus luteum

The menstrual cycle is controlled by feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones
Menstrual Cycle: Luteal Phase

The luteal phase is responsible for the thickening of the uterine endometrium

• The corpus luteum secretes high levels of progesterone (and some estrogen)

• These ovarian hormones stimulate endometrial growth (thicker uterine lining)

• They also inhibit pituitary hormone secretion, causing the follicle to degrade

• If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum fully degenerates (~day 27)

• The drop in progesterone causes the endometrium to be shed (menstruation)

The menstrual cycle is controlled by feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones
Menstrual Cycle: Overview
Follicular Phase Luteal Phase
Pituitary
Pituitary
Hormones LH
Hormones
FSH

Ovarian
Follicles
Maturing Follicle Corpus Luteum

Ovarian
Hormones Estrogen
Progesterone

Uterine
Lining
1 5 10 15 20 25 28
In Vitro Fertilisation

IVF describes fertilisation occurring outside of the body

• Stop the normal menstrual cycle with drugs
• Hormone treatments induce superovulation
• Extract multiple eggs from the ovaries
• Sperm is collected and prepared (capacitation)
• Fertilisation occurs externally (i.e. in vitro)
• Implantation of multiple eggs into surrogate
• Test for pregnancy SHE’S FIT
Use of IVF drugs to suspend hormone secretion, followed by artificial doses to induce superovulation
Topic Review

Can you do the following?

• Define homeostasis and negative feedback

• Identify examples of hormonal actions
• Describe consequences of hormonal disorders
• Identify reproductive structures (male / female)
• Explain the development of sex characteristics
• Describe the key events of the menstrual cycle
• Outline the process of in vitro fertilisation