Greenhouse

Project Report

Department of Physics
Panjab University, Chandigarh

January, 2024
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 Controllable Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4 Materials used in Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

5 Common Names of Greenhouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

6 Classification of Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

7 Polytunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

8 Advantages of Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

9 Applications of Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

10 Insects and Pests found in Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

11 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

12 Future of Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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1 Introduction
Greenhouse:
It is a structure that allows us control and regulate environmental factors like
temperature, humidity, etc, within it, allowing plants to thrive beyond their natural
seasonal limitations.
They are generally made with material that allows light to pass through to
capture the heat of the sun. Glazing refers to the material using which the outer
translucent covering of the greenhouse is made. For example, plastics made of
polycarbonate, plastic films made of polyethylene or glass panes. When sunlight
pass through this transparent medium, it is absorbed by the floor, walls and other
contents, and they become warmer. Then they release this heat in the form of
infrared radiation, heating up the surroundings within the greenhouse. Since the
structure is not open, the heat cannot escape, increasing the temperature of the
greenhouse.
Greenhouses allow for greater control over the environment of the plants like
controlling temperature, light, irrigation, fertilizer application, humidity, CO2 levels,
etc. They can be used to overcome shortcomings in the growing qualities of an area.

2 History
Roman Empire
Before greenhouses, agriculture was constrained to weather conditions. Around
30CE, the Roman Empire built the first recorded attempt of an artificial environ-
ment. Due to emperor Tiberius’s declining health, he was recommended that the
emperor eat one cucumber a day. Cucumbers, however, do not grow year-round.
Therefore, an artificial environment to grow cucumbers was attempted. Cucumbers
were planted in wheeled carts which were put in sun daily then taken inside to keep
them warm at night. They were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed
with either oiled cloth known as specularia or with sheets of selenite.

15th century Korea

During Joseon dynasty, in the 1450s, Soon ui Jeon described the first artificially
heated greenhouse in his manuscript called Sangayorok. In it, he wrote how to
build a greenhouse that was able to cultivate vegetables and other plants in the
winter season. He also mentioned an ondol heating system in the structure which
runs a flue pipe from a heat source underneath the flooring. In addition to the
ondol, a cauldron filled with water was also heated to create steam and increase the
temperature and humidity in the greenhouse. This was the first recorded design
with an active heating system. It still included the passive heating systems like a
semi-transparent oiled hanji windows to capture light and cob walls to retain heat.

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19th century
The French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with building the
first practical modern greenhouse in Leiden, Holland, to grow medicinal tropical
plants. The French called their first greenhouses orangeries, since they were used
to protect orange trees from freezing. As pineapples became popular, pineries, or
pineapple pits, were built.

20th century
In the 20th century, the geodesic dome (as shown
in Fig.1) was added to the many types of green-
houses. The concept of the geodesic dome was
developed by the R. Buckminster Fuller. It is
a semi-spherical structure made up of network
of triangles. These domes are known for their
strength, stability, and efficient use of material.
The pyramid is another popular shape for large,
high greenhouses.
Figure 1: Geodesic Dome
3 Controllable Factors
Greenhouses allow us to control the environment
within them. We can fine tune various factors
to optimize the growth of plants within and hence increase yield. Some of the
controllable factors are listed below:

1. Temperature/Heating: Since the greenhouse is made up of transparent

medium, it cannot retain all the heat that it receives. Sometimes heat has
to be provided artificially (as done in hothouses) to maintain the required
temperature. Hence, heating is one of the biggest costs in a greenhouse. As
such, it would be beneficial if most of the heat that enters the greenhouse can
be retained. As such, it is important to chose a material with high R-value
(discussed later).
To provide heat during the night when the sunlight is absent, the greenhouses
contain an artificial heating system. Waste heat from livestock can also be used
like placing a chicken coop inside a greenhouse. Heat release from factories
can also be directed to greenhouses to meet the demand which also reduces
the thermal pollution.

2. Cooling: Cooling is typically done by opening the windows and vents if the
temperature in the greenhouse exceeds the requirement. This can either be
done manually or automatically using a computer that monitor’s the various
factors of the greenhouse. Shade houses can be constructed to provide shade
from heat in areas of extreme heat.

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 3. Lighting: Plants need energy for photosynthesis. This energy is provided by
the sunlight during the day and grow LEDs are used at night to increase the
overall amount of light that the plants get, thereby increasing the yield.

4. Ventilation: It is required to regulate temperature and humidity and to

ensure movement of air so as to prevent the build-up of plant pathogens that
prefer still air. It is achieved using vents and recirculation fans, etc.

5. Carbon Dioxide enrichment: Enriching the air with carbon dioxide to a

concentration of 1100 PPM can benefit plant growth. It can also reduce the
water requirement of the greenhouse by mitigating the total air-flow needed to
supply CO2 to the plants and therefore reducing the amount of water lost to
evaporation. But CO2 enrichment is only beneficial if CO2 is not the limiting
factor as dictated by Leibig’s law.
Liebig’s law of the minimum state that the growth is dictated not by the total
amount of resources available but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor).

4 Materials used in Greenhouse

Various materials are required to set up a greenhouse. Some of them are discussed
below:

1. Frame Materials:

(a) Metal: Aluminium and galvanized steel offer durability and resistance to
corrosion.
(b) Wood: Traditional, though less common due to susceptibility to decay.
(c) PVC: Lightweight and cost-effective, suitable for smaller or temporary
structures.

2. Covering Materials:

(a) Polyethylene: Cost-effective, available in single or double layers.

(b) Polycarbonate: Provides better insulation and durability with single or
multi-wall sheets.
(c) PVC: Less common due to lower insulation properties.

3. Foundation Materials:

(a) Concrete: Ensures stability and durability.

(b) Pressure-treated wood: Suitable for smaller structures, less common in
larger, permanent greenhouses.

4. Ventilation Materials:

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 (a) Louvers and Roll-up Sidewalls: Enable controlled airflow and tempera-
ture regulation.
(b) Automatic Vent Openers: Mechanical devices responding to temperature
changes, aiding in passive ventilation.

5 Common Names of Greenhouses

Although all the various greenhouses are commonly referred to as Greenhouses, some
greenhouses can be referred to by specific names, based on their use or material they
are made up of, etc. For example:
1. Glasshouse: A traditional style of greenhouse that is only constructed with
glass panes to allow light into the structure.
2. Hothouse: A greenhouse with an artificial heating system to reduce depen-
dency on the natural sunlight only.
3. Cold Frame: A transparent roofed encloser typically used to grow plants at
home. It is a small scaled greenhouse.
4. Polytunnel: An elongated polyethene covered frame under which seedlings
and other plants are grown.
5. Geodesic Domes: It is a hemi-spherical shell made-up of triangular elements
which distribute structural stress throughout the structure allowing them to
withstand heavy loads, making them particularly useful for vertical gardening.
6. Attached Greenhouses: They are greenhouses connected to another struc-
ture, usually a gardener’s house, designed to look like a part of the original
structure.

6 Classification of Greenhouse
Greenhouses can be classified based on various factors like the material used in the
construction of greenhouse, the purpose it serves, heating mechanism, etc. Some of
these classifications are listed below:

On the basis of frame construction

1. Wooden Frame Construction: Usually done for greenhouses of a span of
less than 6 meters. Side Posts and pillars are made of available timber having
sufficient structural strength (often European pine is used) without the use of
a truss structure (as the pillars acting as load bearing structures are enough).
2. Pipe framed structure: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses,
when the clear span is around 12m. In general, the side posts, columns, cross
ties and purlins are constructed using pipes. In this type, the trusses are not
used. (Truss are fundamental vertical support structure of a greenhouse).

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 3. Truss framed structure: If the greenhouse span is greater than or equal to
15m, truss frames are used. Flat steel, tubular steel or angular iron is welded
together to form a truss encompassing rafters, chords and struts.

On the basis of covering material

1. Glass greenhouse: Greenhouses with glass as the covering material were
the ones available prior to 1950, they have the advantage of greater interior
light intensity, higher air infiltration rates thus lowering interior humidity and
better disease prevention.

2. Plastic film greenhouse: These use flexible plastic films including polyethy-
lene, PVC, polyester. They have a lower per sq. feet cost when compared to
glass and the cost of heating is less than that of a glass covered greenhouse.
The primary disadvantage of using these films are there lower life span with
the best UV stabilised sheets lasting for only 4 years at the maximum.

3. Rigid Panel Greenhouse: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced

plastic, acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering
material in the Quonset type frames or ridge and furrow type frame. This ma-
terial is more resistant to breakage and the light intensity is uniform through-
out the greenhouse when compared to glass or plastic. High grade panels have
long life even up to 20 years. The main disadvantage is that these panels tend
to collect dust as well as to harbour algae, which results in darkening of the
panels and subsequent reduction in the light transmission. There is significant
danger of fire hazard.

On the basis of method of heating

1. Greenhouse for active heating: During the nigh, as air temperature de-
creases, favourable range of temperatures, for growth of crops, active heating
methods are used. These methods can either tackle loss of heat or introduce
heat into the system.
The passive methods include using double layer polyethylene, using thermos
pane glasses, and various other methods focusing on better insulative materi-
als.
The active methods are to use a variety of heating systems such as unitary
heaters. Central heating systems utilising steam or to store thermal heat
during the day to introduce to the system during nighttime.

2. Greenhouse for active cooling: During summer season, it is desirable

to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the ambient temperatures, for
effective crop growth. Hence suitable modifications are made in the greenhouse
so that large volume of cooled air is drawn into greenhouse. This type of
greenhouses either consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling.
These kinds of greenhouses are designed in such a way that they permit a roof
opening of 40

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7 Polytunnel
It is essentially a greenhouse but made from a different material. Instead of tradi-
tional glass glaze, they use malleable , polyethylene plastic sheet to form the cover
of the greenhouses. This reduces the cost of material but instead requires you to
resheet the structure every 5 to 8 years. Since we are using a plastic sheet and not
a rigid glass or polycarbonate panel, it is prone to tears. To tackle this problem,
special polyethylene patch tapes are available in the market.

(a) Quonset Style Polytunnel (b) Gothic Arch Polytunnel

Figure 2: Different shaped polytunnels

Polytunnels can be made in various shapes but some of the common shapes found
are:-

1. Quonset Style: It is a round arch structure, typically made from one long
tube bent to a semi-circular or semi-cylindrical shape resembling the design
of Quonset huts. Quonset huts were pre-fabricated, arch-roof steel buildings
that were widely used during World War 2 for various purposes. The design
has since been adapted for use in agriculture and horticulture. They are often
used for commercial production and are the most common style of polytunnel.

2. Gothic Arch: The term “Gothic arch” refers to the shapes of the structure
which resembles the arches seen in Gothic architecture. It is similar to Quonset
style shape but has a peaked roof which provides more height in the middle
which allows for vertical plantation in the middle and a steeper slope which
makes it easier to shed debris, dust, snow etc.

Although a single sheet of polyethylene plastic does not have high insulation,
but we have the option of double-layering and then filling the gap between the
layers with air using a fan at the top of the structure. Now we have a layer of air
in-between the two sheets which has a low thermal conductivity of 0.025W/m.K,
hence providing high thermal insulation.

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 Since the polytunnels are made using plas-
tic sheets, they don’t have windows or roof vents
for ventilation and movement of air like in green-
houses. We either have to rely on the front door
and some back opening for circulation of air or
we can have an added side feature installed in
the polytunnel which allows for the folding of the
plastic sheet. This allows for great ventilation at
the bottom and also allows easier access to the Figure 3: Roll-up side walls of
plants being grown near the walls of the polytun- polytunnel
nel.
To provide additional heat in the polytunnel, we can use heaters as per our
requirements. To reduce the amount of sunlight and hence heat entering the struc-
ture, we can use something called a shade cloth. Shade cloth is a horticulture fabric
manufactured in different weaves to allow different percentages of light to come in.
Just like greenhouses, polytunnels must also be installed with fans to ensure air
flow within the structure. This prevents build-up of mold, algae, pathogens, etc,
and also ensures an equal distribution of heat in the structure

8 Advantages of Greenhouse
Greenhouses provide a multitude of advantages that extend beyond conventional
open-field farming. Some of the numerous benefits associated with greenhouse cul-
tivation are listed below:

1. Controlled Environment: Greenhouses offer a controlled environment, al-

lowing farmers to regulate temperature, humidity, light levels, etc. This pre-
cision fosters optimal conditions for plant growth throughout the year, irre-
spective of external weather fluctuations.

2. Extended Growing seasons: By creating a stable micro-climate, green-

houses can extend growing seasons. This means that farmers can plant their
crops earlier and harvest them later than usual, giving more growing time to
the crop and hence increasing yield.

3. Weather Protection: Greenhouses shield plants from adverse weather con-

ditions such as heavy rain, hail, frost, excessive wind, etc, which means that
we can grow our crops in extreme weather conditions as well. This is especially
beneficial for solders stationed in snowy mountains or scorching deserts.

4. Increased Yield and Quality: The controlled environment in greenhouses

facilitates higher crop yields and improved quality. Factors like optimized tem-
perature and nutrient levels contribute to healthier plants, leading to better-
tasting and visually appealing produce.

5. Water Efficiency: Greenhouse systems can be designed to optimize water

usage through techniques like drip irrigation and water recycling. This ef-

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 ficiency is especially crucial in regions facing water scarcity and places with
inaccessibility of water.

6. Pest and Disease Control: Enclosed environments and control over various
factors in greenhouses act as a barrier against pests and diseases, reducing
the need for chemical pesticides and insecticides. This contributes to a more
sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to agriculture, also allowing
for organic farming.

7. Crop Variety: Greenhouses enable the cultivation of a wide range of crops

that might not thrive in the local climate otherwise. This diversity allows
farmers to explore new markets and meet consumer demands for a variety of
fresh produce.

8. Energy Efficiency: Modern greenhouses can incorporate energy-efficient

technologies such as solar panels, automated climate control systems, and ef-
ficient lighting. These innovations contribute to sustainable farming practices
and reduce overall energy consumption.

9. Optimized Resource Utilization: Controlled environments in greenhouses

optimize resource utilization, including water, nutrients, space, etc. This effi-
ciency not only reduces waste but also makes agriculture more economically
viable.

10. Research and Innovation: Greenhouses provide a platform for agricultural

research and innovation. Scientists can experiment with new cultivation tech-
niques, crop varieties, and sustainable farming practices within a controlled
setting.

11. Local Food Production: Greenhouses support local food production by en-
abling the cultivation of crops in diverse geographical regions. This reduces the
dependence on long-distance transportation, contributing to a more resilient
and sustainable food system.

9 Applications of Greenhouse
Greenhouses play a crucial role in modern agriculture, horticulture, research, and
environmental conservation. The diverse range of materials used in their construc-
tion reflects the adaptability of these structures to various needs and environmental
conditions. Greenhouses can be used for a variety of applications in a wide range of
fields, some of which are listed below:

1. Agriculture:

(a) Extending growing seasons: Greenhouses allow year-round cultivation,

overcoming the limitations of seasonal changes.
(b) Crop Protection: Shielding crops from extreme weather conditions, pests,
and diseases.

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 2. Horticulture:

(a) Floriculture: Ideal for growing flowers and ornamental plants for com-
mercial purposes.
(b) Nursery Operations: Seed germination and early plant development ben-
efit from controlled conditions.

3. Research and Education:

(a) Plant Studies: Greenhouses provide a controlled environment for study-

ing plant biology, genetics, and responses to various stimuli.
(b) Teaching Facilities: Educational institutions use greenhouses to demon-
strate principles of botany and plant science.

4. Urban Agriculture:

(a) Vertical Farming: Utilizing vertical space for agriculture in urban set-
tings, addressing space constraints.
(b) Community Gardens: Greenhouses enable community-based agriculture
initiatives, fostering local food production.

5. Environmental Conservations:

(a) Rare and Endangered Species: Greenhouses aid in the conservation of

rare and endangered plant species by providing a protected environment
for propagation.
(b) Ecosystem Restoration: Used in ecological restoration projects to propa-
gate native plants for reintroduction into degraded ecosystems.

10 Insects and Pests found in Greenhouse

Even though greenhouses are very safe from pest related diseases but due to minor
factors, it is still possible. Example, during summer season, some people leave the
doors of greenhouses open for the need of ventilation due to excess heat accumulated
inside. Small pests can enter during that time and can affect the plants in greenhouse
by munching on the plants, butterflies laying their eggs or spreading diseases. It is
not possible to make the greenhouses completely pests free but it can be minimized
by our physical work efforts and also by biological controls.
Some methods to keep pests under control are given below:

1. Keep the environment clean: Overall cleaning of the greenhouse, at least

once a year, can prove to be really helpful. It includes cleaning the floor,
windows, glazing, etc.

2. Disinfecting the gardening tools: One should also disinfect their gardening
tools before using them in the greenhouse as most people use the same tools
in every gardening activity.

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 3. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different
types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. By using
this technique, crops become less dependent on a single source of nutrients,
weed and insect pressure, and the likelihood that resistant weeds and pests
will emerge is decreased.
4. Using shop bought compost: Rather than using soil of any random garden
or farm, it’s better to use soil that is pest-free or use compost.
5. Natural Biological Control: For organic growth of plants and pest control,
we use various methods and practices like using companion planting. Com-
panion planting is a method of planting different crops in close proximity to
each other to achieve specific results, such as pest control, improved growth,
and increased yield. For example, planting marigolds alongside tomatoes can
help repel pests like nematodes and hornworms.
Different insects and pests have different types of mouthparts. Depending on
the type of mouthpart they can either damage a plant or not. For example, moths
and butterflies have coiled mouthparts that are designed to suck nectar and fluids
from flowers and do not damage the plants. On the other hand, insects having
piercing or chewing mouthparts do damage the plants and can also transmit virus.
These insects are the ones which cause harm to the plants and reduce the quality of
produce.
Some types of insects and pests found in greenhouse are listed below:
1. Alphids: They are small, soft-bodied, green-colored, sap-sucking insects.
They cause distortion of plants and may spread viruses like mosaics. They
can be controlled by drenching plants with strong sprays of water from a gar-
den hose.
2. Earwigs: They chew irregular holes in leaves and flowers, damaging the
plants. They are attracted to beer, hence, one can use a beer bottle to lure
them out and then kill them using vinegar.
3. Thirps: They are tiny, slender insects with fringed wings. They cause whitish
sunken patches on the upper part of leaves. They can be controlled using
Ladybugs. Ladybugs eats them.
4. Slugs: Either handpick them or kill them by sprinkling salt on them. Also,
get rid of dead and decaying plants because slugs feed on them.
5. Spider Mites: Spider mites are tiny sucking pests found on the inside of
leaves. They grow in dry hot weather. Use water on floor. It will evaporate
and cause humidity in the air.

11 Case Studies
Nighttime Supplemental LED
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4823311

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 A study was conducted to analyze the effect of supplemental LED light in the
growth and yield of plants. For this study, tomato seeds were sown. After their
germination in growth chamber, they were transplanted in a greenhouse where the
observations began. The study was once from September to October in summer, and
once from January to March in winter. The lamp spectrum was red and blue com-
bined with a PPFD of 165 µ mol m-2 s-1 measure at 10 cm from the LED module.
Led was positioned on both sides of the aisle at a distance of 50 cm from the stem and
at a height of 40 cm from the Styrofoam pane under which the root system was estab-
lished.
The factors which were measured to quantify the
effects of the LED were internode length, stem
diameter, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf area, leaf
mass per unit area (LMA), shoot dry weight,
fresh weight of each fruit, ascorbic acid con-
tent, total soluble content and energy consump-
tion of the LED. The chlorophyll content was
measured using a spectrophotometer. The lead
area was measure using an LI-3000C portable
leaf area meter. The temperature and rela-
tive humidity were also measure in the microen-
vironment around the mid-canopy by using a
Thermo-hygro-CO2 meter. The light distribu-
tion along the plant profile was measured at each
canopy level with a quantum sensor (LI-190SA).
The photosynthetic rate was measured using a Figure 4: Nighttime Supplemen-
portable gas exchange system (LI-6400). There tal LED
were 3 different light situations for the plants for
which the experiment was conducted:

1. Control: solar light without LED inter-lighting

2. Daytime LED inter-lighting from 4:00 am to 4:00 pm

3. Nighttime LED inter-lighting from 10:00 pm to 10:00am

The results of the experiment showed that without the LED inter-lighting, light
distribution along middle and lower canopy leave were highly deteriorated. Esti-
mates indicated that only 33% and 18% of the daily light reached the middle and
lower canopy respectively, compared to the top canopy. The introduction of LED
inter-lighting significantly increased this number. This also resulted in an increased
average temperature due to both daytime and nighttime LED in both summer and
winter seasons. However, the relative humidity was significantly reduced as well
compared to the controls. It was also noted that the respiration rate was higher
for the plants exposed to daytime and nighttime LED when turned off than that
of the control group. In addition, the LED inter-lighting significantly increased the
chlorophyll content in both middle and lower canopy leaves, but not in top canopy
leaves. LED inter-lighting has no significant effect on leaf area index but a signif-
icant increase in stem diameter and LMA. Daytime LED inter-lighting increased

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the yield by 27% in winter, but had no effect in summer. However, nighttime LED
inter-lighting increased yield in both winter and summer by 24% and 12%, respec-
tively. The cost performance analysis for LED inter-lighting showed that only winter
nighttime LED lighting can effectively improve tomato yield with high cost perfor-
mance, whereas summer nighttime and winter daytime LED lightings improve yield
but the economic returns from the lighting were smaller than the running cost of
electricity (the experiment was conducted in Japan). It was concluded that daytime
LED inter-lighting to enhance light distribution to lower canopy leaves did not lead
to higher photosynthetic capacity and yield in summer. However, photosynthesis,
growth, and yield were improved during winter. On the other hand, nighttime LED
inter-lighting had a positive effect on photosynthesis, growth, and yield in both
seasons.

Energy effects by using glass with different properties

http : //uwm.edu.pl/wnt/technicalsc/tech1 74 /b04.pdf
A study was conducted to check the effects of low-emission glass on the heat
demands of a greenhouse. The so-called low emission glass is a glass with changed
optical parameters due to an additional later of strongly anti-reflection parameters.
The subject of the study was to analyze the energy effects in a greenhouse covered
with standard garden glass as well as low-emission glass. The study was conducted
for a heating season from September to May and the following differences were
observed:-

1. The amount of heat necessary in the heating season for a greenhouse covered
with the respective material is as follows: Energy demand with standard glass
– 1218.05 GJ Energy demand with low-emission glass – 1171.85 GJ

2. Assuming that the greenhouse will be heated with fine coal size grade, over
2.5 tons of fuel will be saved in each greenhouse in each heating season. This
also reduces th emission of pollutants to the atmosphere.

Little River Farm

Little River Flower Farm produces certi-
fied organic vegetables, cut flowers and pick-
your-own blueberries on 10 acres in Bux-
ton, Maine. They utilise over 16,000 square
feet of greenhouse space onsite. One of
their structures, called “Greenhouse 4,” is a
composite arch/polycarbonate glazed green-
house measuring 45 feet by 144 feet.
Greenhouse 4 was the test site for a trial
on heating efficiency using a permeable ra-
diant heated subfloor under raised beds that
are used for year-round rotations of cut flow- Figure 5: Radient root zone in green-
ers and leafy greens. The aim of the study house at the Little River Farm

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was to understand if and how winter and
shoulder season crops perform with heat delivered under their root zone, and the
costs per square foot of doing so effectively in the farm’s raised bed system.
This “hot” radiant system circulated approximately 150 to 175 degree heat
through a hydronic (water-based heat delivery) system using PEX tubing under-
neath the root zone. The heat radiated up through the root zone and topsoil of the
raised beds and into the canopy and ambient air above.

Six River Farm

Co-owner and operator Nate Drummond has in-
vented a crop canopy air duct heater for the
propane-heated houses. It utilises perforated in-
flatable ducts that remain flat on the ground
when the furnace isn’t blowing and delivers heat
direct to the canopy when the furnace is active.
The whole house is covered in a single crop blan-
ket that provides crops with a 38-degree “live-
able” temperature for cold-tolerant crops when
it is freezing outside. Thermostats are set under
the canopy and blanket. Other houses utilise
ground-mounted 125-BTU Reznor heaters. In-
stead of hanging the heater overhead, as is most Figure 6: Six River Farm’s
common, the ground mount allows heat to stay ground-mounted propane heater
longer where its most needed — under the crop with inflatable ducts
blanket.

Greenhouses in Minnesota
Norm and Mary Erickson of Hazelnut Valley Farm retired and started a hazelnut
farm in Lake City, Minnesota. Their nutty adventures into the business of growing,
harvesting, and processing the crop led them to install a solar-heated greenhouse
with many innovative features. Norm and Mary also look forward to a future where
their plentitude of hazelnuts, which are 60% oil, can be profitably converted into
biodiesel.
Beyond hazelnuts, Erickson’s highly efficient green house incorporates renewable
energy systems into the design. A unique low-temperature energy storage system is
in the earthen berm behind the greenhouse. The Erickson’s filled three hundred and
twenty 55-gallon polyethylene drums with water, and sealed and buried them in the
storage area to increase the energy storage capacity and to speed energy flows to
and from the ventilation system. In addition, a solar thermal panel collects energy
to heat potable water, with electric backup for cloudy periods. An array of solar
thermal panels east of the greenhouse heats a storage system that can be tapped for
heating a food dehydrator 24/7 and to warm the floor in the work area.

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Greenhouses in Ladakh
In Ladakh, the availability of locally grown fresh vegetables is usually restricted to
summer months given how the region is characterised by extreme variations in tem-
perature, particularly during the long and harsh winter season when temperatures
hit as low as -30°C. These long winters reduce the cropping season to barely four or
five months in a year. Other factors include low precipitation largely in the form of
heavy snowfall, high wind velocity, sparse plant density, thin atmosphere with high
volumes of UV radiation and a fragile ecosystem.
The lack of locally grown vegetables necessitates obtaining them from outside
the region through goods trucks which made them all the more costlier for the local
residents.
To address this critical concern of the Ladakhi people, researchers at the Defence
Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR) led by senior scientist Dr Tsering have
developed a new model of the Ladakh Greenhouse, a passive solar greenhouse, for
local farmers. They studied the positives and drawbacks of traditional greenhouses,
which are used extensively in Ladakh.
The first version of green house that emerged
in Ladakh was glass house setup by DIHAR in
1964. When this didn’t work due to logistics
and high costs, they conceived a low cost pas-
sive solar greenhouse in the late 1960s, where
vegetables were ground in trenches covered with
polyethylene sheets to prevent crops from getting
frozen during the long and harsh winter season.
It was designed with mud brick walls on three
sides (north, east and west), polyethylene cover Figure 7: An older version of pas-
on the south facing side and a roof on the side of sive solar greenhouse in Ladakh
the north wall. This design was popular for its
greater heat retention abilities, allowing farmers
to grow leafy vegetables during winter.
However, certain vegetables could not grow due to below freezing temperatures
at night insider the greenhouse during winter months. During summer months, there
was the issue of excessive heat generation inside the greenhouse. The polyethylene
sheet wouldn’t last more than five years because of heavy snow and other extreme
conditions. As such, the farmers would rather avoid the greenhouse than use it.
DIHAR took it upon themselves to develop an improved version of the green-
house. The new design had a few improvements making it favourable for the farmers
of Ladakh. The first new element was that the walls on the east, west and north
side were built with stone and cement, which required minimal maintenance. The
second element what that it used a transparent UV stabilised triple layer polycar-
bonate panel for covering the south face of the greenhouse. This material had better
heat retention capacity and longer life (more than 20 years) even in harsh conditions.
The greenhouse also had a Polyurethane Foam (PUF) roof which is more durable
than wooden roofs and does not allow growth of molds and fungus.
This newer version was more suitable for farming in Ladakh, keeping temperature
above freezing, even in December and January, with an extended shelf-life of upto

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25 years, allowing farmers to cultivate crops all throughout the year.

12 Future of Greenhouse
Vertical Farming
The future of greenhouse technology and food production is in vertical farming
systems. Population increases and changing diets are driving the demand for fresh,
local produce. Innovative ideas for greenhouses from countries like Canada, the
Netherlands and the United States are improving what we know of farming across
the world to meet this exponential demand.
Indoor agriculture is nothing new, and neither is vertical farming, though with
recent advances in horticulture through research, we’ve enhanced how we control
the indoor environment to produce higher yields in shorter time frames.
Vertical farming is more than utilizing space vertically to grow more in a smaller
square footage. It’s characterized by indoor controlled environments where plants
are grown year-round, in even the harshest climates. Using modern greenhouse
technology like LED lighting and heating and cooling systems, growers can increase
their yields and improve product quality and flavor.
In vertical farming operations, plants can be grown hydroponically, aeroponically
or aquaponically, reducing the need for soil substrates, which are becoming more
expensive and harder to source. Plant roots grow in nutrient rich oxygenated water;
therefore, these growing processes require large amounts of high-quality fresh water.
To mitigate this, most operations continuously circulate water through their growing
systems, filtering and purifying water during the process.
With only 2.5% of the world’s water fresh and only 1% of that available for us to
use, it’s important to look for ways we can conserve and recycle fresh water. Moleaer
has developed nanobubble generators specifically designed to improve water quality
in order to make vertical farming and other forms of agriculture and horticulture
more sustainable. This is achieved by increasing dissolved oxygen levels at the root
zone which improves plant nutrient uptake and reduces and prevents diseases, such
as Pythium or Phytophthora. Results have shown that in many cases, this has led to
decreased crop cycles and increased crop yields. Additionally, by increasing nutrient
uptake and reducing disease pressure, farmers could reduce synthetic fertilizer and
chemical use. Furthermore, nanobubbles unique properties and behavior breakup
and prevent biofilm generation in irrigation pipelines, extending the life of emitters
and reducing the use of harmful chemical agents.

Autonomous Greenhouses
Greenhouse are going to continually be autonomous and high technology. Grow-
ers may simply use thermometer and hygrometer to test temperature and humidity
manually in traditional greenhouses. Modern greenhouses are equipped with in-
telligent sensor, optimized lighting, real-time monitor and automatic alarm. Some
of them even can achieve controlling all growing factors remotely. To provide the
most suitable growing environment for plants and crops, water, temperature, soil,

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pH value, lighting, humidity and other factors are precisely adjusted by heating,
cooling, irrigating, lighting and nursery systems.
Process of operating the greenhouse is simple. Sensors collect data and help op-
erator to analysis and adjust relevant parameters to optimize growing environment,
monitoring the growing environment factors that affect the plants and crop. Intelli-
gent monitoring system transmits the parameters and data to operators. Operators
analysis and make decisions to adjust growing parameters. Then the system sends
orders to execution equipment. Thanks to intelligent sensors and monitoring system,
real-time condition of the greenhouse area can be learned through cell phones or the
Internet. The data management center can also analyze environmental parameters,
making corresponding statistical reports and trend analysis, which is displayed to
users in the form of intuitive pictures and curves. Operators can set the standard
values for every parameter. If the practical values exceed the set values, the system
will automatically turns on or off the remote monitoring function of the greenhouse.
Then the system will alarm to operators by sound and light.
After reaching specific requirements, plants or crops grow better. Certain pro-
duction and harvest are benefited due to the well controlled technique, the same as
standard quality of plants. Year-round production allows higher supply for market.
With the help of greenhouse, cultivation is less dependent on climate, making full use
of the resource available to feed more people. As we are facing climate changes and
resource shortage, greenhouses are becoming environmental friendly and economical
friendly. For example, solar and geothermal heat are widely used in greenhouse.
Water and nutrition are also re-used. When it comes to future, greenhouses are of
autonomous and high technology.

Photovoltaic glazing
Potential new photovoltaic technologies which let through the colors of light needed
by the interior plants, but use the other wavelengths to generate electricity. There
are prototypes of such greenhouses. Generally, plants required the full visible spec-
trum for their growth but it has been found that plants actually need a certain part
of that visible spectrum. Plants have two types of chlorophylls: chlorophyll A and
chlorophyll B. Chlorophyll A absorbs the light most effectively in the red (around
665-680 nm) and blue (around 430-450 nm) regions of the spectrum. Chlorophyll B
complements chlorophyll A by capturing light in the blue (around 455-470nm) and
red-orange (640-660 nm) region.

Efficient use of thermal energy

In the conventional greenhouse design- ones with ventilations, there is significant loss
of useful thermal energy that can be used in future to maintain the thermal load of
the greenhouse in the cold weather when there are high energy demands. Here comes
the concept of a closed greenhouse. The closed greenhouse is an innovative concept
in sustainable energy management. In principle, it is designed to maximize the
utilization of solar energy through the seasonal storage. In a fully closed greenhouse,
there is not any ventilation window. Therefore, the excess sensible and latent heat

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must be removed, and can be stored using seasonal and/or daily thermal storage
technology. This stored excess heat can then be utilized later in order to satisfy the
thermal load of the greenhouse.
A greenhouse can be made independent
of fossil fuels and outside climate by inte-
grating it with some kind of thermal energy
storage system. The principle behind it is
that the excess sensible and latent heat is re-
moved in a controlled way, and can be stored
using seasonal and/or daily thermal storage
technology. This stored excess heat can then
be utilized to meet the thermal demand of
the greenhouse.
As shown, in the heating mode (Fig.
8(a)) the greenhouse will be heated using a
heat pump. Warm water is extracted from
the TES and delivers low temperature heat
to the heat pump while being cooled. There- Figure 8: Heating system in green-
after, the cooled water is returned to the house using heat pump
TES-system and thus charges the cold side
of the TES. The heat pump uses the deliv-
ered heat to heat up the water which will charge the short-term buffer storage used
to level out the daily/hourly load in the closed greenhouse. In the cooling mode
(Fig. 8(b)), cold water from the cold TES is pumped directly into the greenhouse
and removes heat via a heat exchanger system. Then, the warm water is brought to
the warm TES to charge it for the winter.
In general, a thermal storage system is designed based on the heating and cooling
load for each specific case. Therefore, the choice of TES is quite dependent on the
greenhouse conditions and horticultural application since different kind of plants
need different climate conditions, and heating and cooling demands vary in each
case

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