Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Microwave Devices and Circuits
Microwave Devices and Circuits
Microwave Devices and Circuits
Introduction to
1
2
3
4
5
❖
Microwave frequencies
Microwave : Frequencies used for those whose wave length is measured
in centimeters ~ 30cm to 1mm
❖ Microwave really indicates that the wavelength in Micron region.
Microwave refer to those from 1GHz to 300GHz.
❖ Frequencies above 40 GHz are referred to as millimeter (mm) waves and
those above 300 GHz are in the submillimeter ban.
6
Cont.…
7
❖ Microwave Engineering : a field of engineering which involves
the design of microwave circuits, components, and devices.
❖ Microwave Engineering : includes the solutions of
electromagnetic wave theory(such as the wave solutions)
in the field of :
✓ Transmission lines and wave guide ckt analysis
✓ Microwave resonators
✓ Microwave amplifiers , filters , Oscillators & Mixers.
✓ Antennas & Microwave Propagations etc
8
➢ The frequency classification of radio signals are as follows
Frequency Band Description
300Hz-3KHz Voice frequency
3KHz-30KHz VLF(Very Low frequency), Navigation(SONAR)
9
➢Microwave frequency bands.
Origin of Names:
➢ L – Long Wave
➢ S – Short Wave
➢ C – Compromise
➢ X - Cross
➢ Ku – Kurz-under
➢ K – Kurz
➢ Ka – Kurz-above
➢ V - Very
10
ISU – International Systems of Units proposed MKS units for
Microwaves as below
11
12
13
THE MICROWAVE SYSTEM
❖ Mainly consists of two subsystems.
➢ Transmitter Subsystem : Oscillator, wave guide, Transmitting
antenna
➢ Receiver Subsystem : Receiving antenna, wave guide, microwave
amplifier & receiver.
23
Advantages of Microwave
❖ Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is
transmitted.
❖ More antenna gain is possible.
❖ Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is
more.
❖ Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
❖ Low power consumption as the signals are of higher
frequencies.
❖ Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight
propagation.
❖ Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
❖ Satellite and terrestrial communications with high
capacities are possible.
24
Disadvantages of Microwaves
❖ Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
❖ They are hefty and occupy more space.
❖ Electromagnetic interference may occur.
❖ Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may
occur.
❖ Inherent inefficiency of electric power.
25
Applications of Microwaves
❖ Telecommunication
➢ Space communication (earth to space and space to earth)
➢ Intercontinental telephone and TV
➢ Telemetry communication link for railways.
❖ Industrial Application
➢ Food processing industries
➢ Microwave oven
➢ Plastic industries, chemical industries, rubber industries
❖ Medical Application
➢ Deep EM heating for treating cancer
➢ Monitoring heart beat & detecting lung water
26
Cont.…
❖ Defence
➢ Radars: to track and guide missiles, detect aircrafts & other
flying objects, calculate distance of objects & to know the
speed of
• moving objects……
❖ Miscellaneous
➢ In air traffic control (ATC)
➢ Police speed detectors
➢ Garage door openers
➢ Burglar alarm
➢ In mining works, Tunneling, breaking & boring works of rocks,
concrete etc
➢ Observing and analyzing weather patterns
➢ In creating microwave devices 27
Chapter 1: Review of principle and Analysis of
Wave Guide
Outline
❖ Introduction
❖ Wave Guide Principles and Analysis
❖ Types and Mode Classification
2
Principles and Analysis of Waveguides
❖ waveguide is used to transfer electromagnetic energy from one end
to the other end.
❖ A Hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner
walls of the tube is called waveguide
❖ Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of
equipment or over longer distances to carry transmitter power to an
antenna or microwave signals from an antenna to a receiver.
❖ Waveguides are practical only for signals of extremely high frequency,
where the wavelength approaches the cross-sectional dimensions of the
waveguide.
❖ Below such frequencies, waveguides are useless as electrical
transmission lines.
3
Cont.…
❖Waveguides can propagate signals above a certain frequency,
known as the cut-off frequency
❖ Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals
❖This is obviously an important parameter, and one of the
most basic specifications for its operation.
❖Why waveguides are plated with silver
❖Answer to reduce resistance and transmission losses
4
Cont.…
❖The angles of incidence and reflection depend on the
operating frequency.
❖At high frequencies, the angle is large and the path between the
opposite walls is relatively long.
❖As the operating frequency decreases, the angle also decreases
and the path between the sides shortens.
❖When the operating frequency reaches the cutoff frequency of
the waveguide, the signal bounces back and forth between the
sidewalls of the waveguide which means no energy is
propagated.
5
Cont.…
Figure 1:Wave paths in a waveguide at various frequencies
6
Uses of waveguide
❖ To reduce attenuation loss
✓ High frequencies
✓High power
❖ Can operate only above certain frequencies
✓Acts as a High-pass filter
❖ Waveguide supports EM mode propagation with lower losses.
7
Disadvantages of Waveguide
❖ Physical size becomes a limitation.
8
Cont..
❖ Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape.
10
Cont.…
Transverse Electric (TE) wave:
❖Here only the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)
Ez= 0, Hz ≠ 0.
Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave:
❖Here only magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation
and the electric field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)
Ez ≠ 0, Hz= 0
Hybrid wave:
❖Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the
direction of propagation. (i.e.) Ez ≠ 0, Hz ≠ 0
12
Applications of waveguide
14
Cont.…
❖ The order of the mode refers to the field configuration in the guide,
and is given by m and n integer subscripts,TEmn andTMmn.
✓ The m subscript corresponds to the number of half-wave
variations of the field in the x direction, and
✓ The n subscript is the number of half-wave variations in the y
direction
Applications
❖ High-power systems
❖ Millimeter wave applications
❖ Satellite systems
❖ Precision test applications
15
2. .
16
Applications
17
❖ It is formed with a rectangular ridged projecting inward from
one or both of the wide walls in a rectangular waveguide.
❖ Ridged is used to concentrate the electric field across the
ridge and lower the cutoff frequency ofTE mode.
Applications
❖ Attractive for UHF and low microwave ranges
18
Cont.…
19
❖It is used for bends, twists or in applications where certain
criteria may not be fulfilled by normal waveguides.
❖ Some of the flexible waveguides are shown below :
21
Cont.…..
Phase velocity (vp, m/s)
22
❖Dominant mode (mode with lowest cutoff frequency) for rectangular
waveguide isTE.
❖Awaveguide acts as a high-pass filter in that it passes only those
frequencies above the cutoff frequency
❖ The cutoff frequency is given by
m n m n
2 2 2 2
1 c
fcmn = + = +
2 a b 2 rr a b
1 1 1 1 c
u= = = =
o ror oo rr rr
23
Cont.….
c
vg v p = c 2
g = vp
f 2 − f c2 g = o
c
o
g =
1−(fc f )
2
24
Cont.…
c c
fc = = ( forTE)
2a c
o
Z o = 377 (TM mode)
g
377 g
Zo = =377 (TEmode)
1− (fc f ) o
2
25
Example 1 : An air- filled waveguide of inside dimension 7 x
3.5cm operate in the dominant TE10 mod e as shown in
figure below.
28
Cont.…
2. A rectangular waveguide has a width of 1.2 in and a height of
0.7 in. The waveguide will pass all signals above what
frequency?
Answer: 4.92 GHz
3 . Find the cutoff frequency for the TE10 mode in an air-
dielectric waveguide with an inside cross section of 2 cm by 4
cm. Over what frequency range is the dominant mode the only
one that will propagate?
Answer: fc = 3.75 GHz; range = 3.75-7.5 GHz
4 . The dimensions of the waveguide are 2.5 cm 1 cm. The
frequency is 8.6 GHz. Find (a) possible modes and (b) cut – off
frequency for TE waves.
Answer: (a) The possible mode is TE10 mode.
(b) The cut – off frequency = 6 GHz
Cont.….
5. Find the group velocity for the waveguide with an inside cross
section of 2 cm by 4 cm, at a frequency of 5 GHz.
Answer: 198 x 106 m/s
6 . A waveguide has a cutoff frequency for the dominant mode of 10
GHz. Two signals with frequencies of 12 and 17 GHz propagate
down a 50m length of the guide. Calculate the group velocity for
each and the difference in arrival time for the two.
Answer: Vg(12) = 165.8 x 106 m/s; Vg(17) = 242.6 x 106 m/s;
Tdiff = 95.5 ns
Cont.…
7. Determine the group and phase velocities within a rectangular
waveguide with an internal dimension of 1.52 x 0.9 in and is fed
by a 12 GHz carrier using a coaxial probe.
Answer: vG = 283.84x106 m/s
vP = 335.15x106 m/s
I1 I2
+ +
Port 2
2 Port
Port 1
V1 V2
-
Network -
V1 = Z 11 I 1 + Z 1 2 I 2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z 2 2 I 2
❖ Using the matrix representation, we can write
V1 Z11 Z12 I1 or [V]=[Z][I]
V = Z
2 21 Z 22 I 2
Vi
Z ij = (Open circuit impedance)
where Ij
I k j =0
I1 =Y11V1 +Y12V2
I2 =Y21V1 +Y22V2
❖ Using the matrix representation, we can write
I 1 Y11 Y12 V 1
I = Y
2 21
Y22 V 2
or I = Y V
Solution
Cont.…..
Cont.……..
Transmission (ABCD) Matrix
I1 I1
C= D=
V2 − I2 V2 =0
I 2 =0
V2 A B V3 I1 C D 1 C D 2 I3
=
I2 C D 2
I3
❖Similarly,with a source connected at port 1 while port 2 is open (so that I2 is zero),V2=V1
V1
h1 1 = h1 2 =
V1
I1 V2 =0 V2 I1=0
I2 I2
h21 = h22 =
I1 V 2 =0
V2 I1 = 0
V − = S V + + S V +.
2 21 1 22 2
𝑆𝑖𝑗 is found by driving port 𝑗 with incident wave of voltage 𝑣𝑖+ and
measuring the reflected wave amplitude 𝑣𝑖− coming out of port 𝑖. All
other ports should be terminated with matched loads to avoid
reflections.
Cont.……..
What do S-parameters depend on?
❖ S-parameters depend upon the network and the characteristic
impedances of the source and load used to measure it, and the
frequency measured at.
❖ i.e.
❖ if the network is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the frequency is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the load impedance is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the source impedance is changed, the S-parameters change
Properties of S parameters
1) Reciprocity
❖ The two-port network is reciprocal if the transmission characteristics are the same
in both directions (i.e. S21 = S12).
❖ It is a property of passive circuits (circuits with no active devices or ferrites) that
they form reciprocal networks.
❖ A network is reciprocal if it is equal to its transpose. Stated mathematically,
for a reciprocal network.
t
S = S
From the data , determine whether the network is reciprocal or lossless. If a short
circuit is placed on port 2, what will be the resulting return loss at port 1?
Solution
Since [S] is symmetry, the network is reciprocal. To be lossless, the S
parameters must satisfy
For i=j
n 1 for i = j
S k iS k*j =
0
for i j |S11|2 + |S12|2 = (0.1)2 + (0.8)2 = 0.65
k =1
Figure 2.4 Voltage and current definitions and equivalent circuit for an
incremental length of transmission line. (a) Voltage and current definitions.
(b) Lumped-element equivalent circuit.
v(z + z,t)
i(z, t) − Gzv(z + z,t) − Cz − i(z + z,t) = 0 (2.1b)
t
v(z,t) i(z,t)
= −Ri(z,t) − L (2.2a)
z t
i(z,t) v(z,t)
= −Gv(z,t) −C (2.2b)
z t
→ this equation for time-domain form of the transmission line, or
telegrapher, equation
❖ For the sinusoidal steady-state condition with cosine-based
phasors d I ( z )
= − (G + j C )V ( z ) ( 2 .3b )
dz
Wave Wave
propagation in propagation in
+z directon -z directon
R + j L
V0+ V0−
R + j L = Z0 = − −
Z0 = = ,(2.7) +
G + j C I0 I0
❖ R = =G = 0 = + j = jor
LC or
gives
= LC , = 0 (2.12)
L
Z0 = (2.13)
C
❖ The general solutions for voltage and current on a lossless
transmission line: V ( z) = V 0+ e − j z +V0− e j z ,
+
I (z) = I 0
e − j z − I 0− e j z (2.14)
Z0
2 2
= = (2.15)
LC
❖ The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load
impedance, so at z= 0
V0− Z L − Z 0
The voltage reflection coefficient: = + = (2.35)
V0 Z L + Z0
The total voltage and current on the line:
V ( z ) = V 0+ e − j z + e j z ,
V 0+
I (z) = e − j z − e j z (2.36)
Z0
Microwave Devices and Systems 53
Cont.……..
❖It is seen that the voltage and current on the line consist of a
superposition of an incident and reflected wave. → Standing waves
❖When Γ= 0 → matched.
❖ For the time-average power flow along the line at the point z:
+ 2
1
Pavg = Re V(z)I (z) =
2
1V
2 Z0
Re 1− e−2 j z + e2 j z −
0 2
+ 2
=
1V 0
2 Z0
1− (
2
)
1+ (1<VSWR<∞)
SWR =
1−
❖From (2.39), the distance between 2 successive voltage maxima
(or minima) is l = 2π/2β = λ/2 (2βl = 2π), while the distance
between a maximum and a minimum is l = π/2β = λ/4.
❖ From (2.34) with z = -l,
V0−e− jl
(l) = + jl =(0) e−2 jl (2. 42)
V0 e
V (−l ) V0+ e j l + e − j l 1 + e −2 j l
Z in = = Z 0 + j l − j l
= Z0 (2.43)
I (−l ) V 0 e − e 1 − e −2 j l
(Z L + Z 0 )e j l + (Z L −Z )e − jl
= Z0
(Z L + Z 0 )e j l − (Z L −Z 0
0
)e − jl
Z L cos l + jZ 0 sin l
= Z0
Z 0 cos l + jZ L sin l
Z L + jZ 0 tan l
= Z0 (2.44)
Z 0 + jZ L tan l
❖ Open-circuited line
ZL = ∞ → Γ= 1 V ( z) = V 0+ e − j z + e j z = 2V0+ cos z,
V 0+ − j z −2 jV 0+
I ( z) = e j z
−e = sin z (2.46)
Z0 Z0
1+ l e −2 j l Z l + jZ 0 tan l
Zin = Z0 = Z0 (2.67)
1− l e −2 j l
Z 0 + jZ l tan l
Zl − Z0
l = (2.68)
Zl + Z0
Figure 2.8 Transmission line circuit for mismatched load and generator
& Z g − Z0
Zin 1 g =
V+ =V (2.70) Z g + Z0
0 g
Z in + Z g e j l + l e− j l
1+ l
SWR =
Z0 e− j l 1− l
V = Vg
+
(2.71)
0
(
Z 0 + Z g 1− l g e −2 jl )
1
2
1 2 1 1 2 Zin
Pl = ReVinIin = Re|Vin | = Re|Vg |
1
2 2 Zin 2 Zin +Zg Zin
1 2 Rin
= |Vg | (2.39)
2 (Rin +Rg ) +(Xin +Xg )
2 2
1 Rg
Pl = |Vg |2
(2.41)
2 (
4 Rg2 + X g2 )
❖ Case3 conjugate matching , if Zg is fixed, to maximize Pl,
Pl 1 2Rin (Rin + Rg )
=0→ − =0
Rin (Rin + Rg ) +(X in + X g ) (R + R ) +(X + X )
2 2 2 2
in g in g 2
or R 2 − R 2 + ( X + X )2 = 0
g in in g
Pl −2 X in ( X in + X g )
=0→ =0
X i n (Rin + R g ) + ( X in + X g )
2 2 2
or X in ( X in + X g ) = 0
❖ Therefore, Rin = Rg and Xin = -Xg, or Zin = Zg*
❖ Under these conditions
1 1
Pl = |Vg |2 (2.44)
2 4Rg
Example 2
❖ Introduction
❖Microwave circuit and systems
❖Microwave transmitters and receivers
❖ TDMA means each user is sharing the same frequency with his or her own
time slot, typically eight users on the same frequency (for GSM).
❖ FDMA means the carrier frequency is hopping in a pattern known by
the transmitter and receiver.
❖ CDMA means the entire bandwidth is shared by all users, who have
orthogonal signals which do not interfere with each other. The bandwidth for
CDMAis 1.25 MHz, and it has increased to 5.0 MHz forWCDMA.
❖ Presently the cellular telephone systems in the United States at 850 MHz and
1.85 GHz are roughly equally divided betweenTDMAand CDMA.
❖ Since both forms of multiplexing are constantly improving, the dominant
choice has not been clearly found (if there is one).
Figure 3.12 (a) Simplified transceiver block diagram for wireless communications
so
This means that either S13 or S23, or both should be zero.
From unity property of S matrix , the sum of products of each term of any one row / column
multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.
(6)
4.2 H Plane Tee or shunt Tee
6
➢ An H plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its
arm is shunting the E field or parallel the H field to main
guide as shown .
➢ It can be seen that if two input waves are fed in to port 1
& 2 of the collinear arm the output wave at port 3 will be
in phase & additive.
➢ If the input is fed to port 3 the wave will split equally in
to ports 1 & 2 in phase & same magnitude.
➢ The S matrix of H Plane tee is similar to that of E plane
tee as shown
but S13=S23.
4.3 Magic Tee
7
•Also known as E H Plane Tee or Hybrid Tee
•It is a combination of E Plane Tee & H Plane Tee
•Its characteristics are given below
2
❖ Now depending upon that the transistors, microwave circuits can
be divided into 2 categories
✓ Bipolar Junction Transistor and
✓ Field Effect Transistor
5
There are two types of BJTs-PNP, NPN
❖ In practical applications transistor can be connected in three
configurations CB, CE, CC
❖ CB is shown below and used in Amplifier applications. The equations
which govern CB is given below
❖ The function of the emitter is to inject charge carriers into the
collector. So, as the emitter has to inject careers, they should be
highly doped.
❖ The function of the base region is to pass these charge carriers
into the collector. So, this should be lightly doped and they are
relative very thin and the function of the Collector region is to
collect the charge carriers.
❖ So, they should have relatively more space, they are situated on
other side of the transistor as shown in this geometry.
Principle & Operation of BJT
A BJT can operate in four different modes depending on the polarities across the two
junctions.
1. Normal(Active)
2. Saturation
3. Cutoff
4. Inverse
These are shown in the figure
NORMAL:
If the Emitter is forward biased &
Collector is reverse biased, the
transistor is operated in normal mode.
Most transistor Amplifiers in
normal mode.
SATURATION:
If both the junctions are forward
biased, it is in saturation state with
very low resistance & it acts as
short ckt. CUTOFF:
If the two junctions are reverse biased , then it works in
cutoff & it acts like open circuit.
INVERSE MODE:
If Emitter is reverse biased & Collector is forward biased it works in inverse mode.
Figure shows the VI characteristics of an NPN transistor for common base
configuration.
There are three regions in the characteristics namely Active, Saturation & Cutoff.
ACTIVE:
In this region Emitter is forward biased &
collector is reverse biased. The collector
current Ic is independent of collector
voltage and depends only on emitter
current IE.
When Emitter current is zero, collector
current is reverse saturation current Ico.
SATURATION:
In this region both the emitter & collector
junctions are forward biased
The electron current flows from N side to P type base so the collector
current increases sharply.
CUTOFF:
Here both emitter & collector are reverse biased , so the collector current is
cutoff to zero.
Amplification Phenomena:
BJTs are used for signal amplification & the phenomena can be described from
common base & common collector configurations.
Common Base N P N Transistor
The ratio of the output current to the input current for a small signal in a BJT is known as
current gain α of hfb , which is given by
In cutoff region, if IB=0 & IE= -Ic & the collector current is given by
FETs vs. BJTs
Similarities in Applications:
✓ Amplifiers
✓ Oscillators
✓ Switching devices
✓ Impedance matching circuits
Differences :
✓ FETs are unipolar devices where as BJTs are bipolar
✓ FETs are voltage controlled devices. BJTs are current controlled
devices.
✓ FETs have a higher input impedance. BJTs have higher gains.
✓ FETs are less sensitive to temperature variations and are more easily
integrated on ICs.
✓ FETs are generally more static sensitive than BJTs
✓ FETs are less noisy than bipolar devices as they have only one type of charge
carriers
❖ Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device;
it means that the current conduction in these transistors is due to only one type of charge
carriers, it could be either electron or hole.
❖ The output current in this transistors is controlled by the input voltage of the transistor.
MOSFET-Modern metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs) have become important at frequencies below 2.5GHz.
The nonlinear models come from SPICE developments, including bipolar
CMOS nonlinear (Bi-CMOS) models among others.
• Depletion-Type
• Enhancement-Type
Depletion-Type MOSFET Construction
The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect to
the to n-doped regions. These n-doped
regions are connected via an n-channel.
This n-channel is connected to the Gate
(G) via a thin insulating layer of SiO2.
❖ HBT: The hetero junction bipolar transistor (HBT) was originally developed to
improve emitter injection efficiency in GaAs BJTs.
13
Cont.….
14
Tunnel Diode
❖ It is used as high speed switch, of order nano-seconds. Due to
tunneling effect it has very fast operation in microwave frequency
region.
❖ It is a two terminal device in which concentration of dopants is too
high.
❖ The transient response is being limited by junction capacitance plus
stray wiring capacitance.
❖ It acts as most negative conductance device. Tunnel diodes can be
tuned in both mechanically and electrically. The symbol of tunnel
diode is as shown below.
Applications of Tunnel Diode
❖ Oscillatory circuits.
❖ Microwave circuits.
❖ Resistant to nuclear radiation.
Varactor Diode
❖ These are also known as Varicap diodes.
❖ It acts like the variable capacitor. Operations are performed mainly at reverse
bias state only.
❖ These diodes are very famous due to its capability of changing the capacitance
ranges within the circuit in the presence of constant voltage flow.
❖ They can able to vary capacitance up to high values.
❖ In varactor diode by changing the reverse bias voltage we can decrease or
increase the depletion layer. The symbol of varactor diode is given below.
❖ A: The voltage at point A is not sufficient for the avalanche breakdown to occur. At A,
charge carriers due to thermal generation results in charging of the diode like a linear
capacitance.
❖ A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient
number of carriers are generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion
region causing the voltage to decrease from B to C.
❖ C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and
holes is created.
Cont.…..
❖ D: The voltage decreases at point D.
❖ E: At point E, the plasma is removed. Residual charges of holes and
electrons remain each at one end of the deflection layer.
❖ E to F: The voltage increases as the residual charge is removed.
❖ F: At point F, all the charge generated internally is removed.
❖ F to G: The diode charges like a capacitor.
❖ G: At point G, the diode current comes to zero for half a period.
Microwave Integrated Circuits
Current microwave fabrication technology are ;
1.Connectorized – Easy to construct microwave systems, but big and bulky.
2.Printed Circuit Board (PCB) – Can implement microstrip or even stripline
microwave systems using standard manufacturing techniques.
3. Hybrid Microcircuits -
TWO-CAVITY KLYSTRON
1. The beam coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap, βi is expressed as,
2. Depth of the velocity modulation is expressed as,
= (βi * V1) / Vo
Where, βi = Beam coupling coefficient of input cavity gap
V1 = Amplitude of input signal, Vo = DC voltage Applied
3. The equation for velocity modulation is ,
Where,
4. The optimum distance ‘L’ at which the maximum fundamental component of the current
occurs is,
5. Considering the output equivalent circuit of the klystron, the output power delivered to the catcher cavity and the
load can be expressed as,
Where Rsh is total equivalent shunt resistance of the catcher circuit, RL is the load; Rsho is the wall resistance of the catcher cavity, RB the
beam loading resistance, βo = beam coupling coefficient of catcher gap and generally it is equal to βi and if the coupling is perfect βo =1,
6. The Efficiency of Two-cavity klystron is calculated as,
Where, GB is the equivalent bunching conductance or beam loading conductance and is expressed as,
Where, θo is the dc transit angle between the cavities and expressed as,
Note:
EXERCISE
Problem 1:
Helix Traveling Wave Tubes
Formulae:
1. The phase velocity in the axial direction of the helical coil is expressed as,
2. The convention current in the electron beam is an imaginary quantity and is expressed as follows and called
as Electronic equation,
Where, Io =dc Current, Vo=dc voltage βe=ω/ νo =Phase constant of the
velocity modulated electron beam
γ=Propagation constant of axial waves, E1=Magnitude of electric filed in the z-direction, νo=dc
electron velocity =0.593*106*(Vo)1/2
3.The alternating voltage in transmission line which is imaginary can
be calculated as,
Where, γ=Propagation constant of axial waves , γO=Propagation constant when
current is zero
γO =
And Zo= = Characteristic impedance
4. The axial electric field is expressed as,
5. The wave modes of helix type traveling wave tube can be determined by solving circuit and
electronic equations simultaneously for propagation constants and the value of four propagation
constants are,
Where
Problem 2:
CROSSED-FIELD TUBES (M-TYPE TUBES)
MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
FORMULAE:
3. The hull cutoff magnetic equation for cutoff magnetic flux density can be expressed as,
8.The efficiency and the power output of a magnetron depend on the resonant structure and
the dc power supply and the equivalent circuit for a resonator of magnetron is ,
• The unloaded quality factor of the resonator is given by,
44
Smith Chart
❖ The outside of the chart shows location on the line in wave lengths.
❖ The combination of intersecting circles inside the chart allow us to locate
the normalized impedance and then to find the impedance anywhere on the
line.
45
❖The center of the circle is the center of the chart.
❖The circle passes through the normalized load impedance
❖Any point on the line is found on this circle.
❖ Rotate clockwise to move toward the generator (away from
the load)
❖The distance moved on the line is indicated on the outside of
the chart in wavelengths
46
To ward Constant
Generator Reflection
Coefficient Circle
13
❖ Impedance divided by line
impedance (50 Ohms)
Z1 = 100 + j50
Z2 = 75 -j100
Z3 = j200
Z4 = 150
Z5 = infinity (an open circuit)
Z6 = 0 (a short circuit)
Z7 = 50
Z8 = 184 -j900
14
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Why matching is important?
❖ To maximize power delivery and minimize power loss
❖ To improve signal to noise ratio as in sensitive
receiver components
❖ To reduce amplitude and phase error
Matching
Zo Load ZL
Network
57
Factors in selecting matching network
❖ Complexity: simpler, cheaper, more reliable and low loss
circuit is preferred.
❖ Bandwidth: match over a desirable bandwidth.
❖ Implementation: depend on types of transmission line either
cable, stripline, microstripline, waveguide, lump circuit etc.
❖ Adjustability: some network may need adjustment to match
a variable load.
❖ The Smith Chart can be used to design a lumped (L-C)
matching network to match one impedance to another
58
59
Series Inductors
Moves clockwise along circles of constant resistance
60
Series Capacitors
❖ Moves counter-clockwise along circles of constant resistance
61
Shunt Inductors
❖ Moves counter-clockwise along circles of constant
conductance
62
Shunt Capacitors
❖ Moves clockwise along circles of constant conductance
63
The End
Thanks!