Sandip Foundation’s

Sandip Institute of Engineering & Management Nashik

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

S. E. (E&TC) SEM – PCS Lab (204193) Examination

IV Teaching Scheme: Scheme: Practical: 50 Marks
Practical: 2 Hrs. /week

Experiment-5

Aim: -
Study of PCM

Apparatus: -
Sigma Kit of MODEL – COM110P-1, connecting wires, DSO and its Connecting Probes.

Theory: -
PULSE CODE MODULATION & DEMODULATION:

In continuous wave (CW) modulation, some parameter of a sinusoidal carrier wave is varied
continuously in accordance with the message. In contrast with this, in pulse modulation, some
parameter of a regular pulse –train is varied in accordance with the message. One may distinguish
two basic types of pulse modulation, namely, pulse-analogue modulation and pulse-code modulation.
In the former, a periodic pulse train is used as the carrier wave, and some characteristic feature of
each pulse (e.g.emplitude duration or position) is varied in a continuous manner in accordance with
the pertinent sample value of the message signal. On the other hand, in pulse – code modulation
(PCM), a discrete-time, discrete amplitude representation is used for the signal and, as such, it has no
CW counterpart. In a PCM system, the message signal is sampled and the amplitude of each sample
is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of allowable values and the rounded values are coded.

(i) PCM
The essential operations on the transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing and
encoding, as shown in Fig. 1. The quantizing and encoding operations are usually
performed in the same circuit. The encoded output is the PCM signal. The PCM pulses get
distorted & corrupted with noise in the transmission. The receiver regenerates these
impaired signal pulses, decodes and filters to reproduce the message signal.
(ii) Sampling
The incoming message wave is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses so as to
closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process. In order to ensure perfect
reconstruction of the message at the receiver, the sampling rate must be greater than twice
the highest frequency component wm of the message wave. In practice, a low-pass filter is
used at the front end of the sampler in order to exclude frequencies greater than wm before
sampling.

(iii) Quantizing
A continuous signal, such as voice, has within its finite amplitude range, an infinite number
of amplitude levels. However, in PCM one retains only a finite number of discrete levels
by using quantization. This introduces some error in the signal. This is called quantization
error or quantization noise. This means that the original continuous signal may be
approximated by a signal constructed of discrete amplitudes selected on a minimum error
basis from an available set. Clearly if one assigns the discrete amplitude levels with
sufficiently close spacing, one can make the approximated signal practically
indistinguishable from the original continuous signal.
Graphically, the quantizing process means that a straight line representing the relation
between input and output of a linear continuous system is replaced by a staircase
characteristic as in Fig.2. The quantising error consists of the difference between the input
and output signals of the quantizer. It is apparent that the maximum instantaneous value of
this error is half of the separation between two adjacent permissible amplitude levels.

(iv) Encoding
The quantised sample values are coded. Any plan for representing each of this discrete set
of values as a particular arrangement of discrete event in a code is called a code One of the
discrete events in a code is called a code element or symbol. In a binary code, each symbol
may be either of two distinct values or kinds, such as the presence or absence of a pulse.
The two symbols of a binary code results in the maximum advantage over the effects of
noise in a transmission medium. It is also easy to regenerate.
With an n bit (binary digit) binary code, one can represent a total of 2n distinct numbers.
There are several ways by which binary symbols 1 and 0 can be represented by electrical
signals. These constitute the PCM signal.

(v) Decoding

At the receiver, the received PCM pulses may be reshaped. The reshaped
clean pulses are regrouped into code words in the receiver and decoded into a
quantised PCM signal. The decoding process involves generating a pulse the
amplitude of which is the linear sum of all the pulses in the code word, each
pulse weighted by its place-value (20, 21,22, 23, .... for a binary code) in the
code.
(vi) Filtering
The final operation in the receiving is to recover the signal wave by passing the decoder
output through a low-pass reconstruction filter whose cut off frequency is equal to the
message bandwidth wm. Assuming that the transmission path is error free, the recovered
signal includes no noise with the exception of the initial distortion introduced by the
quantisation process.

(vii) Quantising Noise

As mentioned earlier, quantising noise is produced in the transmitter end of a PCM system
by

rounding off the sampled values of a continuous base band signal to the nearest permitted
quantising levels.

For a Quantising process, let the step size be uniform and equal to S volts. It is clear from
Fig. 2 that if qe denotes the

/quantising error is a random variable which is bounded by - S/2 = qe = S/2. It can also be
shown that the mean squared value of the quantising noise qe is S2/12. When the message
signal has uniform probability distribution over each setup size.

• Quantising Process: -

▪ Quantization is process of approximation or rounding off.

▪ The sampled signal in PCM transmitted is applied to the quantizer block.
▪ Quantizer converts the sampled signal into an approximate quantized signal, which
consists of only a finite number of pre-decided voltage levels.
▪ Each sampled value at the input of the quantizer is approximated or rounded off to
the nearest standard pre-decided voltage level.
▪ These standard levels are known as the “Quantization Levels” refer figure, to
understand the process of quantization.

• Why Quantization is required?

▪ If we do not use the quantizer block in the PCM transmitter, then we will have to
convert each and every sampled value into unique digital word. This will need a
large number of bits per Word (N). This will increase the bit rate and hence the
bandwidth requirement of the channel.
▪ To avoid this, if we use a quantizer will only 256 quantization levels then all the
sampled values will be finally approximated into only 256 distinct voltage levels. So,
we need 8 bits per word to represent each quantized sample value. Thus the number
of bits per word can be reduced. This will eventually reduce the bit rate and
bandwidth requirement.
 value of the error produced by the quantization process, with a random input signal,
then

Quantization Error OR Quantization Noise “Є”: -

• The difference between the instantaneous values of the quantized signal and input is
called as quantization error or quantization noise = Xq (t) – X (t). • Shaded portions of
the waveform shown in figure show the quantization error.
• The maximum value of quantization error is + S/2 where S is step size. Therefore, to
reduce the quantization error we have to reduce the step size by increasing the number of
quantization levels.
• The mean square value of the quantization is given by, Mean square value of quantization
error = S2 / 12.
• The relation between the number of quantization levels Q and the number of bits per
word (N)
in the transmitted signal can be found as follows.
• Because each quantized level is to be converted into unique N bit digital word, assuming
a binary coded output signal, the number of quantization levels Q = Number of
combinations of bits / word. That is Q = 2N.
• Thus, if N=4 i.e., 4 bits per word then the number of quantization levels will be 16.

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio (SNRq): -

• The ratio is the figure of merit for the PCM systems. The signal to quantization noise
ratio with a sinusoidal input signal to the PCM system is expressed as, Si / Nq = [1.8 +
6N] dB for sinusoidal signal.
• This equation shows that the signal to quantization noise ratio is solely dependent on the
number of bits per word i.e., N. This ratio should be as high as possible, which can be
achieved by increasing N. But this increases the bit rate and hence bandwidth of the PCM
system. Therefore, the number of bits per word is a compromise between high SNRq and
bandwidth requirements.
Signalling Rate and Transmission Bandwidth of PCM: -
• We know that, Q=2N where, Q= Number of quantization levels. N= Number of bits per
word.
• The input signal X (t) is sampled at the sampling rate fs, i.e. there is fs number of samples
per each second. Each of these samples is then converted into an N bit digital word.
• Therefore, Number of bits / sec = Number of samples/sec x Number of bits/sample.
= fs x N. But signalling rate is nothing but the number of bits per second.
• Therefore, signalling rate of PCM = Nfs.
• The transmission bandwidth of PCM is equal to half the signalling rate.
• Therefore, Transmission bandwidth of PCM = ½ Nfs.

Circuit Description of Pulse Code Modulation & Demodulation: -

The PCM Modulation and Demodulation System consist of following sections...
1. Modulating Audio Signal Generator Section: -
IC XR2206 waveform generator IC is used generate Sine/square/triangle wave signal. Pot
P1 is used to vary its frequency. The frequency range is 10Hz to 100KHz. Pre-sets Pr1
and Pr2 are adjusted for proper peaks of sine wave signal. Pr3 is used to adjust duty
cycle. Pot P2 is used to vary the amplitude of Sine wave signal.

2. Sampling Pulse Generator: -

The function of this stage to generate sampling pulses. The basic clock is generated by
NOT gates made from NAND gates (IC 4011). The clock frequency depends on R-C
network selected by Switch and it can be varied by frequency pot. On FAST position the
clock frequency available is 1.1 MHz to 1.4 MHz while selecting SLOW position 1 to 2
Hz clock is available.

3. Study of PCM Modulator (Encoder) Section: -

The 1.28 MHz sampling clock from sampling pulse generator is applied to binary counter
IC - 4040. The modulating analog signal is connected at input connector from Audio sine
wave generator section. This modulating signal is buffered by buffer IC 741 & applied to
one input of comparator IC529 at pin 3 through 15K resistor. The ramp waveform is
connected to other input of comparator 529 at pin 4.

4. Study of PCM Demodulator (Decoder) Section: -

The decoder also incorporates a sampling clock made of NAND gates (IC 4011). This
clock is gated by the sync detector consisting of IC 3140 (used as comparator) and
transistor Q1 (2N2907A). When the threshold is reached (during the sync pulse only), the
comparator output goes low and inhibits the clock. At the end of the sync pulse C1 is
discharged, the comparator output returns to the high state, the clock starts and the
counter 4040 is reset. The clock output is divided by two by the D flip-flop 4013.

5. Low Pass Filter: -

This section passes only low frequencies up to 3.4 KHz and reduces all other frequencies.
This filter is required to remove high frequency quantisation error noise from
demodulated signal. This section is based on IC 741 and R-C circuits.
 6. Power Supply Section: -
The regulated power supply is used for different supply voltages. Following output D.C.
Voltages are required to operate PCM Modulation demodulation system. +12V, 250mA,
-12V, 250mA, +5V, 500mA, - 5V, 500mA.

Procedure: -

To Observe PCM Modulation and Demodulation waveforms on DSO:

Connect following links as per Connection diagram CN1\

1. Keep Gaussian Noise signal to Zero by rotating Gaussian Noise Amplitude Pot to fully
anticlockwise. Connect CRO channel -1 at Sine O/P terminal of Audio Oscillator. Adjust
amplitude of sine wave to 2 Vpp and audio frequency to 1 KHz.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T1)

2. Connect CRO channel-2 at Samp Clock terminal of Sampling pulse generator.

Keep Freq. Selection switch at Fast Position. _ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T2)

3. Then, connect CRO channel – 2 at PCM O/P terminal of modulator. Keep Bit select
switch at 4 – Bit Position.
The PCM modulated waveform will be seen. _ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T3)
Also, Observe Ramp Signal. _ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T4)

4. Connect CRO channel – 2 at Raw Data Terminal of Demodulator.

Observe quantised recovered raw data signal. _ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T5)

5. Change bit select switch to 3 – bit position and observe steps in output. The steps will be
reduced to 8 form 16.

6. Then, connect CRO channel - 2 at FIL O/P terminal of Low Pass Filtered and observe
filtered observed recovered signal. _ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T6)

7. Now keep frequency selection switch at Fast Position in Sampling pulse generator section
and observe counting effect on LEDS output from 0000 to 1111 as input modulating
signal amplitude.

To Measure Bit Rate of PCM: -

1. Connect CRO channel – 2 at RAMP terminal of modulator and observe the ramp signal.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _Waveform (T7)
2. Measure Time period of Ramp signal on CRO. It will be 40µs.
3. Then, bit clock will be 1/40µs = 25 KHz.
Connection Diagram CN1
Advantages of PCM: -
• Very high noise immunity.
• Due to digital nature of signal, repeaters can be placed between the transmitter the
transmitter and the receivers. The repeaters actually regenerate the received PCM signal.
This is not possible in analog systems. Repeaters further reduce the effect of noise.
• It is possible to store the PCM signal due to its digital nature.
• It is possible to use various coding techniques so that only desired person can decode the
received signal.

Disadvantages of PCM: -
• The encoding, decoding and quantizing circuitry of PCM is very complex.
• PCM requires a large bandwidth as compared to the systems.

Applications of PCM: -
• In telephony (with advanced fibre optics cables).
• In space communication where a spacecraft transmits signal to earth. Here the transmitted
power is very low (10 to 15W) and the distances are huge, (a few million km). Still due to
high noise immunity, only PCM systems can be used in such applications.

Conclusion: -
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