7.river Enviroments

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Geography Edexcel 
1. River Environments
CONTENTS
1.1 The Water Cycle & Drainage Basin System
1.1.1 The Hydrological Cycle
1.1.2 The Drainage Basin
1.1.3 River Regime & Hydrographs
1.2 River Processes & Landforms
1.2.1 Fluvial Processes
1.2.2 Changes in River Characteristics
1.2.3 River Landscapes
1.3 Management of River Environments
1.3.1 Water Uses, Demand & Supply
1.3.2 Water Quality & Supply
1.3.3 Flooding - Causes & Control
Page 1 of 38
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1.1 The Water Cycle & Drainage Basin System YOUR NOTES

1.1.1 The Hydrological Cycle
Characteristics of the Water Cycle

The hydrological cycle is a closed system
Water is constantly recycled through the system
Within the hydrological cycle, there are stores and transfers
 Exam Tip
Remember there are no inputs and outputs in the hydrological system, only transfers
and stores, because it is a closed system.
Page 2 of 38
Stores of the Water Cycle YOUR NOTES

Stores are those places where water is held for a period of time. These include: 
Water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour or water droplets in clouds
Surface stores such as puddles, lakes, rivers and reservoirs
Interception is how precipitation is prevented from reaching the ground, usually by
being caught on leaves or branches
Aquifers are permeable rocks such as limestone and sandstone which can hold water
Ice and snow
Seas and oceans
Transfers of Water Within the Cycle

Transfers are the ways in which water is moved around the hydrological cycle. They include:
Evaporation
Condensation
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
Overland flow
Infiltration
Percolation
Through flow
Groundwater flow
 Worked Example
Identify the statement that best defines through flow (1)
A Water moving through the soil
Water taken up by plants from the soil and released into the
B
atmosphere as water vapour
C Movement of water over the ground
D Movement of water through rocks
Answer:
A (1) -Through flow is the water moving through the soil below the surface
and above the water table
 Exam Tip
Try sketching the hydrological cycle from memory. Remember to add a key to show
stores and transfers.
Page 3 of 38
1.1.2 The Drainage Basin YOUR NOTES


The Drainage Basin
A drainage basin is an open system
Every drainage basin is unique and is different in shape and size, with different rock types,
relief and land use
Drainage basin features
All drainage basins have some features in common:
Watershed
Source
Confluence
Tributary
Mouth
Channel network
Every drainage basin is covered by a network of tributaries which connect to the main river
channel. The numbers of tributaries in a drainage basin is referred to as the drainage
density:
Drainage basins with lots of tributaries have a high drainage density
Drainage basins with few tributaries have a low drainage density
 Exam Tip
You need to ensure that you are clear about the difference between a closed system
such as the hydrological cycle and an open system such as a drainage basin.
Remember a closed system has no inputs or outputs whereas an open system has
both inputs and outputs.
Page 4 of 38
1.1.3 River Regime & Hydrographs YOUR NOTES


River Regimes & Storm Hydrographs
River regimes
The discharge of a river changes over time
The river regime is a record of these changes over a year
Many factors can influence the river regime including temperature, vegetation, land use
and human activity
Storm hydrographs
A storm hydrograph shows the changes in river discharge after a storm event
The graph shows a short period of time, usually 24 hours
The storm hydrograph has a number of features:
Base flow
Peak rainfall
Rising limb
Peak discharge
Lag time
Recessional limb
Storm hydrograph in an urban area
Page 5 of 38
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Study Figure 1 which shows storm hydrographs for rivers A and B
River A River B
Figure 1 Storm Hydrographs
What is the lag time for river A? (1)
To work out the answer you need to calculate the difference between the peak
rainfall and peak discharge:
The peak rainfall is between 2 and 3 hours from the start of the storm,
taken at the mid point this would be 2 hours and 30 minutes.
The peak discharge is at 8 hours from the start of the storm
8 hours - 2 hours and 30 mins = 5 hours and 30 mins
Answer
Lag time = 5 hours and 30 mins (1)
 Exam Tip
Remember a hydrograph shows the changes in discharge over a short period after a
storm event, whereas the river regime shows changes in discharge over a long
period, usually a year.
Page 6 of 38
Factors Affecting Regimes YOUR NOTES

There are many factors which affect the discharge or regime of a river 
The shape of storm hydrographs is also affected by these factors
Factors which increase overland flow lead to:
shorter lag times
increased discharge
steeper rising limb
Factors which Influence River Regimes
Factor Effect
Snow and ice melt leads to higher discharge - usually in the spring
months
High temperatures increase evaporation and reduce river discharge
Climate
Higher rainfall in autumn and winter increases river discharge
Convectional rainfall in summer or hot, moist climates increases river
discharge
Vegetation increases interception and infiltration leading to reduced
overland flow and so lower river discharge
Vegetation
Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter decreasing interception,
increasing overland flow and river discharge
Concrete and tarmac in urban areas and built environments are
Land Use impermeable leading to high overland flow - this is rapidly taken by
drainage systems to the rivers/streams, increasing river discharge
Permeable rocks increase infiltration and percolation which reduces
Geology overland flow and decreases river discharge
Soils which are compacted or frozen reduce infiltration, increasing
Soils overland flow and river discharge
Water taken for irrigation and domestic use decreases the river
Abstraction discharge
Dams control the flow of water, so can both increase and decrease
river discharge
Dams
Reservoirs experience higher levels of evaporation which can
decrease river discharge
Steep slopes increase overland flow which leads to increased river
Relief discharge
Page 7 of 38
High drainage density leads to increased discharge, particularly after a YOUR NOTES
Drainage Density rainfall event 
 Exam Tip
Remember all the factors which affect river regimes also affect the risk of flooding.
Any factor which increases overland flow and discharges also increase the risk of
flooding.
Page 8 of 38
1.2 River Processes & Landforms YOUR NOTES


1.2.1 Fluvial Processes
Weathering & Mass Movement

River valley processes
Both fluvial and landscape processes shape the river and surrounding land in the drainage
basin
The landscape processes of weathering and mass movement shape land surrounding the
river channel
Fluvial processes shape the river channels and the landforms linked to them. They include:
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition
Most (about 95%) of a river's energy is used in overcoming friction
There is more friction in the upper course of the river where it is shallow and narrow
The rest of the energy is used in erosion and transportation
Energy in the river depends on the river discharge and velocity
Weathering and mass movement
There are three types of weathering. These happen in-situ:
Physical - rock is broken down into smaller pieces. This occurs due to changes in
temperature - such as freeze thaw and exfoliation
Chemical - rocks disintegrate and dissolve in slightly acidic rainwater
Biological - rocks are broken apart by the roots of plants
There are a number of types of mass movement where large scale movement of material
occurs
In river valleys there are two main types of mass movement:
Slumping - where the slope is eroded by the river. This undercuts the slope causing
large scale movement of material down the slope
Soil creep - the influence of gravity causes weathered material to slowly move down
the slope towards the river
Factors affecting weathering and mass movement
Factor Effect
Climate In hot, wet climates, chemical and biological weathering are dominant
Weather Heavy rain increases mass movement

Any slope over 5o experiences mass movement. The steeper the slope, the
Slope more mass movement there will be
Geology Different rocks have different levels of resistance to weathering
Page 9 of 38
At higher altitudes, freeze-thaw weathering occurs frequently due to the low YOUR NOTES
Altitude temperatures 
Physical weathering is more common on a colder, north facing slope due to
Aspect a higher likelihood of freeze-thaw
Vegetation Roots bind the soil together which limits mass movement
 Worked Example
Explain two factors which influence mass movement (4)
Identify the command word
The command word is 'explain'
The focus of the question is 'mass movement'
You can select any two factors from climate/weather, geology, vegetation,
slope, altitude or aspect
For the second mark for each factor you must explain why it increases or
decreases mass movement
Answer: (Any two factors and explanations from below)
All slopes which have a gradient of more than 5o experience mass
movement (1). The steeper the slope, the more mass movement (1)
Where rock types are less resistant to weathering (1), there will be more
mass movement as there will be more loose material (1)
Vegetation decreases the amount of mass movement (1) as the roots bind
the soil together holding the slope in place (1)
On the north facing slopes there will be more physical weathering (1)
leading to more mass movement as there will be more loose material (1)
At higher altitudes freeze-thaw weathering may be more common (1)
leading to more mass movement as there will be more loose material (1)
 Exam Tip
Students often confuse weathering and erosion. Remember, weathering is the
physical, biological or chemical breakdown of the rock where it is located - 'in-situ'.
Erosion is the wearing away and movement of the material, usually by wind, water or
ice.
Page 10 of 38
The Process of Erosion YOUR NOTES

Erosion is the wearing away of surfaces 
There are four erosion processes which change the shape of the river channel:
Hydraulic action
Abrasion
Attrition
Corrosion (solution)
Types of erosion
Erosion can be mainly vertical or lateral:
Vertical erosion is dominant in the upper course of rivers. It increases the depth of the
river and valley, as the river erodes downwards
Lateral erosion is dominant in the middle and lower course of rivers. It increases the
width of the river and valley as it erodes sideways
Page 11 of 38
Processes of Transportation & Deposition YOUR NOTES

There are four processes of transportation: 
Traction
Saltation
Suspension
Solution
Processes of Transportation
Deposition
When a river does not have enough energy to carry materials it drops them. This is
deposition
The causes of reduced energy include:
Reduced discharge due to a lack of precipitation or abstraction upstream
Decreased gradient
Slower flow on the inside of a river bend
When the river enters a sea/ocean or lake
The heaviest material is deposited first, this is known as the bedload
The lighter materials, gravel, sand and silt are known as alluvium and they are carried further
downstream
The dissolved materials are carried out to sea
 Exam Tip
It can sometimes help to remember a word and the process it refers to if you know
what the word means.
Traction - the action of pulling something over a surface
Saltation - leaping or jumping
Page 12 of 38
Factors Affecting Processes YOUR NOTES

Factors Impact on Processes 
Heavy rainfall and/or low temperatures leads to higher discharge which
increases erosion and transportation; below average rainfall and/or high
Climate temperatures lead to lower discharge and decreased erosion and
transportation
Rivers on a steep slope will be fast flowing and there will be increased
Slope erosion; gentle slopes will result in more deposition
Softer, less resistant rocks erode more rapidly than harder, more resistant
Geology rocks
Melting snow and ice increase discharge and therefore there is more erosion
Altitude and transportation
South facing slopes have higher rates of evaporation and transpiration which
Aspect decreases discharge
Page 13 of 38
1.2.2 Changes in River Characteristics YOUR NOTES


Changes in River Characteristics
River characteristics
All rivers have a long and cross profiles
Each river's long and cross profiles are unique but they do have some characteristics in
common
These profiles show changes in river characteristics from the source to the mouth
Long profile
The long profile of a river shows the changes in the river gradient from the source to the
mouth
Most long profiles have a concave shape with similar characteristics:
The source is usually in an upland area
The upper course of the river includes areas which are steep with uneven surfaces
In the middle course the gradient decreases
In the lower section the gradient decreases further until it becomes almost flat
Long profile
Cross profiles
The cross profiles of a river are cross-sections from one bank to another
Cross profiles of the upper, middle and lower courses show the changes in the river
channel
Upper course characteristics include:
Shallow
Steep valley sides
Narrow
Low velocity
Large bedload
Rough channel bed
High levels of friction
Vertical erosion
Page 14 of 38
YOUR NOTES

Upper Course
Middle course characteristics:
Deeper than upper course channel
Gentle valley sides
Wider than upper course channel
Greater velocity than upper course channel
Material in river decreases in size
Smoother channel bed
Lower levels of friction than upper course channel
Lateral erosion
Middle Course
Lower course characteristics:
Deeper than middle course channel
Flat floodplains
Wider than middle course channel
Greater velocity than middle course channel (apart from as the river enters the mouth)
Material carried mainly sediment and alluvium
Smooth channel bed
Lowest friction
Deposition is dominant
Page 15 of 38
Lower Course YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Remember valley shape and river shape are not the same thing. If you are asked to
describe valley shape you should focus on the gradient and shape of the land either
side of the river channel.
Page 16 of 38
Case Study: River Tees YOUR NOTES

Location - North-East England 
Drainage basin - 1830km2
Source - Cross Fell, Pennines 754m above sea level
Length - 137km
Mouth - Tees Estuary, North Sea
Direction of flow - from west to east
Map of River Tees Drainage Basin

Feature Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course
Surrounded by Some arable farmland and
farmland and increasingly larger
Land Use Moorland, peat soil, some sheep grazing some larger settlements and industry -
settlements - Middlesbrough, Yarm,
Barnard Castle Stockton on Tees
Limestone and
Geology Limestone and sandstone Limestone and sandstone
sandstone
Annual Over 1000mm 1003mm 773 mm

Precipitation
Increasing width
River Channel Narrow and shallow Wide and deep
and depth
Gradient Steep More gentle Gentle, almost flat
Becoming smaller
Bedload Large and angular and more Mainly small sediment
rounded
Page 17 of 38
Decreasing YOUR NOTES

amounts of Decreasing amounts of 
friction as less friction as less water is in
Friction High levels of friction
water is in contact contact with the banks and
with the banks bed
and bed
High Force waterfall located where hard

rock (Dolerite also known as whinstone) Meanders starting
Large meanders, leading to
overlays soft rock (limestone and to develop and
the development of oxbow
Landforms sandstone). The retreat of High Force fertile floodplains
lakes, wide floodplain with
waterfall upstream has left a steep sided either side of the
levees
gorge. Interlocking spurs and v-shaped river
valleys
Erosion & Lateral erosion

Vertical erosion dominant Deposition dominant
Deposition dominant
Tees Barrage flood defence,

river straightening in
Other Features Cow Green Reservoir Middlesbrough (Mandale
Loop), Yarm flood defences
Page 18 of 38
1.2.3 River Landscapes YOUR NOTES


Upland Landforms
River landscape characteristics
The changes in river channel characteristics, lead to changes in the river landscape
The upland and lowland areas of rivers have distinctive landforms
Upland:
Waterfalls
Gorges
V-shaped valleys
Interlocking spurs
Waterfalls and gorges
Waterfalls form where there is a drop in the river bed from one level to another
This drop is often due to changes in the hardness of rock, where hard rock overlies soft rock
Hydraulic action and abrasion are the main erosional processes:
The soft rock erodes quicker, undercutting the hard rock and creating a plunge pool
This leads to the development of an overhang of hard rock which eventually over time,
collapses
The overhang falls into the plunge pool increasing abrasion and making the plunge
pool deeper
The process then begins again and the waterfall retreats upstream leaving a steep
sided gorge
Page 19 of 38
Waterfall formation YOUR NOTES

V-shaped valleys 
Vertical erosion is dominant in the upper course of the river
This cuts down into the river bed and deepens the river channel
Weathering and mass movement leads to material from the valley sides collapsing into the
river forming a steep v-shaped valley
Formation of a v-shaped valley

Interlocking spurs
In the upper course of the river the channel starts to meander
Erosion happens on the outside of the bend
In the upland areas this forms interlocking spurs
Page 20 of 38
YOUR NOTES

Interlocking spurs
 Worked Example
Explain the formation of a waterfall. (4)
Identify the command word
The command word is 'explain'
Your focus is on 'waterfall'
Answer: (you should include 4 points from the following)
Waterfalls occur where there is a step in the landscape often where hard
rock such as dolerite overlays soft rock such as limestone (1)
The soft rock erodes due to hydraulic action, at a faster rate than the hard
rock (1) leading to undercutting and the formation of a plunge pool (1)
This leaves an overhang of hard rock which eventually collapses due to
gravity (1)
The process is then repeated causing the waterfall to retreat upstream
leaving a steep side gorge (1)
Page 21 of 38
Lowland Landforms YOUR NOTES

Lowland: 
Meanders
Ox-bow lakes
Floodplains
Levees
Meanders
In lowland areas lateral erosion is dominant
Meanders increase in size
The fastest water flow (thalweg) is on the outside of the river bends, leading to erosion:
The erosion undercuts the river bank forming a river cliff
The river bank collapses and the edge of the meander moves further out
The slowest flow is on the inside of the river bends, leading to deposition:
The deposits form a slip-off slope
Deposition on one side and erosion on the other leads to the meander migrating across the
valley
Cross-section of a Meander
Oxbow lakes
With distance downstream the size of the meanders increase
The erosion on outside bends can eventually lead to the formation of a meander neck
At a time of flood, the river may cut through the neck of the meander forming a straighter
course for the water
The flow of water at entry and exit from the meander will be slower, leading to deposition
The meander becomes cut off from the main river channel, forming an oxbow lake
Page 22 of 38
YOUR NOTES

Oxbow Lake Formation
 Exam Tip
Remember when describing the formation of oxbow lakes it is important to state
that the river will break through the neck of the meander during a flood. At other
times the river does not have enough power to break through.
Floodplains and levees

Floodplains are flat expanses of land either side of the river
The migration of meanders leads to the formation of the floodplain
High discharge may cause the river to overflow the banks
More of the water is in contact with land surface as the water spreads across the floodplain
Increased friction reduces velocity and material is deposited across the floodplain
gradually increasing the floodplain height
The heaviest material is deposited first nearest to the river channel forming natural
embankments called levees
Page 23 of 38
YOUR NOTES

Floodplain and Levee Formation
 Exam Tip
When describing landform formation it is helpful to write the formation down as a
sequence of steps. This will make the process easier to remember.
Page 24 of 38
1.3 Management of River Environments YOUR NOTES


1.3.1 Water Uses, Demand & Supply
Water Uses
Only 2.5% of the water on Earth is freshwater
68.7% of freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice sheets and 30% is groundwater
The remaining 1.3% of freshwater is in rivers, soil moisture, lakes and the atmosphere
Sources of water
Global water use by sector is:
70% agriculture - irrigation of crops and water for livestock
20% industry - producing goods and generating energy
10% domestic - toilets, cooking, cleaning, washing
The use by sector varies across countries depending on whether they are developed,
emerging or developing
Page 25 of 38
YOUR NOTES

Water Use
In developing and emerging countries most water is used for agriculture
The use of water in leisure and tourism is increasing, particularly in developed countries
In developed countries most water is used for industry
Page 26 of 38
Rising Demand for & Supply of Water YOUR NOTES

Demand is the amount of water requested by users to meet their needs 
Supply is the amount of water available
Water balance is the difference between supply and demand
Countries may have a deficit (greater demand than supply) or surplus (more supply than
demand)
Water Demand
The global demand for water is increasing
Between 1934 and 2014 demand increased from 1 trillion m3 to 4 trillion m3
Water Supply
The supply of water comes from three main sources:
Lakes and rivers
Aquifers
Reservoir
The reasons for increased demand include:
Improving living standards - people have more appliances/sanitation which use
water
Increased use of water in leisure and tourism - water parks, golf courses
Increased urbanisation
Population growth - the more people there are, the more water is needed
Increasing industry - water is needed for production of goods and energy production
Increasing use in agriculture - more water is needed for livestock
Page 27 of 38
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember when interpreting at graphs you need to

Identify the overall trend - is it increasing/decreasing/fluctuating

Identify the highest and lowest points
In any answer based on a graph make sure that you include figures
Page 28 of 38
Areas of Water Shortages & Surpluses YOUR NOTES

Water Shortages (Deficit) 
Many areas of the world have water shortages (deficits)
Water deficit can be due to:
Low supply - lack of precipitation, high levels of evaporation, poor water
management
High demand - increasing population, industry and agriculture
A combination of low supply and high demand
Areas with the greatest water deficit include:
Australia
North, East and South Africa
Middle East
West USA
Parts of South America
India
Water surplus and deficit

Many of these areas have a deficit due to low precipitation throughout the year
In some areas demand is greater than supply due to increasing population, industry and
agriculture
There are different levels of water shortage - these are water stress and water scarcity:
Water stress occurs when the supply of water is below 1700m3 a year per person
Water scarcity is when the supply is below 1000m3 a year per person
Water Surplus
Some areas of the world have a water surplus
Water surplus can be due to:
High supply - high precipitation, low evaporation rates, effective water management
Low demand - low population, effective water management, low temperatures
Page 29 of 38
A combination of high supply and low demand YOUR NOTES

Areas with a surplus include: 
North-east Brazil in the Amazon rainforest
Canada and parts of north USA
Russia
 Exam Tip
Remember when interpreting maps you need to pay close attention to the key and
title.
In the above example the map shows both surplus and deficit of water supply on a
sliding scale. Areas of greatest water surplus are dark blue and areas of greatest
water deficit are dark orange.
Page 30 of 38
1.3.2 Water Quality & Supply YOUR NOTES


Variations in Water Quality
Clean, potable water is essential for human consumption, irrigation and for livestock
Approximately one-third of the world's population does not have access to clean, potable
water
Unsafe water results in an estimated 1.2 million deaths worldwide each year
In areas with low precipitation water can become stagnant
Diseases which spread in polluted water include typhoid, cholera, bilharzia and dysentery
There are many sources of water pollution and it is estimated that globally 80% of
wastewater enters the water system without being treated
Sources and Impacts of Water Pollution
Source How it Enters the Water Impact
Death of fish and other river wildlife, introduces
Waste water from silage bacteria into the water
and slurry Can cause eutrophication and be poisonous to
Agriculture Fertilisers, herbicides fish and other wildlife
and pesticides Increases the sediment entering the river
Soil erosion increasing turbidity which decreases oxygen
levels
Spillages of oil Oil stays on the surface of the water, wildlife and
Water being used as a plants become coated in oil and cannot
coolant and returned to eat/move/fly
Industry rivers at higher Animals and plants within the water system
temperatures cannot survive in higher temperatures
Toxic substances from Toxins enter the food chain and are harmful to
industrial processes wildlife and humans
Increases the levels of nitrogen in the water and
Untreated sewage
introduces bacteria
Water used for washing
Chemicals used in washing powder/liquid,
clothes and bathing
Domestic bleach, shower gels, and soap all can be harmful
Water used for leisure
to wildlife
which has been treated
Chlorine is bleach which affects wildlife causing
with chlorine
chemical burn
 Exam Tip
Remember to be clear about the difference between causes and impacts. The
cause of pollution is where it comes from and how it enters the water. The impacts
are how the environment, humans and wildlife are affected by the pollution.
Page 31 of 38
Storage & Supply of Clean Water YOUR NOTES

1 in 3 people do not have access to clean drinking water 
In developed countries over 90% of people have access to clean water due to better water
supply and storage infrastructure
In some developing countries, poor water supply and storage infrastructure means over
60% of people don't have access to clean water
Water infrastructure ensures that people receive clean, potable water
Water is collected from rivers, lakes, reservoirs and aquifers - the amount taken from each
depends on location
In arid areas people rely more on groundwater
Where there is effective infrastructure, water is collected, treated and delivered
Collection
Dams and reservoirs are used to collect and store water
Wells and boreholes allow access to groundwater
Treatment
All water, even groundwater is likely to have some contaminants
Developed countries and urban areas in developing and emerging countries have
treatment works:
Water goes through a series of processes including filtration and disinfection
The treatment process removes solid waste, bacteria, viruses, fungi, minerals and
chemical pollutants
In rural areas and some urban areas in developing and emerging countries water may be
treated where it is going to be used due to a lack of treatment works
Delivery
Water is often delivered by pipeline directly from the treatment works to homes and
factories
Pipelines and infrastructure are expensive and need to be maintained
Developing and emerging countries, particularly in rural areas, are less likely to have this
infrastructure
In urban areas in developing and emerging countries, standpipes may be used which are
shared by many people
In rural areas in developing and emerging countries, wells are the main water source but this
is usually untreated
Page 32 of 38
1.3.3 Flooding - Causes & Control YOUR NOTES


Causes of Flooding
Flooding occurs when the capacity of the river channel is exceeded
The water flows over the banks and onto the surrounding area
Flooding is usually the result of heavy or prolonged rainfall
The key factor is the time taken for the precipitation to reach the river from where it falls - the
lag time
The shorter the lag time, the higher the risk of flooding because the discharge of the river
increases faster
The lag time depends on some human and physical factors
These lead to increased overland flow which shortens the lag time
Human and Physical Factors which Increase the Risk of Flooding
Human Factors Impact
Lack of trees reduces interception and infiltration, increasing
Deforestation overland flow
Impermeable concrete and tarmac increase overland flow
Urbanisation
Water flows into the drains reaching the river rapidly
Agriculture Bare soil and ploughing increase overland flow

Rising global temperatures may increase storm frequency and
Climate Change intensity
Physical Factors Impact

Relief Steep slopes reduce infiltration and increase overland flow
Rock Type Impermeable rocks reduce percolation and increase overland flow
Frozen, saturated or compacted soil reduces infiltration and
increases overland flow
Soil
Some soil types such as clay reduce infiltration and increase
overland flow
Heavy or prolonged rainfall means that the rate at which water
reaches the surface exceeds the infiltration rate leading to increased
overland flow
Weather
After a period of snow rising temperatures can cause rapid melting
which increases overland flow
Page 33 of 38
Flooding in Northern Europe tend to occur in the autumn and winter YOUR NOTES
when rainfall is more frequent 
Seasonal In areas affected by monsoon much of the annual rainfall occurs in a

Variations few weeks saturating the ground and increasing overland flow
Higher temperatures in spring leads to snow melt in mountainous
areas increasing overland flow
Where drainage density is high there are many tributaries taking
Drainage Density water to the main channel causing a rapid increase in discharge
Where there is little natural vegetation there is reduced interception

Vegetation leading to increased overland flow
 Exam Tip
In the exam, you may be asked to explain the causes of flooding. Remember this
means that you need to give connections between factors such as deforestation
and the increased flood risk. Rather than simply stating that deforestation increases
flood risk you need to explain the reasons - decreased interception and infiltration,
leading to increased overland flow and shorter lag time.
Prediction & Warning

Improvements in weather forecasting and use of computer modelling has made flood
prediction more accurate particularly in developed countries
The Flood Forecasting Centre in the UK is a partnership between the Met Office and the
Environment Agency
Forecasting uses the following information:
Rainfall amounts
Hazard impact mapping to identify the areas most at risk from flooding
Past storm hydrographs to forecast the likely rate of discharge change in rivers
Drainage basin characteristics - type of rock, amount of vegetation, relief
Flood alerts are then issued to inform people of current flood risk and the risk of flooding
over the following five days
Flood prediction and warnings are limited in emerging and developing countries due to lack
of monitoring of rivers and cost of setting up an alert system
The Bangladesh Water Development Board has focussed on improving flood warnings in
recent years and is now able to inform people of the risk of flooding over 3 days
Page 34 of 38
Prevention of Flooding YOUR NOTES

Hard and Soft Engineering 
The two main categories of flood management are hard and soft engineering:
Hard engineering involves building structures or changing the river channel
Soft engineering works with natural processes of the river and surrounding
environment
Soft engineering is increasingly popular
Soft engineering is an example of mitigation where schemes aim to minimise damage
rather than trying to prevent the flooding
Examples of Hard and Soft Engineering
Hard Engineering Soft Engineering
River restoration, this supports the river by
Dams and reservoirs enable the amount restoring it back to its original regime -
of discharge downstream to be controlled putting meanders back in, stabilising banks
and connecting to flood plains
Wetland conservation these areas provide
Levees increase the capacity of the river somewhere for excess water to go and
slow the flow of the flood water
Straightened channels mean that the river Catchment management plans assess the
flows more quickly pass vulnerable areas, risk of flooding in an area and outline how
reducing the risk of flooding this will be managed
Flood relief channels allow some water to Flood plain zoning means that only certain
flow out of the main channel reducing the land uses are allowed on the flood plain,
discharge reducing the risk
Flood Resistant Buildings

Increasingly people are using flood resistant building design in areas at risk:
Homes may be raised up on stilts
Replacement of carpet with tiles
Power sockets above the level of likely flood
 Exam Tip
Students sometimes confuse hard and soft engineering. Remember hard
engineering is when structural changes are made to the river. Soft engineering is
working with the natural environment.
Page 35 of 38
Case Studies: Spain and China YOUR NOTES

River management is essential for a range of reasons: 
To control flooding
To store and supply water
To generate electricity
To improve navigation
The following case studies will provide some information about river management in Spain
and China
River Management in Spain
The average precipitation in south-east Spain is approximately 365mm a year
Most precipitation occurs in winter
The area is one of the driest in Europe
Agriculture uses 80% of the water available
147,000 hectares of land requires irrigation
Regular droughts mean the supply of water is further reduced
There is a water deficit as demand exceeds supply
Tourism increases the problem:
Water parks and golf courses use significant quantities of water
An average tourist uses between 450-800 litres per day
An average Spaniard uses 127 litres per day
Tagus-Segura Project
Completed in 1978
60% of the water flowing into the Tagus is transferred
A 286km pipeline which connects for Spanish river basins Tagus, Jucar, Segura and
Guadiana
The aim was to supply Alicante, Murcia and Cartagena in the south-east to reduce the
water deficit
Issues
Much of the water transferred went to the tourist and leisure users not to small scale
farmers
Water consumption in the south-east increased due to an increase in supply
It is estimated that 15% of the transferred water is being illegally used by leisure users such
as golf courses
Large commercial farms are benefitting more than small scale farmers
Ebro Project
A second water transfer project was proposed in 2001 to transfer water from the River Ebro
This project was abandoned due to:
The failure and issues with the Tagus-Segura project
The cost
The threat to the Ebro delta as the scheme would have disrupted sediment flow to the
delta
Spain has now moved to utilising desalinisation plants to meet the demand for water
Page 36 of 38
River Management in China YOUR NOTES

The average precipitation in north-east China is approximately 200-400mm a year 
Most precipitation occurs during the brief wet season
Average rainfall has steadily decreased since the 1950s
The main industrial areas and regions of economic growth are on the North China Plain
around Tianjin and Beijing
The main water source for the area has been groundwater:
Demand for water in Beijing alone is 3.6 billion cubic meters
Supply of freshwater in Beijing is 3 billion cubic meters
There is a significant water deficit
The over abstraction of groundwater has led to subsidence in some areas of the city of
11cm
South-North Water Transfer Project
Aims to transfer 12 trillion gallons of water a year from the south of China to the area
around Beijing
Central section was completed in 2014
Final completion estimated to be in 2050
It will link China's four main rivers - Yangtze, Yellow, Huaihe and Haihe
Advantages Disadvantages
Water is being supplied to industries and to
By 2014 US$79 billion had been spent
irrigate large scale farms for food production
Many people have been relocated for
Reduces water insecurity in the north-east construction of dams, reservoirs, pipes and
canals
In some areas in the south people's water use
Reduces the abstraction of groundwater has been restricted to ensure that there is
sufficient to transfer
Recent droughts in the south have reduced the
Improved water quality
amount of water available
Three Gorges Dam

Constructed between 1994 and 2012
Advantages Disadvantages
Provides 10-14% of China's electricity through Over 1.3 million people forced to move due to
hydroelectric power the flooding of the valleys
Allows ships to navigate further up the river
Many cultural sites were lost
improving trade
Reduces the severity of flooding downstream Increases the risks of landslides
Page 37 of 38
The reservoir provides water for irrigation Cost US$37 billion YOUR NOTES

Sediment is building up behind the dam and
Reduces reliance on fossil fuels
reduces sediment downstream
Page 38 of 38

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Characteristics of the Water Cycle

Stores of the Water Cycle YOUR NOTES

Transfers of Water Within the Cycle

1.1.2 The Drainage Basin YOUR NOTES

1.1.3 River Regime & Hydrographs YOUR NOTES

Storm hydrograph in an urban area

Factors Affecting Regimes YOUR NOTES

1.2 River Processes & Landforms YOUR NOTES

Weathering & Mass Movement

Weather Heavy rain increases mass movement

Geology Different rocks have different levels of resistance to weathering

The Process of Erosion YOUR NOTES

Processes of Transportation & Deposition YOUR NOTES

Factors Affecting Processes YOUR NOTES

1.2.2 Changes in River Characteristics YOUR NOTES

Lower Course YOUR NOTES

Case Study: River Tees YOUR NOTES

Map of River Tees Drainage Basin

Annual Over 1000mm 1003mm 773 mm

Gradient Steep More gentle Gentle, almost flat

Decreasing YOUR NOTES

High Force waterfall located where hard

Erosion & Lateral erosion

Tees Barrage flood defence,

1.2.3 River Landscapes YOUR NOTES

Waterfall formation YOUR NOTES

Formation of a v-shaped valley

Lowland Landforms YOUR NOTES

Oxbow Lake Formation

Floodplains and levees

Floodplain and Levee Formation

1.3 Management of River Environments YOUR NOTES

Rising Demand for & Supply of Water YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Identify the overall trend - is it increasing/decreasing/fluctuating

Areas of Water Shortages & Surpluses YOUR NOTES

Water surplus and deficit

A combination of high supply and low demand YOUR NOTES

1.3.2 Water Quality & Supply YOUR NOTES

Storage & Supply of Clean Water YOUR NOTES

1.3.3 Flooding - Causes & Control YOUR NOTES

Agriculture Bare soil and ploughing increase overland flow

Physical Factors Impact

Seasonal In areas affected by monsoon much of the annual rainfall occurs in a

Where there is little natural vegetation there is reduced interception

Prediction & Warning

Prevention of Flooding YOUR NOTES

Flood Resistant Buildings

Case Studies: Spain and China YOUR NOTES

River Management in China YOUR NOTES

Three Gorges Dam

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