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Communication Systems (Digital Communication)
Communication Systems (Digital Communication)
Woldia University
Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1
Course objective
1. Present the mathematical basis and theory of signals and
systems that help describe and understand digital
communication techniques and equipment
2. Apply such concepts and ideas to information
transmission links which must be made robust in the
presence of noise and other impairments and perform at
rates that are as high as possible
3. Show how such transmission links are used in fixed and
mobile data communication systems for voice and video
transmissions
2
Basic elements of digital communication system
3
Introduction
The figure illustrates a functional block diagram of a typical
digital communication system showing the key components
of the system
We will briefly review and discuss the functions of these key
elements of the communication system
Source output
The output from an information source could be
Analog signal such as voice or video signal or
Digital signal that is discrete in time and having a finite number
of characters
Messages from the source are converted into a sequence of binary
digits
Ideally, the source message should be represented by as few as
possible binary digits
4
Cont. …
Source encoding
The process of efficiently converting source outputs into
a sequence of binary digits, called information sequence
The representation of the source output in binary form
should have as little or no redundancy (data
compression)
Channel encoding
Introduce, in a controlled manner, some redundancy in
the binary information sequence
The redundancy can be used at the receiver to overcome
the effects of noise and other interferences on the
transmission channel
Trivial example: Repeat each binary digit n times
5
Cont. …
Non-trivial example: Taking k information bits at a time and
mapping each k-bit sequence into a unique n-bit sequence,
called the codeword
(𝑛 > 𝑘) measure of redundancy is the ratio k/n ( or n/k), called the
code rate
Digital Modulator
This is an interface between the channel encoder and the
communication channel
It maps the coded information sequence into signal waveforms that
can be transmitted over the channel
Consider the coded sequence is to be transmitted one bit at a time
at some uniform rate R bits/s
The modulator may simply map the binary digits as follows
6
Cont. …
This is an example of binary modulation in which each bit
from the encoder is transmitted separately
Called binary phase-shift keying – BPSK
Alternatively, modulator may transmit 𝑛 coded information
bits at a time using distinct waveforms 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡), 𝑖 = 0,1, … 𝑀 − 1 ,
𝑀 = 2 𝑛 called M-ary modulation
Note here that a new 𝑛 -bit coded sequence enters the
𝑛
modulator every seconds
𝑅
If the channel bit rate is fixed at 𝑅 , the amount of time
available to transmit one of the 𝑀 waveforms
(corresponding to the 𝑛 -bit sequence) is 𝑛 times the time
period in a system that uses binary modulation
7
Cont. …
Communication Channel: Physical medium that is used
to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver
Examples include
Wireless transmission- the atmosphere or free space
Wireline, optical fiber, coaxial cables
Storage channels: Information storage and retrieval
devices-magnetic tapes, compact discs, etc
Transmitted signals are corrupted, in a random manner,
by a variety of additive noise such as thermal noise,
atmospheric noise, man made noise, etc and also
attenuation and fading in amplitude and phase
8
Cont. …
Channels can be modeled in a variety of ways that take
into account the particular properties of the channel
Examples are additive noise channel, linear filter channel, etc
Digital demodulator: The demodulator processes the
channel-corrupted transmitted waveforms and reduces
them to a sequence of numbers (digits) that represent
estimates of the transmitted coded data symbols ( binary
or M-ary)
The channel decoder: attempts to reconstruct the original
information sequence from the knowledge of the code
used and the redundancy contained in the received data
estimate
9
Cont. …
A measure of how accurately the demodulator and decoder
recover the original sequence is the average probability of
bit-error at the output of the decoder for a given power level
(signal-to-noise-ratio)
The probability of error is in general a function of
Code characteristics
Type of waveforms used
Transmitter power
Channel characteristics and
Method of demodulation and decoding
We will explore most of these factors that affect the
reliability of digital communication
10
Advantages of digital communication systems
Advantages of digital communication over its analog
counterpart
Greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments
Perform well in multipath and fading conditions
Allow signal conditioning and processing techniques
Error-control codes: Detect and/or correct transmission
errors
Equalization: to improve the performance of the overall link
Source coding
Encryption: greater security
Easier signal generation and processing
11
Major factors for the growth of digital communication
1. Impact of the Computer: Computers are processors and
sources of data as well as tools for communication
2. Digital communication offers flexibility and compatibility:
The adoption of a common digital format makes it
possible for a transmission system to handle many
different sources of information in a flexible manner
3. Improved reliability due to improved theory,
microelectronics and system design
4. Availability of wide-band channels such as optical fibers,
coaxial cables and geo-stationary satellites
5. Availability of integrated solid-state electronics
technology makes possible increased system complexity
by orders of magnitude in a cost effective manner
12
Major factors for the growth of digital communication systems
13
Overview
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
Basics of digital modulation
Types of digital modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques
2
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
Topics to be covered
3
Discussions
What is modulation?
What are the benefits of modulation?
What are the types modulation?
4
Modulation & demodulation
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a
message source in a manner suitable for transmission
It maps the coded information sequence into signal waveforms
that can be transmitted over the channel
It could be done by varying either amplitude, phase,
frequency,(combination forms) of a carrier signal in
accordance with the message signal.
It translates base-band message signal to band-pass signal
Analogue and digital modulation
Demodulation: Process of extracting the baseband message
Coherent or non-coherent
5
Cont. …
6
Some benefits of modulation
Reduction of antenna height
𝜆 𝑐
The size of antenna is ~ = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜆 is wave length of the RF wave.
4 4𝑓
3 KHz 25 Km antenna
3 GHz 2.5 cm antenna
Avoids mixing of signals – translate signals to different EM spectrum
Increase the range of communication
Similar to throwing a paper by wrapping it around a stone
Allows multiplexing
Simultaneous transmission of several baseband signals over similar channel
Bandwidth efficiency
Effective use of limited frequency resources
Improves quality of reception
7
Overview
Basics of digital modulation
Advantages of digital modulations
Bit rate and Baud rate
Performance measures
Geometric representation and constellation diagrams
Types of digital modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation techniques
8
Analog vs Digital modulation
Advantages of digital modulation over its analog counterpart
Greater noise immunity and robustness to channel
impairments
Perform well in multipath and fading conditions
• Allow signal conditioning and processing techniques
Error-control codes: Detect and/or correct transmission
errors
Equalization: to improve the performance of the overall link
Source coding
Encryption: greater security
• Possible to be implemented completely in software
• Easier signal generation and processing
9
Bit rate and Baud rate
Bit rate: is the number of bits (data) that can be carried per
second
Baud rate: is the number of signal units (or symbols) per
second used for carrying the bits (and achieve the Bit Rate).
Baud rate can be less than or equal to the bit rate
• Note that each symbol can carry one or more bits
• Baud Rate = Bit rate / Number of bits per symbol
The number of bits that can be carried by one symbol,
depends on the modulation technique used.
• Example: A modulated signal has a bit rate of 8000bps and
a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many bits are carried by each
signal element?
Bits/Baud = 8000/1000 = 8
10
Performance measures
Two key performance measures of a modulation scheme are;
Power efficiency: Describes the ability of a modulation
technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low
power levels
Fidelity: an acceptable bit error probability
Often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit (𝐸𝑏 ) to
the noise PSD ( 𝑁0 ) required to achieve a given probability of
error (say 10−5 ):
12
Geometric representation
Digital modulation involves choosing a particular analog signal
waveform si (t) from a finite set of S possible signal waveforms
based on the information bits applied to the modulator.
For binary modulation schemes, a binary information bit is
mapped directly to a signal and S contains only 2 signals,
representing 0 and 1.
For M-ary modulations, S contains more than 2 signals and
each represents more than a single bit of information. With a
signal set of size M, it is possible to transmit up to log 2 𝑀 bits
per signal.
Any element of set S, 𝑆 = {s 1 t , s 2 (t), … , sM (t)} , can be
represented as a point in a vector space whose coordinates
are basis signals ∅j 𝑡 , 𝑗 =1,2,…,N, such that N ≤ 𝑀 and
13
Cont. …
∞
∅𝑖 𝑡 ∅j 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗; (Orthogonal)
−∞
∞
2
∅ i𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1, (𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑)
−∞
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 can be represented as a linear combination of the
basis signals
𝑁
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠 i𝑗 ∅j 𝑡 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑗=0
Where,
𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 ∅ 𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
14
Cont. …
15
Constellation diagram
A graphical representation of the complex envelope of each
possible signal
The 𝑥 −axis represents the in-phase component and the y-axis
represents the quadrature component of the complex envelope
The distance between signals on a constellation diagram
relates to how different the modulation waveforms are and how
well a receiver can differentiate between them when random
noise is present.
Examples
16
Types of digital modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques can be classified in to the
following broad categories
20
Overview
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
Types of digital modulation techniques
Binary modulation techniques
M-ary modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques
21
Binary modulation
In binary modulation, the modulator produces one of two
distinct signals in response to one bit of source data at a time.
• In all cases,
One bit is sent per symbol
Baud rate = Bit rate
22
Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Amplitude of a carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or
0, while both frequency & phase remain constant
Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero
23
Cont. …
ASK modulation wave form example
24
Binary Frequency Shift keying (BFSK)
Frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
while amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit
interval
25
Cont. ..
Signal space representation and decision regions
26
Cont. …
FSK modulation waveform example
27
Binary Phase shift Keying- (BPSK)
Phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
while amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit interval
28
Cont. …
• A BPSK system is characterized by a signal space that is one-
dimensional (i.e. N=1), and has two message points (i.e. M =2)
• Signal space representation and decision regions are;
30
Overview
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
Types of digital modulation techniques
Binary modulation techniques
M-ary modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
Mitigation techniques
31
M-ary modulation
In binary modulation, we send only one of two possible
signals during each bit interval 𝑇𝑏
In M-ary modulation, we can send one of 𝑀 possible signals
during each signaling interval 𝑇
In almost all applications, 𝑀 = 2𝑛 and 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑇 𝑏 , where 𝑛 is
an integer
Each of the M signals is called a symbol
These signals are generated by changing the amplitude,
phase, frequency, or combined forms of a carrier in 𝑀
discrete steps.
Thus, we have:
32
M-ASK
Amplitude of a carrier takes M different values
For example, if M = 4, the ASK refers to four different
Amplitudes in which the carrier is sent.
As 4 states are possible, two bits can be encoded per symbol
In general, if number of possible states 𝑀 > 2 , each symbol
can carry log 2 𝑀 bits.
𝑀 = 4, log 2 4 = 2 → 2 bits symbol
𝐴1 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴1 = 0: 00
𝐴2 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴2 = 1: 01
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐴3 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴3 = 2: 10
𝐴4 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴4 = 3: 11
33
Cont. …
Constellation plots of M-ASK
34
M-FSK
• The frequency of the carrier takes on M possible values:
• In M-ary FSK modulation, the transmitted signals are defined
by
2𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
Where 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 2𝑇𝑐 , for some fixed integer 𝑛𝑐 .
• The following diagram shows an example of 4-FSK waveform
35
Cont.…
The M transmitted signal frequencies are separated by 𝟏 𝟐𝑻 𝒔 ,
making the signals orthogonal to one another.
The average probability of error is given by
𝐸𝑠
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 𝑀 − 1 𝑄 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑁0
𝑀−1 −𝐸𝑠
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 𝑁0
The channel bandwidth of M-FSK signal can be defined as
𝑅𝑏 (𝑀 + 3)
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 log2 𝑀
𝑅𝑏 𝑀
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 log2 𝑀
36
M-PSK
The phase of the carrier takes on M possible values, namely,
𝜃𝑖 = 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀, where 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
The modulated waveform can be expressed as
2𝐸𝑠
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑠≤ 𝑇 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑇𝑠
Where 𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸𝑏 log 2 𝑀 and 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑏 log 2 𝑀
In quadrature form this equation can be written as;
2𝐸𝑠
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 cos 2𝜋𝑓
𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑇𝑠
2𝐸𝑠
sin 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 sin 2𝜋𝑓 𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑠
37
Cont. …
2
By choosing orthogonal basis functions Φ1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑠
2
and Φ2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , defined over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 𝑠 , the M-ary
𝑇𝑠
PSK signal can be expressed as;
𝑆𝑀−𝑃𝑆𝐾 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠 cos 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 Φ1 𝑡 − 𝐸 𝑠 sin 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋𝑀 Φ2 𝑡
Average symbol error probability M-Ary PSK:
2𝐸 𝑏 log 2 𝑀 𝜋
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 2𝑄 𝑁0
sin 𝑀
38
Cont. …
For the case of QPSK (4-PSK)
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑1 𝜑1 = 0 0 𝜑1 = 45 0 00
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑2 𝜑1 = 90 0 𝑂𝑟 𝜑1 = 135 0 01
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑3 𝜑3 = 180 0 𝜑3 = 225 0 10
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑4 𝜑4 = 270 0 𝜑4 = 315 0 11
Constellation plots of M-ary PSK
41
QAM Constellation examples
42
Selection of modulation systems
43
Cont. ..
In the design of a digital communication system, there is
always a trade off between bandwidth efficiency and power
efficiency
Example:
Adding error coding to a message,
• Decreases bandwidth efficiency, but reduces the
required power for a particular bit error rate
On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes
(M-ary keying)
• increases our bandwidth efficiency , but increase the
required received power
Cost and implementation complexity
Robustness to channel impairments
44
Bandwidth and power efficiency comparisons
45
Overview
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
Types of digital modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques
46
Noise in digital modulation systems
Noise is any unwanted signal that tend to disturb the transmission and
processing of signals in communication systems and over which we have
incomplete control.
External sources: e.g., atmospheric, galactic noise, man-made-
interferences;
Internal sources: generated by communication devices themselves.
This type of noise represents a basic limitation on the performance of
electronic communication systems.
Shot noise: arises in electronic devices such as diodes and transistors
because of the discrete nature of current flow in these devices.
Thermal noise: caused by the rapid and random motion of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
47
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
The additive noise
n(t) models all types of noise
zero mean
White noise
Its power spectrum density (PSD) is constant over all frequencies, i.e.,
Factor 1/2 is included to indicate that half the power is associated with
positive frequencies and half with negative.
The term white is analogous to white light which contains equal
amounts of all frequencies (within the visible band of EM wave).
Gaussian noise
• Represented in Gaussian random variable with zero mean and
variance of 𝜎𝑛 .
48
Performances of modulation techniques in AWGN channel
49
Performances of modulation techniques in AWGN channel
50
Cont. …
PSK: symbol error probability
51
Cont. …
QAM: symbol error probability
52
Cont. …
FSK: symbol error probability
53
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo - noise sequence
Basic spread spectrum techniques
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
2
Introduction to spread spectrum
Spread spectrum is a modulation method that increases the
transmitted signal bandwidth to a value much larger than the
needed to transmit the underlying information bits.
The following three properties are needed for a signal to be
spread-spectrum modulated
1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much larger than the
needed for the information signal
2. The spread-spectrum modulation is done using a spreading
code, which is independent of the data in the signal
3. Dispreading at the receiver is done by correlating the
received signal with a synchronized copy of the spreading
code
3
Cont. …
4
Advantage and dis-advantages of spread spectrum
What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?
Resists intentional and non-intentional interference
Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
Several users can independently use the same higher
bandwidth with very little interference
Privacy due to the pseudo random code sequence (code
division multiplexing)
Disadvantages
Bandwidth inefficient
Implementation is somewhat more complex
5
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo - noise sequence
Basic spread spectrum technique
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
6
Pseudo-Noise Sequence
Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence
with noise like waveform
It is usually generated by a means of shift register whose
block diagram is shown as:
7
Cont. …
If 𝑠𝑗 𝑘 denote the state of 𝑗𝑡ℎ flip-flop after the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ clock
pulse, then from definition of shift register it follows;
𝑘≥0
𝑠𝑗 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑠 𝑗−1 𝑘 ,
1≤𝑗≤𝑚
Where 𝑠0 𝑘 is the input applied to the first flip-flop after 𝑘 𝑡ℎ
clock pulse and for the initial state 𝑘 is zero
This 𝑠0 𝑘 is a Boolean function of each individual states.
A feedback shift register is said to be linear when the
feedback logic consists of modulo-2 adders.
In such a case, a zero state (all flip-flops are in 0 state) is not
permitted
As a result the period on such PN can’t exceed 2𝑚 − 1
8
Cont. …
When the period is exactly 2𝑚 − 1, the PN sequence is called
a maximal length sequence or simply 𝑚-sequence
Example: for a linear feedback shift register shown below,
compute the output PN sequence. It’s assumed that the intial
state of the shift register is 100.
ANS: 00111010 …
If the binary symbols 1 and 0 are denoted by levels +1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −
1 respectively, the subsequent waveform can be given as;
9
Choosing a maximal length sequence
10
Example
Compute 2-different maximal length sequences using 5 linear
shifted registers
11
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo - noise sequence
Basic concepts of spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Signal-Space Dimensionality and processing gain
Probability of Error
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
12
Basic spread spectrum Techniques
A narrowband signal is spread to a wideband signal
One method of widening the bandwidth of a data sequence is
involves the use of modulation
Let 𝑏𝑘 denote a binary data sequence, and 𝑐𝑘 denote a PN
sequence,
Let 𝑏(𝑡) and 𝑐(𝑡) denote their respective polar non-return to
zero representations in terms of levels ±1
The desired modulation is achieved by applying the data
signal 𝑏(𝑡) and the PN signal 𝑐(𝑡) to a product modulator as;
13
Cont. …
The received signal 𝑟(𝑡) consists of the transmitted signal 𝑚(𝑡)
an additive interference denoted by 𝑖(𝑡) , as shown in the
channel model
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡)
To recover the original message signal 𝑏(𝑡) , the received
signal 𝑟(𝑡) is applied to a demodulator that consists of a
multiplier followed by an integrator, and decision device
14
Cont. …
The above equation shows that the data signal 𝑏(𝑡) is
multiplied twice by the PN signal 𝑐(𝑡), whereas the unwanted
interference 𝑖(𝑡) is multiplied only once.
Note that c(t) alternates between +1 and -1, and the
alternation is destroyed when it is squared; hence,
𝑐 2 𝑡 = 1 for all 𝑡
Accordingly, we may simplify the expression of 𝑧(𝑡) as;
𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
Here 𝑏(𝑡) is narrowband signal while 𝑐 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 is wideband
If we use a low pass filter with a bandwidth just large enough
to accommodate the data signal 𝑏(𝑡), spurious component of
𝑐 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 could be filtered-out.
Finally a decision will be made by the decision device
15
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo – noise sequence
Basic concepts of spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
16
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
The technique presented in the previous section is known as
direct sequence spread spectrum in the context of baseband
transmission
To use this technique in the passband, we may add BPSK into
the transmitter and receiver, as shown
17
Cont. …
In the receiver, the received signal 𝑦(𝑡) is first multiplied by the
PN signal 𝑐(𝑡) yielding an output that equals the coherent
detector input 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗(𝑡)
This equation shows that the coherent detector input 𝑢(𝑡)
consists of a BPSK signal 𝑠(𝑡) embedded in additive code-
modulated interference denoted by 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗 𝑡
The PN code in the receiver spreads the spectrum of the
interference signal (jammer) such that the detection of data
bits can be performed with increased reliability
Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal
18
Cont. …
One technique combines digital information stream with the
spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR
DSSS can also be elegantly written as pointwise product of
vectors when using ±1 instead of 0/1
If we assign: “1” = -1, “0” = +1
Example: Sender A sends 𝐴𝑑 = 1 , and used a chipping
sequence Ac = 010011. Compute transmitted signal 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑑 ∗
𝐴𝑐 (pointwise product).
Rewrite, only one value per chip is shown
𝐴𝑑 = −1, −1, −1, −1, −1, −1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
The transmitted signal becomes;
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑑 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1, −1, −1, −1, −1, −1 ∗ +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑠 = −1, +1, −1, −1, +1, +1
19
Example 2: DSSS Transmission on signal Level
20
DSSS- Receiver
Converting spreaded chip sequence back to bits
Receiver
Needs to know sender’s key 𝐴𝑐 , symbol duration T
Has received sequence 𝐴𝑅 from A, in perfect phase
synchronization
Computes a scalar product
𝑇
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴 𝑐 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑡 . 𝐴 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Example:
𝐴𝑅 = −1, +1, −1, −1, +1, +1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 =−6
How to use 𝐴𝑒 to decide which bit 𝐴𝑑 has been transmitted?
𝐴𝑒 = −6 < 0 , hence level -1 (symbol: “1” ) was transmitted
21
Cont. …
If some levels are flipped because of noise/interference
Example:
𝐴𝑅 = −1, +1, +1, −1, −1, +1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1 + −1 + +1 + −1 + +1 + −1
= −2 > −6
Decision rule:
Decide for a 0 if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 > 0;
Decide for a 1 if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 < 0;
Decide randomly if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = 0
22
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo - noise sequence
Basic concepts of spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
23
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
In this technique, the carrier frequency hops randomly from
one frequency to another
Sequence of frequency changes determined by PN number sequence
M-FSK is a commonly used modulation format and the technique is
referred to as FH/MFSK
Additional “hopping” increases the required bandwidth
It has two versions
Slow Hopping: several user bits per hop
Fast hopping: several frequency hops per user bit
Advantages
Fading and interference limited to short period
Uses only small portion of a spectrum at any time
Disadvantage
Not as robust as direct sequence spread spectrum
24
Cont. …
25
Cont. …
26
Overview
Introduction to spread spectrum
Pseudo - noise sequence
Basic concepts of spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Frequency hopped spread spectrum
Slow Frequency Hopping
Fast Frequency Hopping
27
Slow Frequency Hopping
A slow FH/MFSK signal is characterized by having multiple
symbols transmitted per hop
Hence, each symbol of a slow FH/MFSK signal is a chip
The bit rat 𝑅𝑏 of the incoming binary data, the symbol rate 𝑅𝑠
of the MFSK signal, the chip rate 𝑅𝑐 , and hope rate 𝑅ℎ are
related by
𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑠 = ≥ 𝑅 ℎ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = log 2 𝑀
𝐾
At each hop, the MFSK tones are separated in frequency by
an integer multiple of the chip rate 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑠 , ensuring their
orthogonality.
Assuming that the jammer decides to spread its average
power J over the entire frequency-hopped spectrum, the
jammer’s effect is equivalent to an AWGN with power spectral
28
Cont. …
Density 𝑁𝑜/2 , where 𝑁𝑜 = 𝐽 𝑊𝑐 and 𝑊𝑐 is the FH bandwidth
The spread spectrum system is thus characterized by the
symbol energy-to-noise spectral density ratio:
𝐸 𝑃𝐽
=
𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑠 𝑊𝑐
Where the ratio 𝑃 𝐽 is the reciprocal of the jamming margin
and the reciprocal of the denominator (𝑊𝑐 𝑅𝑠 ) is the
processing gain of the slow FH/MFSK which is defined as:
𝑊𝑐
𝑃𝐺 = = 2𝑘
𝑅𝑠
This gain expressed in dB is equal to 10 log10 2𝑘 ≅ 3𝑘, where
𝑘 is the length of the PN segment employed to select a
frequency hop
29
Fast Frequency Hopping
A fast FH/MFSK system differs from a slow FH/MFSK in that there are
multiple hops per M-ary symbol.
Hence, in fast FH/MFSK system, each hop is a chip.
In general, fast FH is used to defeat a smart jammer’s tactic that involves
two functions
Measurements of the spectral content of the transmitted signal
Retuning of the interfering signal to that portion of the frequency band
Hence, the transmitted signal should be hopped quickly before the jammer
completes processing of these functions
For data recovery, non-coherent detection can be used in two procedures;
For each FH/MFSK symbol, separate decisions are made on the 𝑘
frequency-hop chips received, and a simple rule based on majority vote
is used to estimate the dehopped signal
For each FH/MFSK symbol, likelihood functions are computed as
functions of the total signal received over k-chips, and the largest one is
selected
30
Examples: Fast and Slow FH/MFSK
1. A slow FH/MFSK system has the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol= 4
Number of MFSK symbols per hop= 5
Calculate the processing gain of the system.
2. A fast FH/MFSK system has the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol= 4
Number of hops per MFSK symbols = 4
Calculate the processing gain of the system.
31
Introduction to OFDM Communication
1
Overview
Overview of multipath channel
OFDM overview
Block diagram of OFDM communication Systems
Cyclic prefix (CP) of OFDM
Detection of OFDM signals
Summary
2
Overview of Multipath Channel
Delayed wave causes interference
3
Classification of small-scale fading channels
4
OFDM overview
As the data rate increases in a multipath environment, the
interference goes from flat fading to frequency selective
This results in a heavy degradation
Most popular solution to compensate for ISI are:
Channel equalizers
As we move to higher data rates (i.e.> 1 Mbps);
Equalizer complexity grows to a level of complexity
where the channel changes before compensations
can be done!
Alternate solution:
Multi-carrier Modulation (MCM) where channel is
broken up into sub-bands such that the fading over
each sub-channel becomes flat thus eliminating the
problem of ISI
5
Cont. …
Single carrier (SC) vs. multi-carrier (MC)
FDMA OFDM
6
Cont. …
7
Cont. …
OFDM
Abbreviation: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
The basic principle of OFDM is to split a high-rate data stream
into a number of lower rate streams that are transmitted
simultaneously over a number of sub-carriers.
It alleviates the problem of multi-path channel fading effect, and low
spectrum efficiency
8
Cont. …
Bandwidth efficiency of OFDM systems compared to FDM
9
Block diagram of an OFDM communication system
10
Cont. …
An OFDM system transmitter
11
Cont. …
The transmission rate on each subcarrier is given by
1 1 𝑅𝑠
𝑅= . =
𝑁 𝑇𝑠 𝑁
An OFDM is a multi-carrier system for which each carrier is
orthogonal to other carriers, i.e.,
1 𝑇 𝑗2𝜋 𝑓 −𝑓 𝑡 1, 𝑗=𝑘
𝑒 𝑗 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 0, 𝑗≠𝑘
In this case the carriers are minimally separated with
1
∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖+1 − 𝑓𝑖 =
𝑇
Taking the Fourier transform of 𝑥(𝑡) we get
𝑛+1 𝑇 𝑁−1
1
𝑋 𝑓, 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑛 𝑠𝑘 (𝑛) sinc(𝑓𝑇 − 𝑘)
𝑇 𝑛𝑇 𝑘=0
12
Cont. …
13
Cyclic Prefix (CP) of OFDM
In multipath channel, delayed replicas of previous OFDM
signal lead to ISI between successive OFDM signals.
14
Cont. …
One of the most important reasons to do OFDM is the
efficient way it deals with multipath delay spread.
To eliminate inter-symbol interference (ISI) almost
completely, a guard time is introduced for each OFDM
symbol.
The guard time is chosen larger than the delay spread
Inserting CP has its own cost, indeed we loose a part of
signal energy since it carries no information.
The loss is measured as
𝑇𝐶𝑃
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠_𝐶𝑃 = −10 log10 1 −
𝑇𝑠
The fact that we get zero ICI and ISI situation pay off the loss.
15
Detection of OFDM Signals
Detection of OFDM signals is achieved using N correlators,
each centered around a different subcarrier frequency
16
Summary
The advantage of the FFT-based OFDM system :
The use of IFFT/FFT can reduce the computational complexity.
The orthogonality between the adjacent sub-carriers will make
the use of transmission bandwidth more efficient.
The guard interval is used to resist the inter-symbol interference (ISI).
The main advantage of the OFDM transmission technique is its
high performance even in frequency selective channels.
The drawbacks of the OFDM system :
It is highly vulnerable to synchronization errors.
Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) problems, amplifiers with large
linear range needed
OFDM is used in many applications like;
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video broadcasting (DVB),
IEEE 802.11b Wireless LAN systems, DSL modems, LTE; etc.
18
Introduction to MIMO Communication
1
Overview
Trends of wireless communication
Limitations due to multipath propagation
Introduction to MIMO communication
Introduction to spatial diversity
Introduction to spatial multiplexing
Practical applications of MIMO
MIMO system model
2
Trends of Wireless Communication
3
Limitations due to Multipath Propagation/ISI
Delayed wave causes interference
4
Cont. …
Future wireless applications create insatiability
Demand for high data rate and high link quality
wireless access
Spectrum has become a scares and expensive resource
Bandwidth is very limited
Regulation, device and system capacity concerns
Transmit power in limited
Time and frequency domain processing are at limits, but
space is not
MIMO
5
Introduction to MIMO communication
Abbreviation: MIMO = Multiple Input Multiple Output
Definition: it refers to a collection of signal processing
techniques developed to enhance the performance of
wireless communication systems using multiple antennas at
the transmitter, receiver, or both.
MIMO techniques improve communications performance by;
combating
exploiting multipath
MIMO techniques in the first category combat multipath by
creating what is called spatial diversity, and those
techniques that exploit multipath do so by performing spatial
multiplexing.
These two concepts are subjects of MIMO communications
6
Cont. …
These two popular techniques can be represented as;
7
Cont. …
MIMO systems with 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas and 𝑁𝑟 receive
antennas are referred to as 𝑁𝑡 × 𝑁𝑟 MIMO systems.
Relationships of key MIMO concepts
MIMO techniques Purpose Approach Method
Spatial diversity Improve reliability Combat fading Space-time coding
Spatial multiplexing Increase data rate Exploit fading Spatial multiplexing
MIMO channel capacity
Multipath propagation has long been regarded as an
“impairment” because it causes signal fading
To mitigate this problem, diversity techniques were developed
Antenna diversity is a widespread form of diversity
Recent researches have also shown that multipath
propagation can in fact “contribute” to capacity
8
Shannon Bound for MIMO Systems
SISO (Single Input Single Output)
Information-theoretic capacity of a single antenna link is
limited by the link’s SNR according to Shannon’s formula
9
Cont. …
10
Cont. …
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
Provides diversity at both TX and RX ends
Linear growth of capacity with no. of antennas
11
Cont. …
12
Spatial Diversity
Fading significantly degrades communication performance
To reduce its impact, the concept of diversity is often used
Diversity refers to transmitting replicas of the same signal over
a fading channel in such a way that each replica fades
independently of the others
Reducing the impact of fading through diversity involves two
steps:
creating independent replicas of the signal; and
combining the replicas
Ways to generate replicas of a signal for diversity purposes
Frequency diversity
Time diversity
Spatial diversity
Polarization diversity
13
Cont. …
14
Cont. …
A MIMO system block diagram for spatial diversity
15
Spatial Multiplexing
Refers to transmitting multiple data streams over a multipath
channel by exploiting multipath
By so doing, multiple data channels are able to be transmitted
simultaneously over the same frequency band
This enables potentially large numbers of bits per second to
be transmitted per Hertz of spectrum
In SM, multiple signals are assigned to different spatial
channels instead of time or frequency slots, so the signals are
transmitted at the same time over the same bandwidth
SM does not suffer from bandwidth expansion the way that
TDM and FDM do
16
Cont. …
A MIMO system for spatial multiplexing
17
Example
18
Practical applications of MIMO
The following table lists prominent commercial standards that
support MIMO and the maximum antenna configuration that
each system supports
19
MIMO System Model
By MIMO system model, we mean a mathematical description
of the relationship between the transmitted and received
signals
We start by defining the following parameters:
ℎ𝑖𝑗 = channel response between the 𝑗𝑡ℎ transmit antenna and
𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
𝑟𝑖 = received signal at the 𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
𝑠𝑗 = symbol transmitted from 𝑗𝑡ℎ transmit antenna
𝑛𝑖 = noise signal at the 𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
It follows
𝑁𝑡
𝑟𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑗 + 𝑛𝑖 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑟
𝑗=1
20
Cont. …
In matrix form,
𝐫 = 𝐇𝐬 + 𝐧
Where,
𝑇
𝐬 ≜ 𝑠1 , … , 𝑠𝑁𝑡 ,
𝑇
𝒏 ≜ 𝑛1 , … , 𝑛𝑁𝑡 ,
𝑇
𝐫 ≜ 𝑟1 , … , 𝑟𝑁𝑡 , and
ℎ11 … ℎ1𝑁𝑡
𝐇≜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
ℎ𝑁𝑟 1 … ℎ𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑡
21