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ARAMIS or
THE LOVE OF TECHNOLOGY
ARAMIS or
THE LOVE OF TECHNOLOGY

Bruno Latour
TRANSLATED BY CATHERINE PORTER

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London, England
Copyright © 1996 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Second printing, 1996

This book was originally published as Aramis, ou l’amour des

techniques, by Editions La Découverte, copyright © 1993
by Editions La Déecouverte, Paris.

Publication of this book has been aided by

a grant from the French Ministry of Culture.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Latour, Bruno.
[Aramis. English]
Aramis, or the love of technology / Bruno Latour : translated by
Catherine Porter.
p. cm.
ISBN 0--674—04322—7 (alk. paper)
ISBN 0-674—04323—5 (paperback : alk. paper)
1. Local transit—France—Paris Metropolitan Area. 2. Personal
rapid transit—France—Paris Metropolitan Area. _ I. Title.
HE4769.P3L3813 1996
388.4'0944’361—dc20 95—34920
CONTENTS ;
Preface ix
Prologue: Who Killed Aramis? 1

1 An Exciting Innovation 12
2 Is Aramis Feasible? 51

3 Shilly-Shallying in the Seventies 84

4 Interphase: Three YearsofGrace 124
5 The 1984 Decision: Aramis Exists for Real 159

6 Aramis at the CET Stage: Will It Keep Its Promises? 203

7 Aramis Is Ready to Go (Away) 251
Epilogue: Aramis Unloved 289

Glossary 303

Photographs follow page 158

TO SIMON SCHAFFER J
PREFACE

Can we unravel the tortuous history of a state-of-the-art technol-

ogy from beginning to end, as a lesson to the engineers, decisionmakers,
and users whose daily lives, for better or for worse, depend on such
technology? Can we make the human sciences capable of comprehend-
ing the machines they view as inhuman, and thus reconcile the educated
public with bodies it deems foreign to the social realm? Finally, can we
turn a technological object into the central character of a narrative,
restoring to literature the vast territories it should never have given
up—namely, science and technology?
Three questions, a single case study in scientifiction.
Samuel Butler tells the story of a stranger passing through the
land of Erewhon who is thrown into prison because he owns a watch.
Outraged at the verdict, he gradually discovers that draconian measures
forbid the introduction of machinery. According to the inhabitants of
Erewhon, a cataclysmic process of Darwinian evolution might allow a
simple timepiece to give birth to monsters that would rule over
humans. The inhabitants are not technologically backward; but they have
voluntarily destroyed all advanced machines and have kept none but the
simplest tools, the only ones compatible with the purity of their mores.
Butler’s Nowhere world is not a utopia. It is our own intellectual
universe, from which we have in effect eradicated all technology. In
this universe, people who are interested in the souls of machines are
severely punished by being isolated in their own separate world, the
world of engineers, technicians, and technocrats.
 By publishing this book, I would like to try to bring that isolation
to an end.
I have sought to offer humanists a detailed analysis of a technology
sufficiently magnificent and spiritual to convince them that the machines
by which they are surrounded are cultural objects worthy of their
attention and respect. They'll find that if they add interpretation of
machines to interpretation of texts, their culture will not fall to pieces;
instead, it will take on added density. I have sought to show technicians
that they cannot even conceive of a technological object without taking
into account the mass of human beings with all their passions and
politics and pitiful calculations, and that by becoming good sociologists
and good humanists they can become better engineers and better-
informed decisionmakers. An object that is merely technological is a
utopia, as remote as the world of Erewhon. Finally, I have sought to
show researchers in the social sciences that sociology is not the science
of human beings alone—that it can welcome crowds of nonhumans
with open arms, just as it welcomed the working masses in the
nineteenth century. Our collective is woven together out of speaking
subjects, perhaps, but subjects to which poor objects, our inferior
brothers, are attached at all points. By opening up to include objects,
the social bond would become less mysterious.
What genre could I choose to bring about this fusion of two so
clearly separated universes, that of culture and that of technology, as
well as the fusion of three entirely distinct literary genres—the novel,
the bureaucratic dossier, and sociological commentary? Science fiction
is inadequate, since such writing usually draws upon technology for
setting rather than plot. Even fiction is superfluous, for the engineers
who dream up unheard-of systems always go further, as we shall see,
than the best-woven plots. Realism would be misleading, for it would
construct plausible settings for its narratives on the basis of specific
states of science and technology, whereas what I want to show is how
those states are generated. Everything in this book is true, but nothing
in it will seem plausible, for the science and technology it relies upon
remain controversial, open-ended. A journalistic approach might have
sufficed, but journalism itself is split by the great divide, the one I’m

vn PREFACE
seeking to eliminate, between popularizing technology and denouncing
its politics. Adopting the discourse of the human sciences as a master
discourse was not an option, clearly, for it would scarcely be fitting to
call the hard sciences into question only in order to start taking the
soft ones as dogma.
Was I obliged to leave reality behind in order to inject a bit of
emotion and poetry into austere subjects? On the contrary, I wanted
to come close enough to reality so that scientific worlds could become
once again what they had been: possible worlds in conflict that move
and shape one another. Did I have to take certain liberties with reality?
None whatsoever. But I had to restore freedom to all the realities
involved before any one of them could succeed in unifying the others.
The hybrid genre I have devised for a hybrid task is what I call
scientifiction.
For such a work, I needed a topic worthy of the task. Thanks to
the Regie Autonome des Transports Parisiens (RATP), I was able to
learn the story of the automated train system known as Aramis. Aramis
was not only technologically superb but also politically impeccable.
There was no “Aramis affair,” no scandal in the newspapers. Better
still, during the same period the very same companies, the same
engineers and administrators, succeeded in developing the VAL auto-
mated subway systems whose background forms a perfect counter-
weight to the complex history of Aramis. Even though I had not gone
looking for it at the outset, the principle of symmetry hit home: How
can people be condemned for failing when those very same people are
succeeding elsewhere?
I could have done nothing without the openness and sophistication,
new to me, of the world of guided transportation (that is, transportation
that functions on rails). The few engineers and decisionmakers in this
held, who have been renewing the framework of French urban life
through spectacular innovations in public transportation over the last
twenty years, were nevertheless willing to cooperate in the autopsy of
a failure. It is owing to their openmindedness, with special thanks to the
RATP, the Institut National de Recherche sur les Transports (INRETS),
and Matra Transport, that Aramis can be presented to us all as an

PREFACE a
 exemplary meditation on the difficulties of innovation. So Aramis will
not have died in vain.
This book, despite its strange experimental style, draws more
heavily than the footnotes might suggest on the collective work of the
new sociologists of technology. Particularly relevant has been the work
of Madeleine Akrich, Wiebe Bijker, Geoffrey Bowker, Alberto Cam-
brosio, Michel Callon, John Law, and Donald MacKenzie. Unfortu-
nately, the book was published too soon for me to use the treasure
trove of narrative resources developed by Richard Powers, the master
of scientifiction and author of Galatea 2.2, whose Helen is Aramis’ un-
expected cousin.
Here is one more cue for readers:
In this book, a young engineer is describing his research project
and his sociotechnological initiation. His professor offers a running
commentary. The (invisible) author adds verbatim accounts of real-life
interviews along with genuine documents, gathered in a field study
carried out from December 1987 to January 1989. Mysterious voices
also chime in and, drawing from time to time on the privileges of
prosopopoeia, allow Aramis to speak. These discursive modes have to
be kept separate if the scientifiction is to be maintained; they are
distinguished by typography. The text composed in this way offers as a
whole, I hope, both a little more and a little less than a story.

——
"IT’S TRULY A NOVEL, THAT STORY J
ABOUT ARAMIS .. ."
"NO, IT'S A NOVEL THAT'S TRUE, A
REPORT, A NOVEL, A NOVEL-REPORT.“
"WHAT, A FAKE LOVE STORY?"
"NO, A REAL TECHNOLOGY STORY."
"NONSENSE! LOVE IN TECHNOLOGY?!"
afr
LGA) Corgy St(eR)(D)
GA) (er) ontigny-Beaucha Christophe 7 olssy
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PROLOGUE: WHO KILLED ARAMIS¢

The first thing I saw when I went into Norbert H.’s office was
the new RATP poster on the wall [see Photo 1]:

ee eee reer eee reece eee eee ee

(DOCUMENT: TEXT OF THE RATP’S ADVERTISEMENT LAUNCHING THE R-312 BUS]

Darwin was right!

RATP means the evolution and adaptation of buses in anur-
ban environment.
In 1859 Darwin proposed his theory of evolution, main-
taining that the struggle for life and natural selection
should be seen as the basic mechanisms of evolution.
The latest product of this evolution is the R-312 bus,
which is about to begin service on Line 38. For the occasion,
today’s buses and their predecessors will joinina big pa-
rade in honor of the R-312.
The theory of evolution has its advantages. Thanks to Dar-
win, you can ride our buses around the Luxembourg Garden for
free on Wednesday, Junel.

“Chausson begat Renault, Renault begat Schneider, Schneider

begat the R-312 . . . Darwin’s theory has its downside,” said my future
mentor solemnly when he saw me reading the poster. “There are people
 who want to study the transformation of technological objects without
worrying about the engineers, institutions, economies, or populations
involved in their development. The theory of evolution can take such
people for a ride! If you leave your engineering school to come study
innovation, my friend, you'll have to drop all that third-rate biology.
This may disappoint you, but—unless I’m completely incompetent in
such matters—a bus does not have sex organs. Never mind the poster:
the R-312 doesn’t descend from the Chausson APU 53 the way humans
descend from apes. You can climb aboard a bus, but you can't climb
back to the Schneider H that was all over Paris in 1916. Frankenstein’s
monster with his big dick and his lopsided face? Such things exist only
in novels. You’d have quite a crowd of people parading around the
Luxembourg Garden if you really wanted to honor all of the new bus’s
progenitors.”
I hadn't yet done any in-depth studies of technological projects.
I'd just emerged from a telecommunications school where I'd taken
only physics and math; I’d never seen a motor, or a chip, or even the
inside of a telephone. That’s why I wanted to spend a year at the Ecole
des Mines, in sociology. There at least, or so I'd been told, ambitious
young people could learn the engineering trade and study real projects
in the field. I didn’t find it at all reassuring to be abandoning the peace
and quiet of technological certainties only to apprentice myself to a
laboratory Sherlock who'd just been entrusted by the RATP with the
investigation of a recent murder: “Who killed Aramis?” I'd read The
Three Musketeers, but I didn’t know Aramis and wasn’t aware he was
dead. In the beginning, I really thought I’d landed in a whodunnit,
especially since Norbert, the inspector to whom I'd been assigned, was
a fellow at least forty years old with a Columbo-style raincoat.
“Here’s the beast,” my professor said [see Photos 11—14]. “It’s a
new transportation system, apparently a brilliant design. A combination
of private cars and public transportation. The ideal, you might say. In
any case, it’s not like the R-312; there wasn’t any parade in Aramis’
honor, and there certainly weren’t any Darwinian posters. Just a slightly
sad farewell party on the boulevard Victor, at the site of the Center for
Technological Experimentation (CET) three weeks ago, in early De-

2 PROLOGUE
 a
cember 1987. A promising, seductive, dazzling line of technology has
been buried without fanfare. The site will be an empty lot for a while,
until it’s developed as part of the renovation of the quai de Javel. You
should have seen how mournful the engineers were. According to what
they told me, the project was really admirable. They'll never have
another chance to build, from the ground up, an entirely automatic and
entirely revolutionary system of guided transportation—a system run-
ning on rails. But Aramis fell out of favor. “They dropped us—that’s
what the engineers say. ‘They’ who? The Nature of Things? Technological
Evolution? The Parisian Jungle? That's what we've been asked to find
out, my friend, because we don’t belong to the transportation world.
Some people claim that Aramis wouldn’t have kept its promises. But
others, apparently, say that it was the State that didn't keep its promises.
It’s up to us to sort all this out, and we can’t rely on Darwin or on
sexual metaphors. And it won't be easy.”
Personally, I didn’t see the problem. | replied confidently that all
we had to do was take a close look to see whether the project was
technologically feasible and economically viable.
“That's all?” asked my mentor.
“What? Oh, no, of course not; it also has to be socially accept-
able.”
Since my professor was a sociologist, I thought I was on the right
track. But he grinned sardonically and showed me his first interview
notes.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

“It doesn't make any sense. Six months ago, everybody thought it was the
eighth wonder of the world. Then all of a sudden everything fell apart. Nobody
supported it any longer. It happened so fast that no one can figure it out. The
head of the company can't figure it out either. Can you do something? Say
something? . . ."
“It had been going on for twenty years; the time had come to call it quits.
It'll be a fine case tor you muckrakers from the Ecole des Mines. Why did they
keep that monstrosity going so long on intravenous feedings, until somebody
finally had the balls fo yank out the tubes? . . .”

PROLOGUE / 3
 It's typically French. You have a system that's supposedly brilliant, but
nobody wants it. It's a white elephant. You go on and on indetinitely. The
scientists have a high old time . . .”
“That's France for you. You get a good thing going, for export; it’s at the
cutting edge technologically; people pour money into it for fifteen years; if
revolutionizes public transportation. And then what happens? The Right comes
fo power and everything comes to a screeching halt, with no warning, just
when there’s finally going to be a payolt. It would really help if you could do
something about it. Why did they drop a promising project like this atter
supporting it for so long? . . .”
"The industrial developer let it go. They got their studies done at our
expense; then it was ‘Thank you’ and ‘Goodbye’. . .”
“The operating agency couldn't accept an innovation that was the least bit
radical. Corporate culture is the problem. Resistance to change. Rejection of
a transplant..."
“The public authorities are losing interest in public transportation. It’s another
ploy by the Finance Ministry, business as usual...”
“It's an economic problem. It was beautitul, but it cost too much. So there
was no choice..."
“It's oldtashioned. It’s backwarclooking. It’s the sixties. In 1987 it's no
good, it won't fly..."
“In ten years—no, five—it'll be back, take my word for it. I'll have a new
name; but the same needs create the same technologies. And then people will
really kick themselves tor abandoning it just when everybody would have
wanted if..."

“But what’s the real answer?” I asked with a naivete that |

regretted at once.
“If there were one, they wouldn't pay us to find it, chum. In fact,
they don’t know what killed Aramis. They really don’t know. Obviously,
if by ‘real answer’ you mean the official version—then, yes, such
versions exist. Here’s one.”

4 PROLOGUE
nae
[DOCUMENT: EXCERPTS FROM AN ARTICLE PUBLISHED IN ENJRE LES LIGNES,
THE RATP HOUSE ORGAN, JANUARY 1988]

Four questions for M. Maire, head of research and develop-

ment.
Do transportation systems like Aramis really filla
niche, fromthe user’s point of view?
The idea of little automated cabs that provide service on
demand is seductive a priori, but hard to bring of f economi-
cally. Furthermore, the creation of a new mode of transpor-
tation is atricky business inacity where billions of
francs have been invested in the infrastructures of other
transportation systems that do the job perfectly well. In
new cities or in cities that don’t have their own “on-site”
transportation, a system like Aramis can offer an interest-
ing solution. The project designed for the city of Montpel-
lier would be a good example, except that there, too, imple-
mentation had to be postponed for financial reasons.
People talk about the failure of the Aramis project. But
can’t it be seen as a success, given that the experimental
card was played and appropriate conclusions were drawn?
It’s nota failure; onthe contrary, it’s atechnological
success. The CET has demonstrated that the Aramis princi-
ples were valid and that the system could work. We did play
the card of experimentation, there’s no doubt about it. But
the evolution of needs and financial resources doesn’t al-
low for the implementation of sucha systemto be included
among the current priorities for mass transportation in
Paris. Why would you want us to keep on trying to perfect a
transportation system that we see no real use for inthe
short run, or even in the medium run?
The Aramis CET was the first phase of a project that was
intended to serve the southern part of the Petite Ceinture
in Paris. The problem of providing this service still hasn’t
been resolved. Aren’t there some risks involved in coupling
a research project like this with a project for upgrading
the transportation network?
The important thing now is to protect the existing track

PROLOGUE [5
 system of the Petite Ceinture so as to avoid mortgaging the
construction of a future public transportation line. Any-
way, some market studies will have to be redone, perhaps
with an eye toward liaison with an automated mini-metro. As
for the notion of risk, I don’t agree. If we don’t try
things, we’1ll never accomplish anything new. Generally
speaking, it stimulates research if you have concrete objec-
tives. It alsomakes it easier to mobilize decisionmakers
around a project—even if there’s some risk in doing so!
Aramis comes across as a technological gamble. Do the
studies that have been carried out give Matra Transport and
the RATP a head start in the realmof automated urban trans-
portation?
Even if the Aramis project wasn’t initially intended to
be amelting pot for new urban transportation technologies,
it ended up playing that role. There will be a lot of spill-
over. Besides, research has shown how important it was to
take a global approach in thinking about the transportation
of tomorrow. The key to success is as much in the overall vi-
Sion of the systemas inmastery of the various technologi-
cal components.

I wasn’t used to making subtle distinctions between technical

feasibility and “official versions” of what is feasible or not. I’d been
trained as an engineer. I didn't really see how we were going to go
about finding the key to the enigma.
“By going to see everybody who's being criticized and blamed.
Nothing could be simpler.”
My boss had his own peculiar way of going about these things. In
the evening, after the interviews, he would organize “meetings and
confrontations” (as he called them) in his file-cluttered office. What he
actually did was arrange our interview transcripts in little bundles.
“That’s the big difference between sociology and justice. They
don’t come to us; we go to them. They answer only if they feel like it,
and they say only what they want to say.”

$s _ PROLOGUE
 Oe
“You see,” he went on during one of these daily “confrontations,”
“there have been hardly any questions about the proximate causes of
Aramis’ death. It all happened in three months.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

The scene is the RATP premises on the boulevard Victor, in December 1987,
three hundred yards from the workshop where the five Aramis prototype cars
sit motionless. The project engineers are talking heatedly:
"While a meeting was under way in February 1987, M. Etienne [of Matra]
secretly distributed a ‘provisional verbal note’ {it was in writing, all the same}
saying ‘Stop everything.’ Frankly, we didn’t understand what was going on."
[no. 2]*
M. Girard, in a temporary office downtown:
“The end didn't surprise me. The Finance Ministry was all it took... We
had a colossus with feet of clay. Its whole support structure had disappeared
in the meantime . . .
“It hardly matters who was responsible for piling on the last straw; that was
just the proximate cause. In any event, the point is that all it took was one last
straw. \t doesn't matter who killed the project. As for the proximate cause, |
don't know.”
“But you know the remote cause?"
“Yes, of course. Actually, when | realized that Aramis had been called off,
it didn’t surprise me. For me, it was built right into the nature of things.” [no.
18]

M. Desclées, in an elegant suburban office of the Institut National de

Recherche sur les Transports {INRETS):
“There's one thing | don’t want to see glossed over in your study . . . There
was a very important political change after 1986.' Soulas, the new RATP
president, had been general inspector of finances, whereas Quin’s experience

*The numbers refer to the original interviews. Certain protagonists were

interviewed several times. Some interviews were conducted in a group setting. Certain
data come from sessions devoted to summing up the investigation for the benefit of
the client; these sessions are called “restitutions.”
'The legislative election brought the Right to office for a two-year period of
power sharing between President Francois Mitterand and Prime Minister Jacques
Chirac.

PROLOGUE =
 was in marketing and public relations. The new president wanted to bring all
superfluous research to a halt. After a few months | went to see him; he told
me to ‘cut all that out.’ | said, ‘When you've already spent 95 percent of your
budget, maybe it's best to keep going.’
“Soulas got the endgame under way when he fold Etienne that the construc:
tion of the line would not be included in the next Five-Year Plan; this was in
late 1986 or early 1987.
So the RATP people may tell you that they ‘don’t understand what hap-
pened,’ but the first blow came trom within their own ranks.” [no. 11]
M. Fréque, one of Matra's directors, speaking at Matra headquarters:
"By late 1986 I'd become convinced that it had fo stop . . . Our conclusions
were increasingly negative. Production costs were going up, with harmful
results for us because the State's participation was constant whereas ours was
variable.
"So as early as the twenty-seventh month we were going in a different
direction from the protocol. The others were saying, ‘Finish your product and
do what you can with it. Later on, we'll see about building the line.’
"Read the protocol: by the twenty-seventh month we were supposed fo be
in production! In my first report, this was clearly spelled out; later on, they
glossed over it.
"That was it, for me. |’d faith in this thing. We came to an agreement. The
testing team worked on November 11, a legal holiday, and I’m very proud of
that. When the ship is going down, you stay at your post until the last
minute—that’s something | believe in.” [no. 6]
Matra headquarters again. M. Etienne, the president is speaking:
"What changed everything was the change of president [of the RATP]. He
came in June; | met him in October 1986. He said, ‘Give me time.’ | took him
to Lille on October 26 to see VAL. | remember | sent him a note. ‘Here’s what
we think: we don’t have any major applications; the system has to be simplitied;
the network isn’t complicated enough to justity a complicated system.’
“He told me, ‘There'll be practically nothing in the Tenth Plan for the
RATP—not for Aramis at any rate, not for construction of the line.’ | thanked him
for his frankness. Now that I’ve gotten to know him, he’s very straightforward.
‘Nothing will happen for the next seven years.
".. The RATP was accepting the cutbacks, very quietly. Wwe were wonder-
ing how far they were going to allow this thing to go.

[9 PROLOGUE
 “But during that period | found out for certain that neither the DIT nor the
finance minister intended to contribute a thing. Soulas was right.
"This is where my February 1987 note came trom. Nothing was going to
happen for seven years. ‘Matra wants to pull out early—that’s what the RATP
people were saying.
“What we were saying here was: ‘let's refocus Aramis, make it more
elticient.’" We wanted to renegotiate. ‘VVhen we start up again seven years
trom now, we'll at least have something to start with.’
“They sulked. ‘Since you want to pull out, we'll shut the whole thing down.’
That wasn't what we wanted. But the State and the public authorities didn't
have any more money.
"With patience, Soulas got the reforms he was atter. He got Aramis shut
down; he was totally honest.” [no. 21]
M. Maire, one of the directors in charge of the RATP’s research and
development, speaking at the agency's headquarters:
“Etienne showed VAL to Soulas, and Soulas saw his chance to ask: ‘What
about Aramis?’ ‘It won't get a cent.’ ‘| get the picture,’ Etienne replied."
‘So the final decision really did come trom the RATP?"
M. Etienne: “No, no, not at all. Soulas was the mouthpiece for the Finance
Ministry. For them, any innovation is a drain on resources. It certainly wasn't a
question of Soulas’ being won over by the RATP or by our people, our
engineers." [no. 22]
M. Soulas, president of the RATP. in his plush second-floor office overlooking
the Seine:
‘Aramis died all by itself, Professor H. | didn't intervene. | can say this quite
freely, because I’m an interventionist president and I'd tell you if I’d stepped in.
| didn't understand what was happening. It had been on track for fifteen years.
“lt was a seductive idea, Aramis—really quite ingenious. It wasn't a line
like a subway, but more like a bloodstream: it was supposed to irrigate, like
veins and arteries. Obviously the idea doesn’t make sense if the system be
comes a linear circuit—that is, if it ceases to be a network.
“But this good idea never found a geographic footing. It was abstract. In
its linear form, it tended to get transformed into a little metro; as a system, it
became increasingly hybrid and complicated. Many people admired it. It
became more and more technical, less and less comprehensible to the uniniti-
ated, and a source of anxiety for the Finance Ministry. | watched it die. | didn’t
intervene in its death; | didn't have to.”

PROLOGUE 2
 “But you pushed a little, didn't you?"
“No, | didn’t need to push. | found out one day that Aramis was being
jettisoned. Matra had decided, or the RATP technicians . . . I'd be interested
to know whose decision it was, actually. My feeling is that Matra made the
fatal move. In any event, the top priority now is adding a line that will parallel
Line A of the RER. Before, we could atford to experiment with Aramis; now we
can't even manage a night on the town, as it were.”
[Settling back more comfortably in his armchair] “It's extraordinary that
they've asked you to do this study! You know what it reminds me of? Oedipus’
asking the soothsayer why the plague has come to Thebes! . . . You have the
answer in the question itself. They wear blinders. Oh, there's not an ounce of
ill will among the lot of them, but I’ve never seen such unpolitical people. ‘How
could it happen?’ they must be wondering. ‘How could we make something
that works, and then it all goes belly-up?’ It’s touching, really—shows an
extraordinary lack of awareness. Their own case intrigues them, because they
like sociology . . . Aramis is such an intricate mess, incredibly intricate." [no.
19]

“You see, my friend, how precise and sophisticated our informants

are,” Norbert commented as he reorganized his notecards. “They talk
about Oedipus and about proximate causes . . . They know everything.
They're doing our sociology for us, and doing it better than we can;
it’s not worth the trouble to do more. You see? Our job is a cinch. We
just follow the players. They all agree, in the end, about the death of
Aramis. They blame each other, of course, but they speak with one
voice: the proximate cause of death is of no interest—it’s just a final
blow, a last straw, a ripe fruit, a mere consequence. As M. Girard said
so magnificently, ‘It was built right into the nature of things.’ There’s
no point in deciding who finally killed Aramis. It was a collective
assassination. An abandonment, rather. It’s useless to get bogged down
concentrating on the final phase. What we have to do is see who built
those ‘things’ in, and into what ‘natures.’ We're going to have to go back
to the beginning of the project, to the remote causes. And remember,
this business went on for seventeen years.”

| 19 PROLOGUE
 “There’s one small problem,” I said timidly. “I don’t know a thing
about transportation.”
“Neither do I,” replied my boss serenely. “That’s why I was
chosen. In a year, you can learn about any subject in the world. There's
work ahead, but it will be good for your education. Youre going to
lose your innocence about the sexuality of technology, Mister Young
Engineer. And I’m going to take advantage of the opportunity by writing
a little commentary, a little sociology manual to make your work easier.
You're to read it in addition to the books on this list; they're all in the
school library.”
He put on his old raincoat and disappeared in the drizzle, heading
down the boulevard Saint-Michel.
Left to my own devices, I looked at the list. It included eighty-six
titles, two-thirds of them in English. Tell an engineer to read books? It
was quite a shock. As for the commentary, I was certainly going to
need it, because there was a further complication: the laboratory where
I was doing my internship used the word “sociology” in a way that
absolutely no one else did.

PROLOGUE pt
 AN EXCITING INNOVATION Ta

“As it turns out,” Norbert told me, “we're going to get a lot of
help from a retrospective study done by the RATP. Here’s a chrono-
logical chart that sums up the project’s phases starting in 1970. Each
phase is defined by its code name, by the money spent (in constant
francs), and by its time frame. The horizontal axis shows annual expen-
ditures. You can see they hesitated a lot. And the point at which they
were spending the most money is the point at which everything ground
to a halt, in 1987.”
| “It stopped before 1981, you’d have to say. And after Mitterand’s
election it started up again. Then, after Chirac’s government came in,
it fell off again...”
“That’s right, my friend, elections do count in technology. You
didn’t suspect that?”
“Uh, well, yes,” I responded prudently. “So we're beginning with
the preliminary phase?”
“Yes, this one, right before Phase 0.”

PROJECT CHRONOLOGY

1969: DATAR enlists Bardet’s company Automatisme et

Technique, for a study of various Personal Rapid
Transit systems.
1970: Matra buys patents from Automatisme et Tech-
nique.
 1973: Test site at Orly; three-vehicle train; demerging;
merging; regrouping; four seats; off-line stations;
passenger-selected destination; Transport Expo
exhibit in Washington.
1974, February: Final report on Phase 0; creation of the Aramis
development committee.
1974, May: Beginning of Phase 1; site analyses for the South
Line; eleven sites studied; six seats; concept of
point-to-point service abandoned; end of whole-
sale use of off-line stations. Giscard d’Estaing
elected president; Bertin’s aerotrain abandoned;
tramway competition initiated.
1975: Variable-reluctance motor.
1976: Final report on Phase 1; Aramis simplified for
economic reasons.
1977: Beginning of Phase 2A; Aramis simplified; ten
seats; site analyses in Marne-la-Vallee; VAL mar-
keted in Lille.
1978: Final report on Phase 2A; beginning of Phase
3A; test of the system’s main components; test-
ing grounds established; site analyses at La
Defense and Saint-Denis, on the Petite Ceinture,
and elsewhere.
1980: Final report on Phase 3A.
1981: Teams disbanded; no activity. Mitterand elected
president; Fiterman named transportation minis-
ter; Quin becomes president of the RATP.
1982: Team reconstituted from VAL teams; site analy-
ses in Dijon, Montpellier, Nice, and Toulon, and
on the Petite Ceinture; Araval proposal, Aramis
greatly simplified; initiation of SACEM project.
Phase 3B: two-car units, twenty passengers; new
test runs at Orly; initiation of the project for the
World’s Fair.
1983: Favorable final report on Phase 3B; VAL put into
service; World’s Fair project abandoned (June);
site analyses in Montpellier for an Aramis using
the VAL automation system.
1984, July: Protocol for construction of CET signed; Fiter-
man and Communist ministers leave the admini-
stration.

AN EXCITING INNOVATION pts

 10 20 30 AO Millions of francs per year

1970
Preliminary Phase
1971

1972 — - —
1973 _ Phase’ 0 | a Orly Site
1974
1975;
-— — |e
oe V| Motor,
1976 |. oo| South
ee Phase
- a Line
1977 - Phase 2A | Aramis simplified
1978

1979 | | | | Installation
1980 a _ Phase SA ~ of components
198]

Phase oe
Interohase
1982 Two-car unit (doublet), CMD, microprocessors
1983 — —
1985) Be
1984 oe Phase 4 a —
1986 i oo : : Cel
1987 On |
1988

lO 20 30 AO Millions of francs per year

Figure 1]. Total and annual expenses by phase, in 1992 francs. After Phase 3A,
the amounts no longer include either the RATP’s internal expenses or Matra’s
cost overruns. (Official contracts, January 1, 1988.)

p14 AN EXCITING INNOVATION

a 1985: Scale model of two-car Aramis presented. 1986:

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

“PRT?”
First two-car unit delivered; two-tiered Aramis
proposed; studies of potential ridership; Chirac
named prime minister; Quin leaves the RATP.
1987: Termination of project announced; fifth two-car
unit delivered; three weeks of contradictory test
runs; project halted; postmortem study begun.

M. Liévin, INRETS engineer:

“Aramis is the last of the PRT systems, you know."

“It was fashionable at the time—Personal Rapid Transit, PRT. Everybody was
excited about it.”
“When was this?”
"Oh, around the sixties. The Kennedy era. Private cars were on the way
out—that’s what everyone was saying. But at the same time the advantages
of cars had to be maintained; we couldn't keep moving in the direction of mass
transportation.” [no. 15]
M. Etienne, at Matra:
“In 1972 the Transport Expo took place in Washington. That exhibit was
critical for PRTs. Everybody in the world came. There were Boeing systems,
there were Bendix systems. People were beginning to recognize the potential
ot computers. It seemed logical to control vehicles trom a central computer.”
[no. 21]
M. Cohen, speaking at Matra’s Besancon office:
‘All the major manutacturers plunged into PRTs: Boeing, Otis, we did the
same thing at Matra. There were at least ten different systems. None of them
worked. Aramis is the one that lasted the longest; it was the most credible,
tinally. We wouldn't do it the same way today; we wouldn't tell ourselves that,
well, we know how to make planes and satellites, great, mass transportation
must be a cinch. It’s not true; it’s not that easy. A train may well be more
complicated than a satellite, technologically speaking.” [no. 45]
Mr. Britten, an American private consultant in Paris:
“With PRTs, what doesn’t work is the P. P means people, not personal. We
knew trom the beginning that that part didn’t have a chance. In 1975—1 have

AN EXCITING INNOVATION pts

 the report right here, you can look at it—we said that the only thing that made
a difference was government support.* Either the project gets continuous
government support, or else the whole family of Aramis-type PRTs collapses. It's
that simple.”

Summary of European PRT Project. (From ECOPLAN, Innovational Guide-

way Systems and Technology in Europe |Paris: Transport Research Group, January
1975].)
Year of Government Present
Project name origin backing Status in 1971—72 status
ARAMIS 1967 Yes Advanced R&D Active
CABINENTAXI 1969 Yes Hardware Active
development
CABTRACK 1965 = Yes Advanced R&D Abandoned
Coup 1969 None Concept only Abandoned
ELAN SIG 1970 None System design Under study
Heidt 1971 None Concept only Abandoned
Automatischebahn
Schienentaxi 1975 None Concept only Abandoned
Spartaxi 1969 None PRT site study Set aside
TRP (Otis TTT) 1968 Some Active
TRANSURBAN 1969 None Preliminary Abandoned
NONSTOP design
“Here’s an innovation with a niche that’s easy to understand, for
once,” sighed my boss as he elbowed people aside so we could exit
from the subway car. “If I take my car, I’m stuck for hours in traffic
jams. If I walk, I breathe carbon dioxide and get lead poisoning. If I
take my bike, I get knocked down. And if I take the subway, I get
crushed by three hundred people. Here, for once, we have no problem
understanding the engineers. They’ve come up with a system that allows
us to be all by ourselves in a quiet little car, and at the same time were

*See also Catherine G. Burke, Innovation and Public Policy: The Case of Personal
Rapid Transit (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1979).

p18 AN EXCITING INNOVATION

in a mass transit network, with no worries and no traffic jams. That
would be the ideal. I for one would welcome PRTs like the Messiah.”
“Isn’t it always that way?” I asked.
“You've got to be kidding! The last study I read was on inertial
guidance systems for intercontinental missiles.* Those things are not
greeted like the Messiah.”
“You're right,” I said, edging back into the cloud of smoke on the
quai des Grands-Augustins.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Parlat, speaking in the now-emply prefabricated building on the boule-

vard Victor that had been the Aramis project site:
“Aramis, the heart of Aramis, is nonmaterial coupling. That's the whole key.
The cars don’t touch each other physically. Their connection is simply calcu-
lated.”
‘Forgive my ignorance, but there's something | don't understand. Why don't
they attach the cars together mechanically? | mean, | don't know, with magnetic
couplings, and then uncouple them automatically? They really don't know how
to do if?”
"No, it’s out of the question. Eveything has been tried. We know how to
do automatic couplings and uncouplings on stationary cars. We don't know
how to couple and uncouple moving vehicles mechanically. Think about it: cars
that are several meters long, going 30 kilometers an hour, coming up to a
switch. Okay, this one takes the siding, that one keeps on going and links up
with the car ahead. Mechanically, it's impossible. No, it can only be calcu-
lated, and even that isn’t as simple as it sounds.” [no. 3]
M. Liévin, speaking at INRETS:
“If you take trains made up of elements that can each go in a difterent
direction, it's impossible to use mechanical couplings. Besides, there’s a simple
problem. Mechanical coupling transmits the force of all the other cars during
braking and startup. So each car has to be solid enough to stand up against
the entire train. PRTs are lightweight vehicles—automobiles, nutshells. They can
be light because they never touch each other, because they're connected

*D. MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance

Systems (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990).

AN EXCITING INNOVATION ps7

 electronically but not physically. That's the Aramis revolution: a major weight
reduction. We've gone from railroads to automobiles, thanks to nonmaterial
coupling.” [no. 15]
M. Chalvon, at Alsthom:
“You never talk about mechanical uncoupling as a solution?”
“No, it doesn't exist. It’s impossible. In any case, not if speed is a factor.
It's not even an option. It just doesn't come up.” [no. 46]

How to frame a technological investigation? By sticking to the frame-

work and the limits indicated by the interviewees themselves.
They all say the same thing: “At the time, the world was dreaming
of PRTs; mechanical uncoupling was impossible.” For our informants, PRTs
are no longer the invention of an isolated engineer, traceable through
projects, contracts, and memoranda; rather, they’re a collective dream. The
technological impossibility of uncoupling is not a decision or the opinion
of a handful of researchers. It’s self-evident, obvious to everybody. Goes
without saying. Doesn’t generate the slightest controversy. It would take a
Martian landing in the world of guided transportation to open up that
question. Our interviewees no longer even manage to recall who might
have come up with the dream of PRT. They can’t tell you what institutions
were behind its development. They can’t come up with the names of the
dozen or so engineers, journalists, middlemen, and public officials that
would allow the investigator to replace the term “everybody” with a lobby,
a school, a network. In 1988 the Sixties are remote. The origin of the
project (1968, 1969) quickly gets lost in the mists of time, and like every
narrative of origins it takes on the mythical characteristics of all Mists of
Time: “Once upon a time; Everybody; No one can resist; Impossible.” Of
course, a historian of technology ought to work back toward that origin
and replace it with groups, interests, intentions, events, opinions. She would
go to America, to Germany, to Japan. She would visit the SNCF; she would
work out the entire history of couplings and uncouplings. She would rum-
mage through the archives. She would sketch the enormous fresco of
guided transportation. She would reposition Aramis “in its historical frame-
work”; she would determine its place in the entire history of guided-trans-
portation systems. She would go further and further back in time. But then
we would lose sight of Aramis, that particular event, that fiction seeking to

[18 AN EXCITING INNOVATION

a
come true. Since every study has to limit its scope, why not encompass it
within the boundaries proposed by the interviewees themselves? None of
them goes back further than 1965. For all of them, PRTs are beyond
discussion: everyone wanted them; they had to be developed. There is no
disagreement on this point. No engineer leaves open the possibility of
mechanical uncoupling of cars. It’s out of the question.
The investigator does not have to take the discussion any further. He
will enjoy reading the historian, enjoy crossing the mythical boundaries of
PRTs, enjoy perusing the history of the technological requirements of cou-
pling. But since his informants do not question the power of these things,
in his own analysis PRTs and couplings will play the role of what is “in the
air.” Everybody breathes it in equal proportions. It creates no distinctions.
None of the small bifurcations that will turn out to explain the project can
be dependent on that vast background common to all projects. The infra-
structure, even in the final instance, does not explain the fragile superstruc-
ture of the Aramis vehicles. If that indifference to the general “framework”
is shocking, let’s say that our sociology prefers a local history whose
framework is defined by the actors and not by the investigator. Our local
history will talk about Aramis, not about guided transportation, mechanical
couplings, or monopolistic state capitalism. On the other hand, it will let
the actors add whatever they choose to the framework; it will let them take
it as far as they care to go.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Still speaking with M. Parlat, on the boulevard Victor:

“! still don't understand very well. Why not make cars that stay far enough
apart? There’d be no need for nonmaterial couplings.”
“Because then you wouldn't be able to handle enough passengers. Each
vehicle is small; all passengers are seated. If you wait between cars, it's all
over—you'll be processing just a few passengers per hour. You need trains.
That's the constraint you start with, trom the beginning of PRTs." [no. 3]

Senate hearings, Washington, D.C., around 1965:

Senator Don MacKenzie: “But Professor, before you do away with
private cars with a stroke of your pen, can you show us how you expect

AN EXCITING INNOVATION pe
 Suburb O >» 0 _
O Train O O 002 To downtown
Branchings

O Separated modules
O
Figure 2. Principle of PRT systems.

to service the suburbs with your PRTs? In the inner city, okay. But just
think: What about Los Angeles?”
Jim Johnson, engineer: “On the contrary, Sir, it’s the ideal system
for serving large, thinly populated suburbs. What’s most expensive in
guided transportation, whether you’re talking about tramways, sub-
ways, or something else? The infrastructure, of course, first and fore-
most. But then what? The trains, the empty trains that never seem to
get calibrated. If you introduce a branch line, either you double the
number of trains so as to maintain a constant frequency—and that’s
expensive—or else you cut the frequency in half. If there’s just one
branch line, you can do it. But what if there are four, or eight, or
sixteen? At the outer edges of the network, there'll be just one train a
day—it’ll be like the Great Plains in the nineteenth century! And sub-
urbanites will buy a second car. It’s inevitable. What you have to do is
cut the branching trains into the smallest possible units. Just look at
the diagram [Figure 2]:
When some old lady—a housewife, let’s say—wants to go down-
town, she fiddles with her keyboard. The computer calculates the best
route. It says, ‘I'll be there in two minutes’; it’s like a taxi. But it’s a
collective taxi, with no driver, and it’s guided by computer. When it
arrives, the old lady finds it’s carrying a few of ber cronies whom the
computer has decided to put in the same cab. There’s no need for a
second car. There’s less pollution. And we’re still talking about the
suburbs, without a heavy infrastructure. It’s just like a car.”
Senator Tom “Network” Hughes: “But what do you do about the

20 AN EXCITING INNOVATION
 load factor, Professor? Your isolated train cars, operating far apart, are
fine at the end of the line where few people live, but when you get closer
to downtown they’re going to clog up. It'll be much too slow.”
Jim Johnson: “Right, right, that’s exactly the idea of the train. We
put cars together, like a real train, with independent cars, and that way
we take care of the passenger load.”
Senator Howarth: “You’re hardly going to couple and uncouple
them by hand a hundred times a day!”
Jim Johnson: “No, Sir, no, that would be too slow; we’re looking
for a practical way of coupling. By computer. But we haven’t quite
perfected it yet, I have to admit.”
Senator Wallace: “If I may say so, there’s something else that hasn’t
been perfected in this business. What if instead of finding her ‘cronies,’
as you put it, in this closed car with no driver, your housewife runs into
a couple of thugs? (I didn’t say ‘blacks’—be sure to get that straight.)
Then what does she do? What happens to her then?”
Jim Johnson (at a loss for words): “Uh...”
Senator Wallace: “Well, Pll tell you what happens, she gets raped!
And the rapist has all the time in the world, in this automated shell of
yours with no doors and no windows. You know what you’ve in-
vented? You’ve invented the rape wagon!”
[Shouting, commotion]

OO —————
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Liévin, at INRETS: “Aramis? It was the World's Fair. Without that, you can't
understand a thing about the project. It certainly wouldn't have started up again
in 1981, 1982." [no. 15].
Etienne, at Matra: “And then there was the World's Fair project. That's what
got it going again.” [no. 21]
Girard: "What explains my ‘conversion,’ if you like, was the project for the
1989 World's Fair. Every World's Fair presupposes a new form of transporta-
tion. Within the range of projects presented, Aramis was truly innovative:
France was really going to be able to present something that symbolized French
technology at the end of the 1980s. That's what made me change my mind.”
[no. 18, p. O]

$$ citin innovation iam

 “If Aramis had been ready in time for the World’s Fair, would it
have gotten everyone's attention?” I asked.
“Yes, everyone’s—it was really a compelling idea.”
“But there was no World’s Fair, as it turned out.”
“Well, no, Chirac didn’t want one; he didn’t want to upset
Parisians with reminders of the Revolution.” *

Reuters, September 10, 1989, from our special correspondent Ber-

nard Joerges. Every World’s Fair refurbishes the image of public trans-
portation to some extent. The one that marked the bicentennial of the
French Revolution in banner-bedecked Paris, the one that has just
closed its doors after a grand ceremony on the Champ-de-Mars, was
no exception to the rule. From this standpoint, one of the key features
of the fair was unquestionably the completely automated and com-
pletely modular transportation system called Aramis. More than mo-
torboats on the Seine, more than moving sidewalks, Aramis is a revo-
lutionary transportation system conceived and constructed by the
Matra Transport company, which has demonstrated its technological
superiority once again. Specialists in space technology and sophisti-
cated weaponry, the Matra people are shaking up the field of urban
transportation, which has been mired in tradition for so long. The
Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens (RATP), responsible for im-
plementing Aramis, has leapfrogged into the twenty-first century
thanks to this astonishing display. A train arrives at the station. Of
course, as in the VAL system that operates in Lille, or Morgantown’s
small system in the United States, or Atlanta’s, there is no conductor.
Elegant little cabs, as cozy and comfortable as a Renault Espace, hold
up to twenty visitors each. But here is the surprise: each car is separate.
Nothing visible links it to the ones behind: no coupling, no cable, no
wire, no linkage of any sort. And yet the cars form a train; they
approach one another and merge ever so gently. They stay together as

*Jacques Chirac, in addition to serving as prime minister from 1986 to 1988,

was the mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995. World’s Fairs have been held many times
in Paris from 1889 to 1937 and have shaped a number of its landmarks, including
the Eiffel Tower. For the new socialist government, hosting a World’s Fair in Paris in
1989 seemed a natural way to celebrate the bicentennial of the French Revolution.
Obviously, however, the mayor of Paris—who was also the leader of the opposition—
would have had to agree.

[aa AN EXCITING INNOVATION

if by magic. An electronic calculation attaches them together more
solidly than any cable. This is what the project engineers call “nonma-
terial coupling.” Sometimes a slight jolt, a little bump, is felt when two
cars come into contact. The most violent shock is psychological—the :
one that awaits visitors at branching points. Their car pulls away from
the train! While one group of riders is transported to one part of the
fair, the rest of the train reconstitutes itself and goes on toward another :
area. No one needs to change trains! No more transfers between lines!
Matra and the RATP have invented the transportation system of the
twenty-first century, as intimate and personalized as a taxi, as secure
and inexpensive as collective transportation. The automobile becomes
communal property. Several years before the Japanese and the Ameri-
cans, while we are still at the stage of trying to make our own Cabinen-
taxis work, France has been able to get a toehold in a promising market
thanks to the World’s Fair. People in the transportation industry are
simply wondering how much this little marvel must have cost. There is
talk of two billion francs! After the Concorde, La Villette, the Rafale,
and the nuclear power program, we are well aware that French engi-
neers do not worry about the price tag. True, the fair makes it possi-
bleto justify any extravagance. The revolution (of public transporta-
tion) within the Revolution (the French one) is beyond price...

By definition, a technological project is a fiction, since at the outset

it does not exist, and there is no way it can exist yet because it is in the
project phase.
This tautology frees the analysis of technologies from the burden that
weighs on analysis of the sciences. As accustomed as we have become to
the idea of a science that “constructs,” “fashions,” or “produces” its objects,
the fact still remains that, after all the controversies, the sciences seem to
have discovered a world that came into being without men and without
sciences. Galileo may have constructed the phases of Venus, but once that
construction was complete her phases appeared to have been “always
already present.” The fabricated fact has become the accomplished fact,
the fait accompli. Diesel did not construct his engine any more than Galileo
built his planet. Some will contend that the engine is out of Diesel’s control
as much as Venus was out of Galileo’s; even so, no one would dare assert
that the Diesel engine “was always already there, even before it was
discovered.” No one is a Platonist where technology is concerned—except

AN EXCITING INNOVATION 23
 for very primitive, basic gestures like the ones Leroi-Gourhan calls “techno-
logical trends.”
This rejection of Platonism gives greater freedom to the observer of
machines than to the observer of facts. The big problems of realism and
relativism do not bother him. He is free to study engineers who are creating
fictions, since fiction, the projection of a state of technology from five or
tifty years in the future to a time T, is part of their job. They invent a means
of transportation that does not exist, paper passengers, opportunities that
have to be created, places to be designed (often from scratch), component
industries, technological revolutions. They're novelists. With just one differ-
ence: their project—which is at first indistinguishable from a novel—will
gradually veer in one direction or another. Either it will remain a project in
the file drawers (and its text is often less amusing to read than that of a
novel) or else it will be transformed into an object.
In the beginning, there is no distinction between projects and objects.
The two circulate from office to office in the form of paper, plans, depart-
mental memos, speeches, scale models, and occasional synopses. Here
we're in the realm of signs, language, texts. In the end, people, after they
leave their offices, are the ones who circulate inside the object. A Coper-
nican revolution. A gulf opens up between the world of signs and the world
of things. The R-312 is no longer a novel that carries me away in transports
of delight; it’s a bus that transports me away from the boulevard Saint-
Michel. The observer of technologies has to be very careful not to differen-
tiate too hastily between signs and things, between projects and objects,
between fiction and reality, between a novel about feelings and what is
inscribed in the nature of things. In fact, the engineers the observer is
studying pass progressively from one of these sets to another. The R-312
was a text; now it’s a thing. Once a carcass, it will eventually revert to the
carcass state. Aramis was a text; it came close to becoming, it nearly
became, it might have become, an object, an institution, a means of
transportation in Paris. In the archives, it turns back into a text, a techno-
logical fiction. The capacity of a text to weigh itself down with reality, or,
on the contrary, to lighten its load of reality, is what endows fictional
technologies with a beauty that the novel we've inherited from the nine-
teenth century has difficulty manifesting nowadays. Only a fiction that gains
or loses reality can do justice to the engineers, those great despised figures
of culture and history. A fiction with “variable geometry”: this is what needs

Beam 2S EXCITING INNovaIoN

 a
to be invented, if we are to track the variations of a technological project
that has the potential to become an object.

“Personal Rapid Transit systems, nonmaterial couplings, the com-

position of trains—all this is beginning to take shape,” Norbert told
me. “Now let’s try to see whether we can pin down the archaeology
of the project, the earliest ideas, the creative spark. Often the initial
idea doesn't count for much in a project, but my hunch is that this time
it must have played a role.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At the Conseil Général des Ponts et Chaussées, M. Petit sits in a large office.
He is speaking very rapidly, obliged by our questions to return to a past he
tinds very remote.
‘Ah, Aramis. In the beginning it wasn't Aramis, we didn’t even have cars,
we had programmed seats. Yes, that's how we started. | was with DATAR at
the time. DATAR was a powerhouse then; they had a lot of money, and all the
ministries had to pay attention to them. DATAR, you know, was Olivier
Guichard, under de Gaulle; it was ‘joint development of the Sahara regions.’
Our bad luck: we lost the Sahara when we pulled out of Algeria. We got
medals embossed with camels and palm trees. Guichard didn't give up. Hé
created DATAR; it was his idea. Directly attached fo the prime minister. Devel-
opment in the Sahara, in France—it’s pretty much the same thing.
"Well, the highway system was a mess, split uo among several ministries.
So we produced an overall highway management plan. Okay, we said, no
point in France should be more than two hours away from any other point.
Whatever means of transportation is used. Railways, iron on iron, you know,
it's not that great. As soon as you go fast, you lose your contact. In fifty years
there won't be any more trains. We needed something in the range of 300,
AOO kilometers an hour.
“Bertin came to see us. ‘The future is in the air cushion.’ Yes, the aerotrain—
that was us. We built a line in Orléans. You can still see it. Well, it didn’t catch
on. We gave it to the SNCF, which shut it down in a hurry. But for what
amounted then to 50 million francs, | shook up the SNCF. It was a gift. The

AN EXCITING INNOVATION as
 high-speed train (TGV) is the bastard child of the aerotrain. They turned their
12,000 engineers loose so the aerotrain would never happen, and they came
up with the TGV!
"Okay, but there was another hole in public transportation—the metro.
There’s nothing you can do; you can’t go beyond 18 kilometers an hour,
assuming you have stations every 400 meters and a maximum acceleration of
1.2 m/sec’. Beyond that, it musses your hairdo; it shakes people up. But wait,
we said, maybe there's something better than the metro. With moving side
walks, you can’t accelerate faster than 3 m/sec’. If folks are walking on the
sidewalk at 6 kilometers per hour, when they come to the end they're cata
pulted. That doesn’t work.
“You know, when you invent an urban transportation system, you always
get into trouble with the little old blind lady with a heart condition who gets
her umbrella stuck. You always have to take her into account.
“Then | had kind of a crazy idea. | said to myself that there were people
in tactories who made transfer machines. You know, machines that take any-
thing—say, bottles—and zap, give them infinite acceleration, from O to 20
kilometers an hour, instantly. VWWhether you're talking about tragile bottles or little
old ladies, it’s the same sort of problem. | thought about munitions factories.
You can't let the cartridges explode, yet people have to be able to pick them
up and put them down.
“| asked the army. They said: ‘That's kinematics, and kinematics is Bardet.’
Gérard Bardet was synonymous with the company he had founded, Automa-
tisme et Technique. The only one in France, the only one in Europe | think. He
had just won a competition for VWinchester cartridges. He was tilling them with
powder, with 600 leads and all that, at 25 cartridges a second. | called him
UD.

‘A very appealing guy. He’d had a hard life, lots of upheavals. He set up
his society as a cooperative so as to give it to his employees. You don't see
that very often.
"Okay, so | asked him the question. How do you transport big loads, around
100,000 passengers an hour? He said: ‘Let's go see what our mad inventors
have in their back yards.’
“You've no idea! The word got around: ‘If DATAR is helping scientists, that’s
great!’ | had all sorts of mad inventors trooping through my office. One of my
buddies trom the Ecole Polytechnique even dragged me to his house. There
wasn't a stick of furniture left. On the ceiling, there was a vacuum cleaner on
rails. ‘Bertin gets down on the tloor and blows,’ he explained. ‘| get on the

Bee AN ExCITING INNOvATION

 Time TTT
T
————~>_ Transporter

a FZ
> “Cherger
ny al
Time T, Sy
Pato!

Time T TTa [| Platform [|

———_——_>

. VATA
, ZZL CLL.
Time T, UT ed
LIL Platform.

[IE Platform
nr tl
a TPA |

Figure 3. The AT-2000 train.

ceiling and breathe in. The inverse of an invention is still an invention. Does
that interest you?’
“Bardet said, ‘This isn't getting us anywhere. Let's make an invention matrix.’
Nine boxes by nine. He put in every form of transportation you can think of.
A chart worthy of Mendeleev. We invented territic subway systems. In one box
of the matrix we noticed, for example, that what’s dumb about subway trains
is that they stop at stations. On the other hand, a subway that doesn't stop . . .
“So what can we do? Vell, a transter machine. You cut the subway train
in halt, lengthwise. You always have one branch of it at the station. Another
branch charges into the tunnel without stopping. Near a station, those who
want to get off move into the corridor. The doors close, it's uncoupled, it slows
down. Meanwhile, the people who want to get on have gotten into the
corridor-branch that was in the station. They scoeed up and rejoin the branch
that didn’t stop. [He draws a hasty sketch on a notepad—see Figure 3.]
‘And we went on like that. VVe got up to incredible volumes, 100,000 to
200,000 passengers an hour. The mockup we did cost DATAR 30 million
francs.
"The computer was full-scale. The mockup was in all the fairs. It was called
the AF2000. | was even on television with Alexandre Tarta; the tape must stil
be around somewhere.”
‘And what about Aramis, M. Petite”

AN EXCITING INNOVATION [a7

 "Well, Aramis was the eightytirst box of the invention matrix, the niftiest of
all, it was the programmed metro seat. The traveler merely goes to the station.
He sits down, punches in the program, and opens up his newspaper. VVhen
the thing stops, he looks up, puts away his paper, and there he is, where he
wanted to go. It’s pointHo-point, with no connections, no stops at intermediate
stations. The eighty-tirst box was the most seductive of all for a with-it technocrat
eager fo impress a client.
“Meanwhile, Matra had a whole lot of ideas. They wanted fo diversity.
They were involved in military business, which let Lagardére make a good
show. They hit it off with Bardet. [no. 40]

The difference between dreams and reality is variable.

The guy who spray-paints his innermost feelings on the white walls
of the Pigalle metro station may be rebelling against the drab reality of the
stations, the cars, the tracks, and the surveillance cameras. His dreams
seem to him to be infinitely remote from the harsh truth of the stations, and
that’s why he signs his name in rage on the white ceramic tiles. The chief
engineer who dreams of a speedier metro likewise crosses out plans
according to his moods. But if the AT-2000 had been developed, his dream
would have become the other’s world. The spray-painting hoodlum would
then be living partly within the other’s dream brought to life, just as he is
living in the waking dream of Fulgence Bienvenie. In Paris, a war of the
worlds is raging, a war of dreams, a war quite different from the opposition
between states of feeling and states of affairs, between soft subjects and
hard technologies. Dreams seeking fo be realized are shaping Paris, work-
ing through its subterranean spaces and stations. They touch and try one
another. The subway is too slow; it can be redone. The engineer Bardet is
no less impatient than the hoodlum. He, too, wants to change the metro,
to change life. Let’s be careful not to oppose cold calculators to hot
agitators. Neither is more spontaneous than the other. Petit is influenced
by the Americans’ PRT, which is hardly surprising; then again—and this is
much harder to believe—the illiterate hoodlum does his tagging spontane-
ously in English and in the graphic style of the New York City gangs!
As for Bardet, he’s dreaming too. For where, if not in a dream, could
one compare a 130-pound grandmother headed for the Sacré-Coeur sta-
tion with a 100-gram cartridge that a transfer machine picks up on an

p28 AN EXCITING INNOVATION

 assembly line? You said “transfer”? Well, well! Could the unconscious be
full of machines as well as affects? The entire Paris metro system—in fact,
all the transportation systems of the world—tfind themselves brought to-
gether in an eighty-one-box chart on DATAR’s table. Dreams change the
scale of phenomena, as we know: they allow new combinations and they
mix up properties. So: an engineer’s dream?

“Well, my dear Watson, what do you think? It is all perfectly

clear?”
“Certainly,” I said, a bit uneasy to be feeling so sure of myself.
“Of course, I don’t know much about it, but Aramis is an engineer’s
toy, one of those far-fetched ideas that didn’t grow out of a needs
analysis. That much is obvious right away.”
“Wrong, as usual,” Norbert replied amiably. “On the contrary, it

OO
was to avoid far-fetched inventions like those the Lepine competition
produces that Petit and Bardet drew up their matrix. I questioned the
director of SOFRETU, and he confirmed Petit’s account point for
point.”
From a grimy little notebook, Norbert extracted his interview
notes.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

The director of SOFRETU:

‘I'm not starting with inventions or components; no more brilliant and
unworkable ideas. I’m starting with passengers, with their real needs, with uses.
The ideal, tor passengers, is what? It's not to think, not to slow down, not to
stop, not to transfer, and to arrive at their destination nevertheless. That's
poinHo-point transportation. That's Aramis.” [no. 18]

“I even came across a document by Bardet from 1969 or 1970.

You know what he says?”

AN EXCITING INNOVATION 20
 eee
[DOCUMENT: FROM AUTOMATISME ET TECHNIQUE, REPORT ENTITLED
“LES TRANSPORTS URBAINS,” TECHNICAL NOTE; EMPHASIS ADDED}

Continuous transportation is the possibility of adapting

later to any evolution, nomatter how unpredictable, of
technology or of urban planning; in other words, it amounts
to respect for the indeterminacy of the future. This safe-
guarding of the future has to be envisaged both on the tech-
nological level and fromthe standpoint of serving con-
stantly evolving metropolitan populations. On the
technological level, it is important to stress that no hy-
pothesis was made at the outset regarding the technologies
tobeused.. . Systems of continuous transportation are es-
sentially based ona kinematic principle and will always be
able to incorporate future technological projects.

“You see,” my professor continued, “it’s more complicated than

you think . . . It’s the opposite of an engineer’s idea: it’s a system-idea,
open to the unpredictable. No, no, we're off to a good start. A textbook
case, my friend, a real textbook case. ‘Respect for indeterminacy,’ that’s
what we teach our students; to start from principles, needs, systems
and not from technology. It’s really rotten luck.” Then, looking at his
watch, he added: “We're going to be late for our meeting on the quai
des Grands-Augustins.”
We got off the bus, which was stuck in a traffic jam, and we
studied the subway map, trying to calculate which route would involve
the fewest transfers.
“Aramis ought to be making this calculation,” I said.
“Exactly, and we wouldn’t have to transfer at Chatelet. You see,
my friend, Aramis really is an idea for consumers, not an engineer's
idea. It’s the one time they were actually thinking about us—and it
didn’t work.”
“You mean, “The one time they were thinking about our not
having to think about anything,’” was my clever riposte.
“Engineers dream, but they're not crazy,” my mentor replied

/ 30 AN EXCITING INNOVATION
 enn
primly, without acknowledging my cleverness. “What does Bardet
produce, Mister Oh-So-Reasonable Young Engineer? A critique of the
urban society of his time. Well? Does it surprise you that a kinematician
should get involved in making a whole movie script out of cars,
happiness, and the future of civilization?”

[DOCUMENT: REPORT BY AUTOMATISME ET TECHNIQUE, 1969 OR 1970}

To summarize, without getting bogged down ina purely

sterile critique, let us note [in 1970] that the situation
is triply paradoxical:
—While the automobile still seems to be the fastest
(though costliest) solution for urban transportation inthe
short run, its very proliferation will increasingly cut
down on its speed, which will soon become unacceptably slow;
at the same time, automobiles will increase to dangerous
levels the atmospheric pollution that they inevitably pro-
duce. This is the paradox of the scientific organization of
total asphyxia—in the broadest sense of the term.
—At atime when efficiency has the status of dogma, we are
all subject to its discipline, and in our stressed-out
State, before and after work, we all have to put up with
physically exhausting compressions in uncomfortable spaces
and annoying waiting periods owing to breakdowns inthe
traffic flow. This is the paradox of antisocial behavior in
a society that would like to see itself as social.
—Finally and in more general terms, isn’t it unreasonable
that inthis speeded-up century the time it takes us to cover
the distance between home and the airport hasn’t changed,
coming or going? This is the paradox of “constant time, ”
whatever the distance covered.
In the face of these observations, which are not just
ploys in some amusing mental game but have social repercus-
Sions whose economic consequences weigh heavily onus, is
technology powerless [p. 7]?
Automatisme et Technique doesn’t think so. For the past
three years, with the cooperation of public agencies that

AN EXCITING INNOVATION Lat

 are especially concerned—-the RATP on the one hand, DATAR on
the other—we have been working on theoretical research pro-
jects and technological developments leading to new solu-
tions characterized as much by their performance as by their
variety and adaptive flexibility. [p. 8]
The key to this innovation is a kinematic principle. Pub-
lic transportation has to be considered a particular case of
continuous transportation.
The application of “continuous kinematics” to transpor-
tation problems makes it possible, above and beyond the pos-
Sibilities of classic transportation systems, to reconcile
research aimed at greatly increased speeds and heightened
comfort with concern for maximizing fine-tuned service.
In order to translate this objective, Automatisme et
Technique has spelled out two rules that apply to the traf-
fic flow:
—Passengers must be able to pass through the intermediate
stations on their itinerary without stopping.
—An increase inthe number of stations along a connecting
line must not affect either the speed or the volume of serv-
ice on the line.
The first consequence of these rules is that they lead to
dissociation of the “transportation” function as such from
the function of “access” to the transport mechanism,
whereas in classic transportation systems these functions
are taken care of by a single mechanism. [p. 13].

No technological project is technological first and foremost.

“What's that engineer poking his nose into?” you may well ask.
“Why is he criticizing society, pursuing his own politics, his own urban
planning? An engineer answers questions, he doesn’t ask them.” This is the
image of engineers held by people who think technology is neutral, or (it
comes down to the same thing) that technology is purely a means to an
end, or (and this still amounts to the same thing) that the only goal of
technology is technology itself and its own further development. Bardet, as
we have seen, defines his goals and questions for himself, even if he is

[aa AN EXCITING INNOVATION

defensive about playing “amusing mental games” or making “sterile cri-
tiques.” He’s a sociologist as well as a technician. Let’s say that he’s a
sociotechnician, and that he relies on a particular form of ingenuity, het-
erogeneous engineering, which leads him to blend together major social
questions concerning the spirit of the age or the century and “properly”
technological questions in a single discourse.
How does this blend come about? Not by chance, but by a precise
operation of translation. Urban transportation systems are being asphyxi-
ated, Bardet says; this asphyxiation, as he sees it, is contrary to the spirit
of the age. This intolerable situation has to end. How can we put a stop to
it? Kinematics deals with continuous transportation of bottles, cartridges,
or jam jars. And who controls kinematics? Bardet and his company. Be-
tween the asphyxiated society of automobiles and transfer machines in
factories, there is no connection whatever. Bardet, approached by Petit, is
going to make this connection. The price to pay is an innovation: the
discontinuous transportation of people, which no one knows how to im-
prove, has to be viewed as a particular case of the continuous transporta-
tion of things, which Bardet knows how to improve. The result? A chain of
translation: there is no solution to the problems of the city without innova-
tions in transportation, no innovation in transportation without kinematics,
no kinematics without Automatisme et Technique; and, of course, no Auto-
matisme et Technique without Bardet.
People always wonder how a laboratory, or a science, can have any
impact at all on society, or how an innovation arises in the mind of its
inventors. The answer is always to be found in the chains of translation that
transform a global problem (the city, the century) into a local problem
(kinematics, continuous transportation) through a series of intermediaries
that are not “logical” in the formal sense of the term, but that oblige those,
like DATAR, who are interested in the global problem to become interested,
through almost imperceptible shifts, in the local solution. The innovation,
as Bardet says, will make it possible to “translate” and to “reconcile”
contraries in order to establish chains of translation and to situate Bardet’s
expertise as the obligatory passage point that will resolve the great prob-
lems of the age. The work of generating interest consists in constructing
these long chains of reasons that are irresistible, even though their logical
form may be debatable. If you want to save the city, save Bardet. This
implication is not logically correct, but it is socio-logically accurate.

AN EXCITING xvovion im
 I was outraged by what my professor, with a certain satisfaction,
was calling “chains of translation.” He seemed to take great pleasure
in seeing huge interests drift off toward little laboratories. For my part,
I was deeply shocked by that sordid, self-interested vision of the
engineer’s work.
“It’s just a way of talking about priming the pump, if I understand
correctly,” I said with more feeling than my professor usually permitted
(it was never a good idea to let him think one was naive). “Bardet is
making money by making silk purses out of sows’ ears. He’s a cynic.
But what would a real engineer have done in his place?”
“My dear young friend, I forbid you to speak, or even to think,
ill of Bardet. He’s a great engineer, a real one. You're always jumping
from one extreme to another. You show up here convinced that tech-
nology is neutral and beyond question. You get your nose rubbed in a
project—for your own good—and you conclude that it’s all a matter
of pork barrels and white elephants. You move too fast. You really do
have a lot to learn. An engineer has to stimulate interest: that’s the long
and the short of it. And he also has to convince; that’s the Law and the
Gospel. You can’t put any real engineer ‘in Bardet’s place’ (as you term
it) except a bad one, some imbecile who doesn’t interest and doesn’t
convince and whose kinematics has never gotten beyond the end of its
transfer function.
“In contrast, look at the beauty of Aramis and PRTs. It’s a fantastic
invention. To discourage residents from taking their cars, you merge
cars with public transportation. There’s only one way you can do that:
you have to get people to see public transportation the way they do
automobiles, so theyll take public transportation instead of their own
cars. It’s a matter of mimicry, just like in the jungle. The worn-down
citydweller stops distinguishing between his private car and his Aramis
car. He literally takes one for the other! Let’s give collective transpor-
tation some of the automobile’s most interesting features—point-to-
point service, no transfers, comfort, intimacy—plus all the advantages
of public transportation: speed, train service that copes with the traffic
flow, low cost (to the user), lack of responsibility (again, for the user).
No one will want to do without it. Just look at these great interest

24 AN EXCITING INNOVATION
curves: DATAR, the RATP, Paris, before you know it the whole world.
Yet it’s still contemporary twenty years later! The diagnostic hasn't
budged: everything has only gotten worse, in cities. And in the center,
in what has become the center, resting at the heart of the mechanism:
kinematics, continuous transportation. A peaceful revolution desired by
all. And you'll never again have to change trains or wash your car. Cars
for everybody. No, the importance of Bardet’s innovations can't be
overestimated. I don’t like the word, but Bardet is a genius. Unfortu-
nately, we can’t interview him. I’ve talked to his wife: he’s very old,
and too ill to answer any questions.”
“Still, he blew it,” 1 thought. But I kept my opinion to myself.

Justice and young engineers with no memory are hard on projects

that fail.
The ultimate defect of projects—they die—takes us back to their
beginnings: they were condemned from the start because some crazy
engineers had mistaken dreams for reality. The verdict is clear: Personal
Rapid Transport systems died because they were not viable. But biological
metaphors are as dangerous for technological organizations as they are
tor living organisms. You can’t say that PRTs died because they weren't
viable, any more than you can say that dinosaurs, after surviving for
millions of years, died out because they were doomed or ill-conceived.
Aramis died—in 1987—and its accusers claim that it was nonviable from
the beginning, from 1970. No: Aramis was terminated in 1970, and the
explanation makers were kicking a dead horse when they claimed that it
hadn't been feasible from the start and that they themselves had been
saying so all along. Blessed are the lesson givers, for they will always be
right—afterward . . . Don’t ask them for immediate opinions on the Con-
corde, or the future of computers, or aerotrains, or superconductivity, or
telephones. You'll get the answers only ten or twenty years later, and they'll
say they knew all along that the project was not viable. No, Aramis is
feasible, at least as feasible as dinosaurs, for life is a state of uncertainty
and risk, of fragile adaptation to a past and present environment that the
future cannot judge.
The innovations produced by people like Bardet, Petit, Boeing, Otis,

AN EXCITING INNOVATION | 28
 and Daimler-Benz are real, important, and exciting. What is at stake,
owing to the fusion between the worlds of continous kinematics and public
transportation, is a compromise. Innovation always comes from a blending
or redistribution of properties that previously had been dispersed. Prior to
the fusion of kinematics and public transportation, no one had noticed that
the transport function could be separated from the access function. This
distinction is what allows the technological compromise to emerge: let's
invent a system that never slows down and that nevertheless allows for
personalized access. Aramis is a textbook case. No one in his or her right
mind can be opposed to a PRT that marries, fuses, blends the private car
with public transportation, a project that saves us from asphyxiation. No
one can criticize the management of a project that leaves the future open,
that does not make premature judgments about the technological compo-
nents. Neither wicked capitalists nor purveyors of useless gadgets are the
driving force behind this effort. No, it is a matter of real inventions designed
to meet real needs proposed by real public servants and supported by real
scientists. A dream, yes, a dream. In any case, it is paved with good
intentions.

“Always assume that people are right, even if you have to stretch
the point a bit. A simple rule, my dear pupil, when youre studying a
project. You put yourself at the peak of enthusiasm, at the apex, the
point when the thing is irresistible, when what you really want, yourself,
is to take out your checkbook so you can, I don’t know . . .”
“Buy a share in the Chunnel?”
“That’s it, or even shares in the Concorde.”
“Even in La Villette?”
“Which one, the first scandal or the second?”
“The second.”
“Oh, the La Villette museum. I don’t know; it’s a disaster, but
after all, why not, it had to be tried. Never say it’s stupid. Say: If I
were in their shoes, I’d have done the same thing.”
“Even in that business of the sniffer planes?”
“Of course, silly boy, you would have bought into it, and not
because you're naive; on the contrary, precisely because you're a clever

[ae AN EXCITING INNOVATION

 a
fellow. It’s like the Galileo affair. You have to get inside it until youre
sure: that one is guilty; he should be exiled, and even, yes, even fried
a little, the tips of his toes at least. Otherwise, if you think differently,
youre a little snot. You play the sly one at the expense of history. You
play the wise old owl.”
“The one that always arrives at nightfall, like the cavalry?”
“Ah, I see they do teach you something, after all, in Telecommu-
nications. Yes, you have to reread your Hegel because, you know,
technological reality isn’t rational, and it’s no good rationalizing it after
the fact.”
In the list of books to read, Hegel came after F for Favret-Saada,
and G, for Garfunkel or Garfinkel, like the singer but not so easy to
set to music.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At RATP headquarters, on the second floor where the directors have their
plush lairs, M. Maire is sitting in his oftice.
“Bardet was a really nice guy. | remember in 1968 or ‘69 he invited us for
lunch in a little bistro#—Girard, Antoine, and me. He'd invented the AF2000.
He told us he was worried, he didn’t understand why people were skeptical
about the AT. ‘Why aren't you supporting the AF20008’ We told him we didn’t
think it was very reliable. | don’t remember whose idea it was, during lunch,
to try slicing the trains in the other direction, crosswise. That's it right there—
that’s where Aramis came trom. He applied for the patent on it a few days
later.

“He'd also invented the modular train. [Sketching on a scrap of paper—see

Figure 4.] That wasn't stupid, because it did away with the need for side
stations. Part of the train [modules c and d] didn’t stop, and hooked up with
the tront section [modules x and y], which had moved out of the station. Before
reaching the station, that section shed its rear compartment [modules a and b].
So there were always cars at the center of the train that didn't stop. The problem
was that passengers had to move to the rear cars, which were the only ones
that stopped at stations. If there were a lot of stations, there would have been
quite a lot of movement.
"So Bardet applied for a patent on trains consisting of small programmed
vehicles. ‘Small vehicles,’ since they were to be comfortable and intimate, all

AN EXCITING INNOVATION Lar

 abC
Hoo d xTH
Hoo y ——$—$—$$ te.

a FH eel
b d)|]_
C d—————_
x y Hk ——$_______»
[Po
Teal
a b aC atl
d x y+k
ooo IL H_L I —{___H{
eat
aa rt

a b nn
HH} C anno
d x Ho
[el
Figure 4.

going in the same direction and easy to insert in cities without heavy infrastruc-
tures. ‘Trains,’ because moving together train-tashion is the only way to ensure
adequate tlow. ‘Programmed,’ so passengers would only have fo punch in their
destination on the dashboard and the vehicle would head straight to the desired
destination. Then Matra bought Bardet’s patents [he sketches Aramis—see
Figure 5]. [no. 22]

“Since the witness has moved from DATAR to Matra, we have to

move from the public to the private sphere as well, to gather our
testimony. See, it’s not that hard. As soon as somebody's name is
mentioned, you call him up, you make an appointment, and you go see
him.”
“Do you always get a good reception?”
“Always, and the more important the people are, the less they
keep you waiting.”

Bere 28 EXCITING INNOVATION

 Time T,
|2345
ZU
H++-+- +44

eee
LL

Time T, 1 24 6 7 2 HEEEEFH

HEE T-H

Figure 5. Train consisting of small programmed vehicles.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

The scene is Matra Transport's suburban headquarters, in a building deco-

rated in the inevitable postmodern white tiles. At the end of the slick, white
main hall, you can see the splendid white casing of Aramis. The director,
M. Etienne, is speaking:
‘Lagardére had put Pierre Quétard in charge of diversifying Matra in the
civilian sector. He took a good look all around. There were some pluses, and
some mistakes. That was normal.
‘Anyway, Quétard was on the lookout. He had been to see more or less
everybody, offering Matra’s services, insisting on their advanced technological
competence, and also on the logic of the complex systems that were among
their specialities . . . Petit sought out Matra—or Quétard sought out Petit, | don’t
remember now. Anyway, Petit said: ‘We're onto something terrific here; I’m
ready fo put money into it. There’s this little company that's in over its head.
You've got to work with them.’
“He'd even come to see me at the DTT (the bureau of ground transportation],
but | don’t think | gave him any money at that point. You have to remember
that DATAR in those days wasn't what it is now. It was a powerhouse. It had
been set up so it could really do something. For the ministries, a nyet from
DATAR was a real catastrophe, at the time.
“Well, DATAR was obsessed with the growth of the Paris region, and it was
trying to support public transportation. lt was interested in creating a new

AN EXCITING INNOVATION | se
 a
intermediate urban network. So new forms of public transportation were enor
mously intriguing. In the long run, their proactive approach accomplished some
things, too; that was what was behind the new cities. They're still here. That
was also the force that called a halt to the grawth of Paris...
“In any event, Matra came to an understanding with Bardet. Matra didn’t
really ‘ourchase’ Bardet's patents. Or at least it was more complicated than a
purchase. The contract is hard to analyze. In tact, except for a core of essential
ideas that stayed pretty much the same, all the rest was Matra’s doing, rather
than Automatisme et Technique’s. Even the name is ours.” [no. 21]

“So we finally know why it’s called Aramis?”

“Yes, Matra gave Bardet’s little programmed vehicles the bizarre
name Agencement en Rames Automatisees de Modules Independants
dans les Stations, meaning ‘arrangement in automated trains of inde-
pendent modules in stations.’ Aramis, for short. It has a nice ring to it,
‘Aramis.’”
“The name is different, but when you get right down to it, if you
read the documents from that period, Matra is making the same
arguments as Petit and Bardet.”

(DOCUMENT: FROM “ENGINS MATRA,” A REPORT ON

ARAMIS, UNDATED BUT PROBABLY FROM 1971]

The automobile marks our generation. Weekend gridlock

and urban pollution are upsetting, but they don’t stopits
development. The gqguality of service it offers—speed, avail-
ability, suitability for door-to-door transportation-—-is
incomparable, and accounts for its appeal. Aramis, a system
of urban and suburban on-site transportation, offers an al-
ternative to the automobile, whose very proliferation cuts
down significantly on its performance [p. 1]... Aramis
does not stand in competition with the automobile, butasa
complement to it. By offering users a free choice between
two equally attractive methods, it gives the automobile’s
“orisoners” their freedom back. By pulling part of the traf-

a0 AN EXCITING INNOVATION
 fic off the roads, it improves traffic conditions...
Aramis’ users constitute a ciientele that appreciates the
advantages of the automobile, while rejecting its disadvan-
tages. For Aramis is like the automobile: it offers comfort,
availability, * the absence of interruptions. But in addi-
tion, it offers speed (50 km/h), safety, punctuality. An
electric-powered system on pneumatic wheels, Aramis also
protects the environment (no atmospheric pollution, no
noise) [p. 13]... To choose Aramis today is to win the wa-
ger already, the one our children will make tomorrow in or-
der to live in cities that have a human face.

“The style is better than Bardet’s.”

“Yes, and you'll also notice that they cast a wider net. A lot more
people are interested, or might become interested. It’s no longer just
the State that is presumed to be interested in Aramis for the purpose
of improving the infrastructure or serving the public. Now it’s drivers
themselves, ‘prisoners’ freed from their chains, who are achieving their
goals—by way of Aramis. Not bad! Notice that for the first time the
market is making its appearance in the form (a somewhat curious form,
I admit) of the consumers’ desire to buy cars but to use Aramis as well,
so as to cut down on automobile traffic. You see, it was a good idea to
move from the public to the private sphere. It’s always crucial to get
hold of the original documents.”

The “market forces” of the private sector are actors like the others.
The analysis of technological projects often runs aground because
the observers are intimidated by the economic forces that, like the techno-
logical determinism we saw earlier, are assumed to go up and down the

*In the industrial world, availability is not a moral virtue comparable to charity;
it is a practical virtue which indicates that the machine or the means of transportation
in question has not broken down, that it is available. It is usually calculated as a ratio
that should be above 0.96, at least for a metro line.

AN EXCITING INNOVATION pat

 boulevard Saint-Michel with the power of an R-312 bus. Yet consumers are
seduced by Aramis just as DATAR is. Consumers, too, are invented, dis-
placed, translated, through fine chains of interest. Bardet and Petit ask
DATAR: “You want to save the city? Limit the growth of Paris? Then from
now on you have to be interested in kinematics, in transfer machines, and
in the AT-2000.” “You really want to profit from the advantages of the
automobile?” Matra’s people ask prospective consumers. “Then you have
to climb into a cabin that is almost the same, but guided, called Aramis.”
In each case you have to make a tiny shift, a nearly imperceptible detour.
Is this process of translation “false,” “misleading,” “rhetorical,” or
“illogical”? Does Aramis really meet a need? We don’t yet know. It all
depends. On what? On what happens next, and on how much you trust
the spokespersons of all those needs and interests. Bardet, Petit, and
Lagardére are self-designated representatives who speak in the name of
the city, the future, pollution, and what consumers really want. At this stage
there is no difference between Petit, a highly placed government official
who speaks in the name of all urban Frenchmen, and the industrialist
Lagardére, who speaks in the name of all consumers. Rather than focusing
on the artificial difference between State and industry, the public sector and
the private sector, let’s choose the more refined notion of spokesperson,
and find out, next, whether the constituent groups turn out to be well
represented by those to whom they have given their mandate. The spokes-
persons assert that automobiles must be supplemented, complemented, by
Aramis. They are the ones, too, who claim that all their constituents would
say, would think, or would mean the same thing eventually, if only people
would go to the trouble of questioning them directly. The representatives
surround themselves with unanimity. To hear them, the conclusion seems
obvious, irresistible: Aramis has to exist, Aramis can exist, and Matra is
the company best positioned to bring it into being. Drivers cannot not want
to give up their cars. It isn’t a question of bad faith here, or cheating, or
engineers getting carried away with themselves. Are they mistaken? We
cannot know until they have explored the world and verified whether the
city, cars, the powers that be, pollution, the epoch are following them or
not. In preference to cumbersome notions such as market forces or the
irresistible thrust of technology, let’s choose assemblies of spokespersons
who bring together, during a single meeting, around a single table, differ-
ent worlds. The highly placed official speaks in the name of developing the
French infrastructure and supports the project of the transportation minis-

oe Av exciting innovation
 Oe
ter—who speaks in the name of the government, which speaks in the name
of the voters. The transportation minister supports Matra’s project, and
Matra speaks in the name of captive drivers, who support the project of
the engineer, who speaks in the name of cutting-edge technology. It is
because these people translate all the divergent interests of their constitu-
ents, and because they meet together nevertheless, that the Aramis project
can gain enough certainty, enough confidence, enough enthusiasm to be
transformed from paper to prototype.

[DOCUMENT]

Matra’s primary vocation is systems development for mili-

tary and space applications. Its success stories in cutting-—
edge industries are well known. In pursuit of its objec-
tives, it benefits from homogeneous multidisciplinary
teams like the ones currently applying a tested methodology
to new transportation systems. Matra is the very model of an
industrial company whose size and dynamic decisionmaking
structures are perfectly suited to succeed with a project
like the Aramis system. [p. 2]

“And here’s one more competence, right in the middle, that serves
as an obligatory crossing point,” I said with the satisfaction of a pupil
who has learned his lesson well.
“Very good; but notice that what's at center stage isn’t Bardet’s
competence any more, it isn't kinematics. It’s the high-tech capability
of a company that’s getting a foothold in public transportation. We're
shifting from a specific know-how to a general savoir-faire: system
building. Things are beginning to shape up. Two very important new
actors are backing Aramis now: a business and a market. No matter
that the company is a newcomer and that the consumers in question
exist only on paper. Somebody who has the prestige of sophisticated
military contracts behind him and who expresses the will of millions
of ‘captive’ car owners can't fail to get everyone's attention, especially

AN EXCITING INNOVATION / aa
 Eee
the ones who hold the purse strings. Yes, Aramis is too beautiful not to
come into being. If it didn’t exist, somebody would have to invent it.”
“Well, they did invent it. Look at this document.”

[DOCUMENT]

On April 13, 1972, Michel Frybourg, director of the Insti-

tute for Transportation Research (INRETS), and Jean-Luc La-
gardere, president of the Matra Motor Corporation, signed
an agreement to construct an Aramis prototype inOrly ata
cost of around 5 million [1973] francs.

The actors come in varying sizes; this is the whole problem with
Innovation.
Before a revolutionary transportation system can be inscribed into
the nature of things, the transports of enthusiasm shared by all these
revolutionaries, industrialists, scientists, and high officials have to be in-
scribed on paper. Verba volent. The agreement signed on April 13, 1972,
by spokespersons for the minister and Matra was intended to establish the
financial participation of each party, to define the prototype, to describe
the development phases, to specify who would control the results, to decide
who would possess Aramis’ patents and licenses if it were to come into
existence, to agree on how each party would pay its share, and finally, in
the case of failure, to determine how each one would bow out with dignity,
without trials or litigation. But who are Messieurs Petit and Lagardére? They
do not have an essence that has been fixed once and for all. They can
speak in everyone’s name, or no one’s; it all depends. Petit may speak for
all French people, or for DATAR, or for one of DATAR’s departments, or for
a member of one of its departments, or in his own name, either as a
transportation specialist or as a private individual. He may speak solely in
the name of his own imagination. Someone else, or his own unconscious,
may even speak for him. Depending on his relative size, he may capture
everyone’s attention for ten years, or that of just one person for a mere
instant. He may be called Mr. Large or Mr. Small. Here we have an essence
so elastic that a single sentence, “Mr. Petit is interested in the project,” may
be translated into a whole gamut of sentences, from “50 million Frenchmen

[sa AN EXCITING INNOVATION

 are solemnly and eternally committed to Aramis,” to “His imagination is
running away with him, but in a couple of minutes he'll have forgotten the
whole thing.” Now, this variation in the relative size, in the repre-
sentativeness of the actors, is not limited to Mr. Petit; it characterizes all
members of a technological project. Mr. Lagardére supports the project, to
be sure, but who can say whether his stockholders will follow? He, too,
varies in relative size. Let him be reduced to minority status by his board,
and the enormous actor who had millions of francs to contribute is reduced
to the simple opinion of a private person whose interest in Aramis commits
only himself and his dog. In a project's history, the suspense derives from
the swelling or shrinking of the relative size of the actors.
Although this variability can never be eliminated, its scope can
nevertheless be limited. Here is where law comes into its own. No technol
ogy without rules, without signatures, without bureaucracies and stamps.
Law itself is no different from the world of technologies: it is the set of the
modest technologies of writing, registering, verifying, authenticating that
makes it possible to line up people and statements. It is a world of flexible
technologies coming to the aid of even more flexible technologies of interest
in order to allow slightly more solid technologies to harden a bit. A
signature on a contract, an endorsement, an agreement stabilizes the
relative size of the actors by lending to the provisional definition of alliances
the assistance of the law, a law whose weight is enormous because it is
entirely formal and because it applies equally to everyone. Mr. Lagardére
may vary in size, the ministry will change hands ten times—it would be
unwise to count on stability there; but the signatures and stamps remain,
offering the alliances a relative durability. Scripta manent. That will never
be enough, for signed documents can turn back into scraps of paper. Yet
it, at the same time, the interlocking of interests is actively maintained, then
the law offers, as it were, a recall effect. After it is signed, a project
becomes weightier, like a little sailboat whose hull has been ballasted with
some heavy metal. It can still be overturned, but one would have to work
a little harder to prevent it from righting itself, from returning to its former
position. In the area of technologies, you cannot ask for more. Nothing is
very solid in this area; nothing offers much resistance.* But by accumulating
little solidities, little durabilities, little resistances, the project ends up gradv-

*See W. Bijker and J. Law, eds., Shaping Technology——Building Society: Studies in

Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), especially the introduc-
tion.

AN EXCITING INNOVATION =
 ally becoming somewhat more real. Aramis is still on paper, but the paper
of the plans has been supplemented by that of the patents—a plan pro-
tected by law—and now by that of the signed agreements. The courts are
behind Aramis from this point on, not fo say what it has to become, but to
make it more difficult for those who have committed themselves to it to
change their minds, to hold onto their money, or to back out of the project
if the going gets rough. Yet “make it more difficult” does not mean “make
it impossible.” Woe betide those who trust the law alone to shelter their
projects from random hazards.

“Apparently,” Norbert said, “they all seem to be clinging to the

idea that in guided transportation a mobile system that doesn’t have a
site isn’t worth much. So we have to go to Orly, just as Aramis did.
What is an ‘exclusive guideway,’ anyway?”
I was beginning to worry about this long line of “actors.” If we
had to go into the suburbs, we were going to lose a huge amount of
time, or else spend a fortune on taxis.
“Keep the receipts for your expenses, my boy. I'll reimburse you;
the client is paying. Ah, if only you were an ethnologist, you could stay
in your village and draw nice neat maps. Whereas we sociologists have
to drag ourselves around everywhere. Our terrains aren't territories.
They have weird borders. They’re networks, rhizomes.”
“What?”
“Rhizomes, Deleuze and Guattari, a thousand plateaus.”
The word “rhizome” wasn’t in the dictionary. I learned later that
Mille Plateaux (A Thousand Plateaus) was the name of a book and not
one of Captain Haddock’s swear words.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Henne, head of the bureau of technological studies of Aéroport de Paris,

speaking in one of a group of prefabricated buildings on the far side of the
Orly runways. Through the window, the darker form of a test loop was
identifiable in an otherwise empty lot.
“Yes, that's the place, Aramis was there. Why did we get interested? For

Lae AN EXCITING INNOVATION

me, Aramis isn’t a PRT type of transportation, it’s a shortdistance transportation
system. ‘Hectometric,’ we call it. When the Charles de Gaulle Airport at Roissy
was being designed, we looked everywhere for a transportation system suit
able for short distances. We even set up a company for moving sidewalks.
We looked at everything.
"Then we got a new director. We gave up the project, we sold off our
research-and-development markets and liquidated our subsidiary.
“But since we had been the driving force behind shortdistance transporta-
tion, we had become experts of sorts. That’s where the Aramis product comes
in.”
“For you, Aramis belongs to hectometric transportation?"
"Oh, yes, completely. Anyway, it’s in the same sphere. Matra sought us out.
We had a meeting in Lagardére’s office. You have to admit he does a fine job
of selling his products. He told us: ‘That type of transportation is what we're
good at. In Lille, it's working like a charm; moving sidewalks will never make
it. You've invested a lot in shortdistance transportation. You can't pull out now.’
"So we put a million into the deal. We paid in kind: the site, first of all, and
the logistical support. | was head of the department of general studies for
Aéroport de Paris. | was the one who followed the thing. They convinced us,
but we weren't a vector. | myself was supportive, but it wasn't an immediate
investment, only something to check out, second-hand.
"You know, | never believed in Aramis outside of airports. As soon as you
enter the Paris region, you have to run the gauntlet of dozens of administrative
offices. You never get anywhere. Anyway, alter the oil crisis, all the shortdis-
tance systems fizzled out like balloons. Betore, they were springing up all over.
Remember the FNAC? There were a hundred such systems at the time. Then,
in 1975, everything ground to a halt. People were looking for simplicity. They
came up with Orly Rail, Roissy Rail. ‘They'll be satistied with that.’
“And | have to tell you something else. From that point on, all the contractors
were going through a real panic over security issues, | mean passenger security.
With Aramis, the issue came up over and over. | heard it dozens of times.
What do you do in a car with some guy who looks suspicious? The demand
just caved in.
"Before 1975, there was a period of innovation—new cities, all sorts of
wild gimmicks. After 1975, it was all over; security was the only thing that
counted . . . Besides, obviously, Aramis had to be done. Was it doable? |
really don't know.
“But you know, | still tell myself that it somebody came up with the idea of

AN EXCITING INNOVATION a7
 the automobile today and had to go before a safety commission and explain,
| don't know, let's say, how fo get started on a hill . . . | Just think how
complicated it is: shifting gears, using the hand brake, and so on. He wouldn't
stand a chance! He’d be told: ‘It can’t be done.’ Well, everybody knows how
to start on a hilll It's the same with Aramis. VVe hadn't gotten all the kinks out,
but yes, | think it was doable.” [no. 23]

To translate is to betray: ambiguity is part of translation.

For Aéroport de Paris, Aramis is not going to replace automobiles,
remodel our cities, or protect our children’s future. It is “in the same sphere
as,” in the neighborhood of, a much more modest means of transportation
that involves a few hundred meters in airports, parking lots, or the FNAC
on the rue de Rennes. It is limited to closed sites where one can innovate
without competing with the heavyweights, with subways or trains. More-
over, for Aéroport de Paris, Aramis is not irresistible. Their people do not
commit themselves one hundred percent; for them, it is not a matter of life
and death. They took up second-line positions, to see what would happen.
Is this the same Aramis as Matra’s, or Bardet’s? No, and this is precisely
how a project can hope to come into existence. There is no such thing as
the essence of a project. Only finished products have an essence. For
technology, too, “existence precedes essence.” If all the actors had to agree
unambiguously on the definition of what was to be done, then the prob-
ability of carrying out a project would be very slight indeed, for reality
remains polymorphous for a very long time, especially when a principle of
transportation is involved. It is only at the end of the road, and locally, that
the project will acquire its essence and that all the interviewees will define
it in the same terms, differing only in viewpoint. In the beginning, on the
contrary, it is appropriate for different groups with divergent interests to
conspire with a certain amount of vagueness on a project that they take to
be a common one, a project that then constitutes a good “agency of
translation,”* a good swap shop for goals. “Yes, for a million francs in
kind, that’s not bad. Why not go along? After all, it can’t hurt.” That’s what

*See M. Callon, “On Interests and Their Transformation: Enrolment and

Counter-Enrolment,” Social Studies of Science 12, no. 4, (1982): 615-626; and
M. Callon, J. Law, et al., eds., Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology (London:
Macmillan, 1986).

48 AN EXCITING INNOVATION |
 a
Aéroport de Paris said. If you map out all the interests involved in a project,
the vague or even reticent interests of those who are pursuing some other
Aramis have to be counted as well. They are allies. Obviously, such allies
are neither very convinced nor very convincing. As M. Henne says, they
are not “vectors,” and so they can drop the ball when things go badly. But
if you had to have only associates who would stand up under any test, you
would never stand up under any test.

“A concept, an innovation, patents, public authorities, an indus-

trialist, an on-site installation at Orly—-our Aramis is taking on consis-
tency,” Norbert exclaimed enthusiastically.
“They say they didn’t have a user.”
“No, they had an operator.”
“What’s an operator?”
“T suppose it’s an operating agency, a business that really transports
people, that’s comfortable with mass transportation and can guarantee
that the thing isn't dangerous. In France, there aren’t many; it’s got to
be the SNCF or the RATP.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At SOFRETU, a research arm of the RATP. the director is speaking.

“They needed an operator. The RATP said, ‘Why not?’ It was translated by
financial participation.
“Obviously, the way cars connected made the Rail Division's hair stand on
end, you can imagine—we nearly had a collision! But finally, for the operator,
it was seductive. Operators don’t like branchings. For operators, lines are ideal:
you go from one end to the other and back, pendulum fashion. But you have
to have branches to service the suburbs. Aramis solved all that. For us it was
a territic idea, since it solved the problem of tinetuning the adjustment of supply
to demand.
“It was really an innovation at the system level; it didn’t have to do with the
thing itself, with components. Besides, Matra had said, ‘We'll take components
that already exist on the market.’ The invention was the operating system; the

$$ aicitine nnovarion aa
 idea was that the technology would follow. It was really the passengers who
were targeted, passenger comfort, and also the operator.” [no. 17, p. 6]

“So things are shaping up pretty well,” said Norbert. “We know
we don’t have to go back before the 1970s, since everybody all over
the world was making PRTs at that time. We know the chain of interests
that connects DATAR, Bardet, INRETS, and Aramis. We can even
reconstitute—and this is unusual—the little intellectual shift that gave
birth to the innovation: it was the merger of transfer machines and
public transportation, then the eighty-one-box matrix, then the cross-
wise division of the AT-2000. We understand why Matra took up the
banner—it was attempting to diversify, it was getting into VAL, and it
had a better base than Bardet. Furthermore, we have no trouble getting
enthusiastic ourselves, even fifteen years later, over a radical innovation,
since we suffer from its absence every single day in Paris, as we go
about our investigation! We have no trouble understanding why the
people at Aeroport de Paris got their feet wet and even contributed
some land without having a whole lot of faith in the project. And to
top it all off, we know why the RATP had to be involved.”
“It’s not always as neat and tidy as this?”
“No, no, most of the time the origins are too obscure. And you
have to go to an enormous amount of trouble to imagine what could
have been behind such crazy inventions. In our lab we often study
incredible cases of technological pathology. Here it’s just the opposite:
we don’t understand why the thing doesn't exist.”
“Yet it really is a corpse, and we've actually been asked to
determine the cause of death.”
“Precisely, my dear Watson, but we already know that the fatal
cause won't be found at the very beginning of the project any more
than at its very end. In 1973, if you’d had five million francs, you would
have put them up!”
“Maybe not,” I replied cautiously. “I probably would have bought
myself an apartment first.”
“Listen to that! Real estate! That’s why everything is going to pot
in this country. And he’s an engineer!”

/s0 AN EXCITING INNOVATION

Fr.
IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? i

“Now we can go on to Phase Zero, since that’s where they are.

Where's your diagram? Okay! Here's where we are, in black and white”
[see Figure 1 in Chapter 1].
“If I’m not mistaken,” my mentor went on, “our engineers from
Matra, Automatisme et Technique, and Aeroport de Paris have been out
in the beet fields by the Orly runways since 1973, asking three Kantian
questions: “What can we know about Aramis? What can we hope to get
out of it? What is it supposed to do?’ Oh, they're great philosophers!
Nothing exists as yet except beets and a principle of continuous
kinematics. A rather speculative principle, but the time is right and the
arguments are good, so it stirs up some interest. The last step in this
progressive slippage of interest is to translate it into cold hard cash,
sixteen million francs at the time.* The beet field still has to be turned
into a transportation system, which is roughly equivalent to turning a
pumpkin into a coach. Who are the mice and the fairies? Who are the
actors?”
I had worked with the professor for a while, so I was no longer
surprised to hear sociologists throw theatrical terms around.

*The equivalent of 64 million francs in 1988. DATAR (representing the

interests, properly understood, of the French in need of improvements) contributed
3.4 million, Aéroport de Paris and Air France (representing a mitigated interest in
short-distance transportation systems) invested 1 million, the DTT (representing the
Transportation Ministry) chipped in 1 million, the Ile-de-France region (here is
someone representing local users at last) contributed 0.5 million, the RATP (repre-
senting technology) 0.362 million, and Matra (committing the properly understood
interests of its stockholders to diversification in all directions) invested the largest
amount: 10 million francs.
 “According to the notes,” I said, “among the ‘actors’ we ought to
interview is Cohen, who’s a graduate of Supaero; he’s a satellite
specialist hired by Matra as production head. His classmate FPreque was
selected to keep tabs on VAL. What’s VAL?”
“It’s the automated metro in Lille. Everybody keeps bringing it
up when we talk about Aramis; we're going to have to look into it, too.
Especially because Matra built it. It was begun around the same time,
and the same engineers worked on both projects.”
I sighed when I thought of all the interviews we had to do.
Funny—I’d chosen sociology thinking it would be less work than the
Ecole’s other internships, like man-machine interactions or signal analy-
SIS.

“Then there's Lamoureux, fresh out of the Ecole Polytechnique

and Telecom—just like me, if I may say so—with no preconceived
notions about the world of public transportation, again just like me.
The RATP picked him to work on the project. Matra hired M. Guyot,

ee
one of Bardet's engineers—he's a specialist in machine transfers—to
head its future transportation branch.”
“What about Bardet?”
“Apparently he kept one foot in the project as technical adviser.
Not one of those engineers had any background in transportation. As
I understand it, they all said to themselves: ‘If we can build satellites,
we can surely build a subway.”
“But that’s an advantage, too. They were ready to reinvent the
wheel if they had to. Now comes the tricky part, my friend. We need
to move on from easy sociology to hard sociology. It’s our turn to
reinvent the wheel. And there's only one way to go about it: we have
to dig into the documents.”

[DOCUMENT: INRETS REPORT, APRIL 13, 1972]

Article 2: Composition of the Prototype

The prototype will consist of:
—a segment of track 800 to 1,000 meters long, a fixed sta-
tion represented by a platform, anda movable station that
will facilitate inexpensive simulations of various uses: a

| sa IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?
workshop, a control post, a reception building, anda park-
ing lot;
—five full-scale cars: two for passenger use, three re-
served for measuring instruments.
This prototype will illustrate one of the possible ways
the Aramis system can work and will demonstrate its adapt-
ability to various real-life circumstances.
All the original components of the prototype, both the ma-
terial elements (hardware) andthe working processes and
programs (software), will be designed in such away that
they can be transposed to later installations intended for
actual operation.
Commercial operation of the system should thus be possi-
ble as soon as the anticipated development work has been com-
pleted as specified inthe initial agreement and its codi-
cil, without further delay or additional development
programs.
The present codicil also applies to the trials and experi-
ments carried out with the prototype, in conformity with Ap-
pendix 1 of the initial agreement.
The initial agreement is a continuation of agreement num-
ber 71-01-136-00-21275-01, between the prime minister and
the Société des Engins Matra.

Seen eee eee eee ee

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Lamoureux, the RATP engineer heading the project at the time, recalls
with feeling:
"We had never been through anything like that. We'll never see anything
like it again. In six months, we went trom paper to a prototype. We did
everything: the site, the track, the cars—we invented it all.
"We tried everything. We were a gang of kids, applying what we'd
learned in school—it was fantastic. We'd work till three or four in the morning.
“We weren't just pencil pushers like they were later on. We were really into
it. Wve had to solve all the problems as we went along.
“The track was a concrete-and-steel sandwich: as soon as it got damp, the

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? a
 bolts popped out like rockets and landed 15 meters away. When the commit
tee members came by, we were territied they'd be hit.” [no. 4]
M. Cohen, Matra’s project head at the time, speaking in his spacious,
large-windowed oftice in Besancon:
“It's also a question of the times, you know. | have trouble imagining an
industrialist today who'd say, ‘Ve don't have a medium-distance ultrasound
link-up? Okay, let’s go tor it—we'll invent one. There’s no motor on the market?
Never mind, we'll develop one.’ And it was all like that. Today, everybody
sticks to his own job. People don't take so many risks.
“You have to realize that in six months we did the entire feasibility model.
It wasn't a prototype; in fact, it was a tullscale model.” [no. 45]
M. Berger, former RATP engineer who was acquainted with the project at
the time, responding to questions:
"So, Aramis at Orly—what is it, exactly?"
“It’s a 1,200-meter track with a shunting station, with three little yellow
cars—usertriendly computers—running around it in dry weather [see Photos
3-5].
“Each little car is equipped with an arm that lets it push on the left or right
guiderail, at branching points, so it can turn.”
“Switching isn't done on the ground, then?”
“No, it’s done on board. The big challenge with Aramis is that the cars are
autonomous; they don’t touch each other, yet they work together as if they were
part of a train. They have nonmaterial couplings—nothing but calculations. So
you can imagine how autonomous they are.
“Every car has to know who it is. It has fo receive instructions about
speed—'Here you can speed up; here you have to slow down.’ It has to
monitor itself constantly, but it also has to know what car it’s following, so it
has to be able to see, or at least feel, what's in front ot it, the way a bat does.
lt also has to know what's coming along behind.
“To see at a distance, we chose a long-distance ultrasound sensor; for short
distances, a rotating laser bundle retlecting onto two catadiopters. If the car in
tront is too close, according to the ultrasound sensor, and the car behind gets
the message ‘Form a train,’ it has to approach the lead car without bumping
into if.
"They're in constant dialogue, since the ultrasound sensor in front and the
ultrasound responder in the rear are both active.
“Then, when they've joined up in a train, the car controls itself by means of

psa IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE ¢

the optical sensor so it will maintain a constant speed without jerky movements
that would shake up the passengers. VVhen it approaches the station it has
been assigned to, at the precise moment of coupling it has to put its arm out
to the right or the left—pow!—while uncoupling trom its colleagues at the same
time [he makes the gesture by turning in his chair]. The cars behind have to
close ranks [he rolls his chair closer to his desk]. If the first car in the train is the
one that turns, the next one becomes first in line and gets its orders. The central
computer keeps track of the flow in terms of passenger demand.
“So you see, it’s not that easy. Each car has to calculate its own speed and
position; it has to know where it's going; it has to be able to be leader or
tollower; it has to know when to stop at a station, open its doors, and keep
track of passenger destinations. And take off again. It it's on its own, it can go
tull soeed ahead. As soon as it sees a car in front, it has to be ready to meet
and link up. All this, of course, at 25 kilometers per hour, even in rain or snow,
all day, all night, thousands of times, without breaking down.”
‘And besides, what you are describing involves only three cars. A real
system would need hundreds of brains like this.“
"Yes, and what's more, the whole system has to be failsafe."

“I find your characters one-dimensional. They seem flat. They’re just

ideas, words on paper. They need to be animated; you have to make
them move, give them depth and consistency. More than anything, they
have to be autonomous; that’s the whole secret. And instead they’re so
rigid! They’d pass for puppets. Look at that one: he has no personality,
he doesn’t know where he is, or what time it is, or where he’s supposed
to go, or whom he’s supposed to meet. You have to tell him everything:
‘Go forward, go back, come closer, turn right, turn left, open the door,
go ahead, watch out.’ Your characters are just sacks of potatoes. Give
them a little breathing space, a little autonomy. Make them cars with
minds of their own. You don’t know a thing about art: it’s not enough
just to treat characters as vehicles for your projects. It’s not worth it,
being the best in the world in robotics, automation, mechanics, com-
puter science, if you don’t take the trouble to breathe some life into
your anemic paper figures. Good literature isn’t made with noble sen-
timents, Gentlemen, and good transportation isn’t made with ideas.
either. It has to have a life of its own: that’s your top priority.”
“But what if they start moving around on their own, taking their
lives in their own hands? Maybe they’ll get abead of us!”

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? _
 a “And what are you getting paid for, may I ask, if it’s not to come
up with a transportation system that has a life of its own and can get
along without us? If we always have to keep after it and tell it every-
thing, if we can’t ever hand a system over to our clients, keys and all,
so that they'll only have to take care of upkeep and maintenance, we'll
never make a cent. We’re doing business, you know, not writing novels;
we're supposed to outfit Jacksonville, Taipei, O’Hare, Bordeaux...
These characters have to live on their own, do you hear me? They have
to. You figure it out.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Lamoureux:
“We had as much tun as a barrel of monkeys. We'd hold a catadiopter
out in front of a car, on a stick, and we'd say: ‘Heel, Fido,’ and the car would
come right up to the catadiopter and stop on a dime. When we moved ahead,
it would follow.
“We even did a public demonstration. It was on May 3, 1973—"'ll always
remember that date—with Lagardére and a bunch of journalists. Everything
had gone smoothly up till then. Of course, the day of the demonstration—it
always happens—the thing didn't work. We'd wanted to do it all just right, all
automatically, no tricks; but nothing worked.
“Impossible to get the system going. Lagardére was hysterical. ‘! never
should have organized this,’ he said. ‘Now the technicians will have to lick
the bureaucrats’ boots.’ It's true that up to then we'd been doing whatever we
wanted. After that, we had to work with tixed objectives.
“Naturally, just as you'd expect, a few minutes later we found the problem:
everything worked fine. We wanted to call the journalists back, but Lagardére
wouldn't hear of it.” [no. 4, p. 6]

Innovations have to interest people and things at the same time; that’s
really the challenge.
The general director is interested; he has no trouble getting journalists
interested, with the prospect of a scoop and some tasty hors d’oeuvres.
Everybody gathers in the beet field that has been transformed into a

[se IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?

revolutionary system of transportation for the year 2000. Just the moment
for a mishap to occur, as so often happens in projects, although not so
often in fairy tales: in no time at all, the coach turns back into a pumpkin,
hesitates, turns into a coach again, then a pumpkin, and when it finally
turns back into a coach again it’s too late. The Big Interests gathered round
are always in a hurry; they’re tired of waiting, they disappear . . . The hors
d'oeuvres are still there; as for the transportation system, sorry. . .
The problem is, the innovator has to count on assemblages of things
that often have the same uncertain nature as groups of people. To get
Aramis past the paper phase into the prototype phase, you have to get a
whole list of things interested in the project: a motor, an ultrasound sensor,
assorted software, electric currents, concrete-and-steel sandwiches, switch-
ing arms. Some of these actors and actuators, are docile, loyal, disciplined
old servants; they don’t cause any trouble. “I say ‘come,’ and here they
are; | say ‘go,’ and they leave.” This is the case with electric-power supplies,
buildings, and tracks, even if the bolts do have an unfortunate tendency to
pop out. But other elements have to be recruited, seduced, moditied,
transformed, developed, brought on board. The same sort of involvement
that has to be solicited from DATAR, RATP, Aéroport de Paris, and Matra
now has to be solicited from motors, activators, doors, cabins, software,
and sensors. They, too, have their conditions; they allow or forbid other
alliances. They require; they constrain; they provide. For example, in cre-
ating the cab, we can’t follow the usual patterns of mass transit: the chassis
would be enormous, and too heavy. We have to go see the manufacturer
trom Matra’s automotive branch. But those people have never built a car
on rails, or a car without a driver. So we have to get them interested, start
trom scratch: we keep the door, and add an in-transit switching mechanism
to the cab. The motors, sensors, chips, and of course the software—none
of these things is available commercially. We have to tie them in with
Aramis: that’s right, recruit them, sign them up, bring them on board. | may
as well say it: we have to negotiate with them.
Nothing says that an ordinary electric motor, for example, was
predestined to be used by Aramis, just as nothing says that Aéroport de
Paris was predestined to use Aramis. Of course, standard electric motors
can activate wheels, but not always under the very special constraints of
nonmaterial coupling. Of course, Aéroport de Paris needs small-scale
means of transportation, but not necessarily those particular means. These

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE¢ 57
 two actors, human and nonhuman, both have to be pampered and adapted
so they can be put together in the project. It’s the same task of involvement
in both cases. The ordinary rhythms of these two actors turn out to be
uneven, variable, interrupted. But that’s where the danger lies. If they're
seduced, convinced, transformed, pushed too far off their customary tracks,
they may also become traitors and deserters. The motor won't work any
more, and another one will have to be developed for the purpose. As for
Aéroport de Paris, it will “stall.” Everybody will lose interest, will pull away
trom the project. “Say, Aéroport de Paris, are you still going along with
the project?” “Oh no, not if you get too far away from short-distance
transportation systems! There’s where | bow out!” “But hey, won’t a good
old motor work well enough for the project?” “Not a chance! Just a few
tenths of a millimeter off, and it stops working!” The effort to generate
interest has failed. The human and nonhuman actors have once again
become admirably disinterested.
The full difficulty of innovation becomes apparent when we recognize
that it brings together, in one place, on a joint undertaking, a number of
interested people, a good half of whom are prepared to jump ship, and
an array of things, most of which are about to break down. These aren’t
two parallel series that could each be evaluated independently, but two
mixed series: if the “onboard logical systems” fizzle out at the crucial
moment, then the journalists won’t see a thing, won't write any articles,
won't interest consumers, and no money or support will get to the Orly site
to allow the engineers to rethink the onboard logical systems. The human
allies will scatter like a flock of sparrows and they'll go back to their old
targets—consumers to their cars, the RATP to its subway, Matra to its space
business, and Aéroport de Paris to its Orly Rail systems. As for the nonhu-
man resources, they'll all return to their old niches—the ultrasound sensors
will go back to the labs, the classic motors will go back into classic electric
cars, the doors and windows will be beautifully adapted to the automobiles
they should have stuck with all along. So if you don’t want the transportation
system to turn back into a beet field, you have to add to the task of
interesting humans the task of interesting and attaching nonhumans. To the
sociogram, which charts human interests and translations, you have to add
the technogram, which charts the interests and attachments of nonhumans.

[se IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE¢

 “For my part,” the motor declares, “I won’t put up with nonmate-
rial coupling. Never, do you hear me? Never will I allow acceleration
and deceleration to be regulated down to the millisecond!”
“Well, as for me,” says the chip, “I bug the CEO and his journalists.
As soon as they want to break me in, I break down and keep them
from getting started. Ab! it’s a beautiful sight, watching their faces fall,
and poor Lamoureux in a rage...”
“That’s pretty good,” says the chassis. “Me, on the contrary, I let
them move me around with one finger. I glide right over the tracks,
since I’m so light, and I actually even let myself be bumped a bit.”
“Oh, stop pretending you’re an automobile!”
“Hah! A chassis like that, you really have to wonder what she’s
doing in guided transportation .. .”
“Leave her alone, she’s a bootlicker!”
“She’s right,” says the optical sensor, “I help the car, too, and it’s
even thanks to me that the motor can be put to work.”
““Thanks to me’—listen to him! As soon as the laser angle is too
obtuse, he loses his bearings! And he talks about putting me to work!”
“You’re the one who’s obtuse—you can’t do anything but break
down. At least I authorize linkups,” says the central control panel,
“and furthermore I’m Compatible.”
“T’m Compatible’! Well, I guess I'd rather hear that than be deaf,”
says the base computer. “But all the software had to be rewritten just
for him.”

I was horrified by the mixed metaphors; my boss loved them. He

seemed to like watching the engineers think about mixing humans and
things.
“It’s a confusion of genres,” I said, forgetting my place. “Chips
don't talk any more than Chanticleer’s hens do. People make them
talk—-we do, we're the real engineers. They're just puppets. Just ordi-
nary things in our hands.”
“Then you've never talked to puppeteers. Here, read this and
youll see that I’m not the one getting carried away with metaphors.
Anyway, do you really know what ‘metaphor’ means? Transportation.
Moving. The word metaphoros, my friend, is written on all the moving
vans in Greece.”

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? =
 [DOCUMENT: MATRA REPORT BY M. LAMOUREUX,

Nee ee eee e ee eee eee ener eee ee

END OF PHASE 0, JUNE 1973; EMPHASIS ADDED]

In order to be able to ensure the basic functioning of the

Aramis principle, an Aramis car must be ableto:
—-followa speed profile provided while it is moving inde-
pendently or as part of atrain (“proceeding inatrain”);
—take the turnoff to its target station (“removal of a car
fromthe train”);
—stop ina station individually or as part of atrain
(“station stop”);
—connect witha car that has just left a station
(“linkup”);
—approach a car withinatrain after an intervening car
has been pulled out, in order to close the gap (“merger”) .*
[p. 7]
Every car thus has to supervise itself: the subsystems in-
clude controls that go into “onboard security software,”
which has responsibility for detecting any abnormal func-—
tioning of the car and for ordering an “emergency stop.” The
emergency—stop order is transmitted by a security transmis-
Sion to the neighboring cars andto the “ground security
software,” which informs the central calculator of the emer-
gency stop.
Paralleling these controls at the level of the cars, the
calculator supervises the normal progression of the se-
lected program and can also transmit an emergency-stop or-
der to the ground security software.
All the cars inatrain receive instructions about their
speed, which are forwarded by the central calculator. The
“functional onboard software” transmits these instructions
to the automatic guidance system:
—if the car is at the head of the train, the automatic gui-
dance system brings the real speed of that car into line with
the assigned speed;

*“Linkups are different from mergers; in mergers, both cars are actually moving
at the same speed when the operation begins. There are fewer constraints on mergers,
but the same equipment brings them about.” [p. 7 note]

[so IS ARAMIS FEASIBLES

 —otherwise, it instructs the car to follow the one ahead
at a distance of thirty centimeters. The “automatic pilot”
of the car behind knows the distance that separates it from
the car ahead, because it has a short-distance sensor (opti-
cal).
The “functional onboard software” (FOS) of each car has
inmemory an authorization for linkup or merging that is
sent to it by the central calculator. If merging is author-
ized, any detection of acar at less than forty meters en-
tails amerger behind that car. Every car has a “long-dis-
tance sensor” (ultrasound) with a scope of one to forty
meters that supplies information about distances for the pi-
loting system. A “short-distance sensor” (optical) 1s used
instead for distances of one meter or less. [p. 9]
Certain orders intimately tied to security are deter-
mined “by majority vote.” The FOS carries out amajority
vote on the basis of five consecutive receptions when it rec-
ognizes such an order; these are orders commanding the
Switching arms to operate or prohibitingmergers. [p. 21]

Men and things exchange properties and replace one another; this
is what gives technological projects their full savor.
“Subordinate,” “authorize,” “supervise,” “allow,” “notity,” “pos-
sess,” “order,” “vote,” “be able”: let’s not jump too quickly to conclusions
as to whether these terms are metaphorical, exaggerated, anthropomor-
phic, or technical. The people interested and the machines recruited don’t
just get together on a joint project so they can bring it from the paper stage
to reality. Some of them still have to be substituted for others. Aramis, for
example, can’t be controlled by a driver as if it were a bus or a subway,
because each car is individualized; in the initial stage of the project, each
had only four seats. You can’t even think of putting a driver—a union
member to boot—in every car; you might as well go ahead and offer every
Parisian a Rolls. So something has to take the place of a unionized driver.
Will the choice be an automatic pilot, with its “functional onboard soft-
ware,” or a central computer with its omniscience and its omnipotence? In
moving from humans to nonhumans, we do not move from social relations

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? _si

to cold technology. For some features of human drivers have to come along
and stay on board, or else they have to come from the center. We won't
keep the humans’ physical presence, their caps, their uniforms, or their
outspokenness; but we'll keep some of their knowledge, their abilities, their
knowhow. Cold qualities? No, on the contrary, warm and controversial,
like subordination and control, authorizations and orders. Because the
automatic pilot is demanding as well—not about retirement and Social
Security, but about distance sensors, orders, and counterorders, if we
decide to put it on board; about transmission, road markers, information,
and speed, if we set it up at the command center. When our engineers
cross the qualities of drivers with the qualities of automatic pilots and central
computers, they’re embarking on the definition of a character. An autono-
mous being or an omniscient system? What minimum number of human
qualities does that character have to bring along? What characteristics
have to be delegated to it? What sensations does it have to be capable of
experiencing? Yes, we're actually dealing with metaphysics, and the an-
thropomorphic expressions must be taken not figuratively but literally: it
really is a matter of defining the human fanthropos) form {morphos) of a

Oe EEE
nonhuman, and deciding on the limits to its freedom.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Berger, reading the above document aloud: “Ah, that's what | was
looking for: ‘Aramis is an automated transportation system that includes a
maximum number of onboard controls; as a result, transmissions have been cut
down fo a minimum. The vehicles have been made completely automatic, and
the calculator addresses all the vehicles present on a functional transmission
segment’ (p. 24). Yes, | have to admit that our discussions sometimes took on
theological dimensions.”

a
“There, Father, you can see in the ground controls a precise model
of God’s relations with his creatures.”
“But isn’t it rather impious, my son, to represent God as the con-
stant repairer of his creatures’ mistakes? The world you propose is
hardly perfect, since, according to you, the Supreme Intelligence has
not only determined the laws according to which the world works but
is also required to correct them constantly. For my part, I'd prefer a
system more in conformity with that of Mr. Leibniz, one in which
God’s creatures would contain the complete recapitulation of all pos-
sible actions. It would suffice to enter all predicates in the software. So,
for example, if the creature ‘Julius Caesar’ were opened up, an infinite
intelligence could read everything he will necessarily do—from his birth
and adoption to the Rubicon and the Ides of March. In the same way,
by opening up the prototype creature, you could deduce all degrees of
speed, all bridge crossings, and all station stops. The prototypes, like
true monads, would have no doors or windows.”
“A serious drawback for the passengers, don’t you agree, Father?”
“There is the problem of the passengers, of course [he chuckles
monkishly] ... But then, wouldn’t a project like that be more worthy
of God’s greatness and perfection than your Malebranchean universe,
which achieves harmony only through constant repair? Whereas I
would achieve it through perfect calculations, and all the prototypes
would go their own ways because of the preestablished harmony in
their software; they wouldn’t have to see or know each other. Don’t
you agree, my son, that this world would correspond more closely to
the picture that piety should draw of God?”
“Of God, no doubt, Father, but how about Matra? Even an inertial
platform couldn’t keep its fixed point without being reinitialized from
time to time. You’re asking too much of human beings.”
“And you, my son, are not asking enough of God.”
“But what do you do about freedom, Father? Why not allow the
vehicles enough knowledge to take care of harmonizing the laws of the
universe—fixed by God—with the little adjustments that human imper-
fection and sin have put in Matra, in the chips as well as in the tiniest
little fleas? Why not open up our monads? Let’s give Aramis more
autonomy, as befits a divine creature, after all; for won’t God’s work
be judged all the more beautiful to the extent that His creatures are
more free? Instead of making them automatons, as you do, I’d make
them living creatures. They'll know how to repair themselves, and
they'll get their bearings from one another. Instead of communicating
abstractly with their Creator, as you propose, they'll find a new har-
mony owing to their freedom. Yes, Father, they'll be connected by a
vinculum substantiale. Nothing material will link them together to keep
them on the right path. They'll have to make independent decisions,
check themselves, connect and disconnect, in conformity with the laws

IS ARAMIS cosue
 of the world system to be sure, but freely, without touching each other
and without being the slaves of any automated mechanisms. Oh, what
a beautiful construct! How much worthier of inspiring piety in the
atheist’s hardened heart than the fatum mahometanum, the predestined
world you depict!”
“You’re getting pretty hot under the collar, my son. I detect very
little piety in the culpable passion that makes you want to create living
creatures yourself.”
“Forgive me, Father, I did get carried away, but the questions of
freedom and predestination are ones I care deeply about.”
“Where is this chapter on the preaffectation of stations?”
“Obh—sorry, Lamoureux, I was thinking about grace.”
“Grace?”
“I mean that you can’t let passengers decide for themselves where
they’re going. The central system has to decide for them.”

“There's still a problem, though,” I said as we left Berger’s office.

“Obviously, the Orly track is only 1,200 meters long, and the bolts do
come loose, but still, the three vehicles really exist, and they get their
bearings from each other by means of optical sensors, and the couplings
are calculated. Why doesn't the story end at Orly,” I asked, mystified,
“since Aramis is feasible? Why do we have to raise the question of its
existence fourteen years after the fact, if it was already completed in
1973? What’s more, some of our interviewees didn’t even mention Orly.
For them, the story started in 1984!”
“That part doesn’t bother me too much. The body of a techno-
logical object is made up of envelopes, layers, successive strips. A
project never stops becoming real. It’s normal for people just coming
on board to be ignorant or scornful of the past. What bothers me the
most, youre right, is the impression that we're losing in terms of reality.
Things happened at Orly that no longer look feasible fifteen years later.
The old guys like Lamoureux and Cohen were ahead of the technicians
like Freque and Parlat, who came later. That’s much less common.”

ss IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE@
a
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Lamoureux, responding to questions in his office overlooking the Seine:

‘At the end of 1987, when Aramis was rolling, it seemed very hard to get
three cars to move together for more than a few seconds. There was a pumping
effect, and they bumped into each other; the train tended to come apart. Do
you remember seeing three cars working at Orly in 19732 Weren't there only
two?”
"No, the three were there. Let's see . . . Now that you raise the question,
I'm suddenly having doubts, but | still see us with the three . . . Wait a minute,
I'm going to ask [he phones a former Matra colleague] . . . She remembers
the three cars quite well; she says there must even be a videotape . . ."
“How do you account for the fact that things could be done in 1973 that
still seemed borderline possibilities last year?”
‘Listen, | want to fell you something. I'd rather you didn’t write this down,
but we were doing better in 1973 than in 1987, fourteen years later, and with
primitive electronics.” [no. 4]

Berger:
“There’s no comparison between Orly and what had to be done afterward,
because Orly was not failsafe. If you take away the guarantees, you can make
any idea work, as long as you're always on hand to make repairs and start it
up again. In fact, when there are ten engineers for three cars, it's not really
what you'd call automation! But ‘tailsate’ means being in regular use, like the
Paris metro, day and night, with passengers who break everything, and just
regular maintenance. To compare a prototype like the one at Orly with a real
transportation system is meaningless.” [no. 14]
In M. Cohen's oftice:
‘People often say that Orly wasn’t representative because Aramis wasn’t
failsafe. ”
“That doesn't mean anything. In any case, it depends on what you mean
by failsafe. If it means intrinsically failsate, then there's no question: Aramis
can't work at all as an intrinsically tailsate system; it couldn't fifteen years ago,
it can't now, it can’t twenty years from now. If it’s probabilistic safety you're
talking about, then yes, we were failsafe at Orly. We showed that it worked."
[no. 45]

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE® [ss

 In M. Etienne’s office at Matra:
“Weren't you already doing all that in 1973—operating the cars in train
formation, merging them, pulling one out, and for more than just a few
seconds?”
"At Orly, we did a functional demonstration, but not under failsafe condi-
tions. | myself wasn't aware that it wasn't failsate in 1974. | want to be very
frank about this; | learned it later. Had the engineers concealed the fact that it
wasn't failsate, or had | just not seen it? | don’t know. In any case, | wasn't
aware of it. Matra had already spent 10 million francs on it. Everybody was
very proud; we had shown that Aramis was feasible.” [no. 21]
M. Parlat:
“Orly didn’t prove a thing. But it’s true, people thought that Orly proved
Aramis’ teasibility once and for all, that there would be no need to go back
over that ground.” [no. 2]

The reality, feasibility, and representativeness of a project are pro-

gressive concepts, but they are also controversial; that’s why it’s so hard
to get a clear idea about the technologies involved.
“Aramis is feasible; Orly proves it.” “Orly doesn’t prove a thing.
Aramis isn’t feasible.” Depending on whom you talk to, Orly gets lost in
the mists of time and takes on the position of a simple idea, as brilliant but
as unreal as Bardet’s eighty-one-box matrix, or else it provides such thor-
ough proof of Aramis’ feasibility that all that’s left to do is find a few billion
francs in order to carry millions of passengers in the system—assuming a
few minor improvements can be made.
No one sees a project through from beginning to end. So the tasks
have to be divided up. Let’s suppose Bardet says, “The bulk of the work is
behind us. I’ve got a patent on Aramis.” Statements like this would make
Matra laugh, since both Gayot and Cohen start by abandoning Matra’s
solutions. They start from scratch, and in six months they do the bulk of their
work: they make a life-size model. Let’s suppose that they declare in turn,
“Aramis exists; the hardest part is behind us. All we need to do now is
settle a few minor issues and fine-tune the whole thing.” We can hear the
guffaws in the RATP’s railway division: “Fine-tuning? But Aramis doesn’t
exist, because it isn’t failsafe. What you have there is no more than an
idea that is possibly not unworkable.” And indeed, if the project continues,

se IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?
they have to change the motor, multiply the redundancies, redo all the
software, redesign all the chips. But the laughter may keep on coming. Let's
imagine that all the aforementioned engineers are congratulating them-
selves on their success and breaking out the champagne to toast Aramis.
Others, at the RATP, will be laughing up their sleeves: “A transportation
system isn’t just a moving object, no matter how brilliant; it’s an infrastruc-
ture and an operating system. They’re toasting Aramis, but they don’t have
a single passenger on board! A prototype doesn’t count. What counts is
a system for production and implementation, an assembly line; and there,
more often than not, you have to start all over again.” Still others, instead
of laughing, will get upset and pound their fists on the table: “A transpor-
tation system exists only when it begins to make a profit and when it has
lasted without a major breakdown for at least two years.”
The frontier between “the bulk of the work” and “fine-tuning the
details” remains in flux for a long time; its position is the object of intense
negotiation. To simplify its task, every group tends to think that its own role
is most important, and that the next group in the chain just needs to concern
itself with the technical details, or to apply the principles that the first group
has defined. Moreover, this way of looking at things is integrated into
project management: by going from what is less real to what is more real,
you often divide up projects into so-called phases: the conceptual phase,
the feasibility phase, the scale-model phase, the full-system site study phase,
the commercial-demonstration phase, the acceptance phase, the phases of
qualification, manufacturing, and homologation.
If Aramis fit info this grid, there would at least be a regular progres-
sion. Unfortunately, not only are the phases ill-defined, but they may not
come in order at all. People who are studying a project may indeed
disagree about the sequence. Does Orly prove that Aramis is feasible? Yes,
it you believe those who define Aramis as a moving object endowed with
original properties. No, if you believe those who define it as a transporto-
tion system that can be set up in a specitic place that meets certain use
constraints. You can even argue over whether more was being done in
1973 than in 1987. So it is possible to imagine that you lose in terms of
the project’s degree of reality over time. Consensus about the length,
importance, and order of phases is not the general case. It is a special
case—that of projects that work well. With difficult projects, it is impossible
to rely on phases and their neat arrangements, since, depending on the
informant and the period, the project may shift from idea to reality or from

sas ceasioice
 a
reality to idea . . . This is something Plato didn’t anticipate. Depending on
events, the same project goes back into the heaven of ideas or takes on
more and more down-to-earth reality. Aramis (since it failed, as we know)
has become an idea again—a brilliant one—after nearly becoming a
means of transportation in the region south of Paris. There is obviously no
way fo contrast the world of technology, which is real and cold, efficient
and profitable, with the world of the imagination, which is unreal and hot,
fantastic and free, since the engineers, manufacturers, and operators all
squabble over the definitions of degrees of reality, feasibility, efficiency,
and profitability of projects.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At RATP headquarters, M. Lamoureux is still responding to questions in his

oftice overlooking the barges:
“Is Aramis feasible? ‘Presumably,’ some reply, ‘since it worked at Orly.’ ‘Not
at all,’ say the others, ‘since it isn’t failsate.’ Forgive my ignorance, but | don’t
understand the way you're using the term ‘failsafe.’ Why does it make such a
ditference?”
“| can explain it to you very simply. We undertook a thoroughgoing analysis
of the causes of breakdown in the standard metro system. That had never been
done before in a serious way. At the time, that information was completely
contidential.
“Well, when we did our tallies, we tound that system breakdowns were
very rare: 3 percent. | still have the figures. Next comes trouble with the
passengers; that accounts for roughly 20 percent. All the rest of the breakdowns
are caused by interactions between passengers and the system; that accounts
tor 77 percent, and of those breakdowns half are due to problems with the
doors.
“This is for the part of the Paris metro system that runs on automatic pilot,
but there's still a driver who takes over when something goes wrong. Okay,
now look at what happens if you go completely automated. Obviously, it’s out
of the question for an automated system to do less well than the metro. On
VAL, with smaller trains, availability has to be increased by a factor of 100 it
there are to be no more breakdowns. That's hard, but it's doable.
“IF we were to go on to Aramis, which at the time carried tour people per
car, availability would have to be increased by a factor of 5,000! In addition,

Les IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?

there would be a lot of new functions to take care of: the linkups, as well as
the motor, which was new.
“And even though microprocessors were becoming more common, they
weren't reliable. | said so at the time: we don’t know how to do it, we're running
up against technological limitations. We could have built in redundancies; but
it you do that, the costs get out of hand . . .
“The rest of the story is a series of steps backward by the decisionmakers,
who were hiding behind economic studies. In the development of a system,
especially one like Aramis, there’s a huge component of speculation. Economic
studies have their place, but you shouldn't do too many of them at the begin-
ning. To start with, all you should have to do is stay within some limits.
“In any event, Giraudet went around the table and | said that Aramis wasn’t
generalizable in the absence of a technological mini-revolution. It wasn't worth
doing economic studies, since the thing was technologically unworkable." [no.
4A, pp. 9-10]
M. Berger:
“You have to understand intrinsic security. That's the underlying philosophy
of the SNCF and the RATP. What it means is that, as soon as there is any sort
of problem, the system goes into its most stable configuration. It shuts down.
Broadly speaking, if you see the subway trains running, it’s because they're
authorized not fo stop! That's all there is to it: they're always in a status of
reprieve.
“As soon as this authorization stops coming through, the trains stop running.
The emergency brake comes on, and everything shuts down. So everything
has to be designed trom A to Z—everything, the signals, the electric cables,
the electronic circuits—with every possible type of breakdown in mind."
“That's why they call it intrinsic: it's built into the materials themselves. For
example, the relays are specially designed so they'll never freeze up in a
contact situation. If there’s a problem, they drop back into the low position;
their own weight pulls them down and they disconnect. The power of gravity
is one thing you can always count on. That's the basic philosophy.
"Even if you're dealing with electronics, you have to be absolutely sure, not
just relatively sure, that all possible breakdowns have been identified, in the
hardware and software both. And here’s where it's tricky, because we don’t
know how to check softtware—it's too complicated.
"We've been checking switches and electric signals for a hundred years.
There are procedures, committees, an incredibly precise methodology. Even

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE® | se
 so, every year we still find mistakes. So you can imagine, in software that has
thousands of instructions and that is cobbled together as fast as possible by
consultants . . .!” [no. 14]
M. Cohen, at Matra headquarters in Besancon.
“There was no hope for Aramis if you had to bring in the principles of
intrinsic security. Not a chance."
“| thought that was the basic philosophy in transportation.“
“Not at all. An airplane doesn't have intrinsic security. Just imagine what
would happen in an airplane if everything came to a halt whenever there was
a minor incident! Well, people take planes, they accept the risk; this is
probabilistic security. It was the same with Aramis.
‘And let me tell you something: the RATP was ready to take the risk. They
were much more open than people have said; they were ready to change their
philosophy.
“| can write the equation tor you [he takes out a piece of paper and writes]:
Probabilistic security = Aramis is possible;
Intrinsic security = Aramis is impossible.
‘It's as simple as that. But I've finally concluded that in transportation, the
only philosophy that allows a decisionmaker to make a decision is intrinsic
security. Not tor technological reasons. When you say ‘intrinsic,’ it means that,
it there’s an accident, people can say: ‘Everyone involved did everything
humanly possible fo provide a response for all the possible breakdowns they
were able to imagine.’ This way the decisionmakers are covered. They can’t
be blamed for anything.
“In probability theory, you say simply: ‘If event x happens, and if event y
then occurs, there is a risk of z in 1,000 of a fatal accident.’ And this is
accepted, because the probability is slight. This approach is unacceptable for
a decisionmaker in the field of public transportation.”* [no. 45, p. 2]
M. Chalvon, managing director of Alsthom at the time of the Aramis project:
“Ot course, | had my technical services study Aramis at the beginning. You
always have to check whether your competitors aren't about to get ahead of
you. | remember the technical report.

*The small number of deaths per year that can be blamed on public transpor-
tation all make headlines. The 12,000 annual fatalities in France that can be blamed
on automobiles—a transportation system whose security is probabilistic or even
random!—don't make headlines. Hence the obsession with security characteristic of
guided transportation systems.

|70_ IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?

 "The idea was that it was seductive, but impossible given the constraints
that characterize mass transportation. In some other civilization perhaps, but
not at the end of this particular century.
“Matra didn’t realize at the time what was involved in the world of public
transportation. They had their apprenticeship with VAL. At Alsthom, we've been
involved in guided+transportation systems tor a long time. There are far more
constraints on them than on satellites.
"We're used to factoring in the sort of constraints that are brought to bear
on a system by millions of fed-up passengers. Not only do you have to protect
yourself against impulsive acts, but the vandalism is unbelievable. You have to
be able to defend yourself against it.
“Cars belong to individuals; everyone looks out for them. But Aramis would
have been collective property. The first time anything went wrong, people
would have blown the whole thing up.” [no. 46]

We are never as numerous as we think; this is precisely what makes

technological projects so difficult.
Not only do the actors vary in size, so that they may represent fewer
allies than they claim to stand for, but they may also bring into play far
more actors than anticipated. If there are fewer of them, the project loses
reality, since its reality stems from the set of robust ties that can be estab-
lished among its actors; if there are too many of them, the project may well
be swamped by the erratic intentions of multiple actors who are pursuing
their own goals. For a project to materialize, it must at once recruit new
allies and at the same time make sure that their recruitment is assured.
} Unfortunately, discipline isn’t the strong point of Parisians, programmers,
decisionmakers, or chips. There are breakdowns, there are damages, there
are impulsive acts, there are dead bodies; there are trials, decisionmakers
on the stand, articles in the newspapers. “We hadn't anticipated this,” say
the operators. “You should have,” replies the angry crowd. “We hadn't
taken all these problems into account,” say the people behind Aramis. “You
have no choice but to take them into account,” say the people in charge
of security, implementation, siting.
A transportation system is no better than its smallest link. If it is at the
mercy of a vandal or a programmer or a parasitic spark, it isn’t a trans-
portation system—it’s an idea for a transportation system. To the task of

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? =
generating interest, which linked up a crowd with a project, is now added
the task of protection; this consists in rendering harmless the behavior of a
different crowd, made up of intruders, bugs, troublemakers who’ve shown
up uninvited. The system has to be made idiotproof. This applies to rela-
tions among human beings—you have to prevent passengers from coming
to blows. It also applies to relations among humans and nonhumans—you
have to prevent people from getting caught in doors, and from being able
to jam the doors. It applies as well to relations among nonhumans—you
have to prevent bugs in the chips from continually setting off the emergency
brake. It applies to a completed transportation system that is actually
working full scale, and it applies to a project for developing a transporta-
tion system that is designed to work full scale. The difference between the
two is precisely the taking into account of an infinite number of unantici-
pated details that have to be mastered or done away with one by one. This
is the beginning of a new set of negotiations whose success or failure will
make it possible to modify the relative size of the project over time.
Human error is everywhere; so is diabolical wickedness; and imbe-
cility is common. As for software programs, they go right on making
mistakes without anyone’s being able to identify the bugs that have infested
them. Here is the difference between a project that is not very innovative
and one that is highly innovative. A project is called innovative if the
number of actors that have to be taken into account is not a given from the
outset. If that number is known in advance, in contrast, the project can
follow quite orderly, hierarchical phases; it can go from office to office,
and every office will add the concerns of the actors for which it is respon-
sible. As you proceed along the corridor, the size or degree of reality grows

Oe
by regular increments. Research projects, on the other hand, do not have
such an elegant order: the crowds that were thought to be behind the
project disappear without a word; or, conversely, unexpected allies turn up
and demand to be taken into account. It’s like a reception where the invited
guests have failed to show; in their place, a bunch of unruly louts turn up
and ruin everything. In this sense, Aramis is unquestionably a research
project.
The innovator’s work is very complicated. Not only does she have
to fight on those two fronts, dealing with supports that are removed and
parasites that are added; not only does she have to weave humans and
nonhumans together by imposing the politest possible behavior on both;
not only does she have to attach nonhumans together; but she also has to
 know who, among the engineers, executives, and manufacturers speaks
for the good actors that need to be taken into account. Should the manag-
ing director order a market study—which would speak in the name of
consumers—when his technical department is declaring that the project is
not technologically feasible without a revolution in microprocessors? Whom
should he believe? His safety division, which is claiming that you can’t
make a transportation system without intrinsic security, or his commercial
developers, for whom vandalism rules out sophisticated systems? Of course
you have to “take into account” all the elements, as people say naively, but
only the not very innovative projects know in advance which accountant to
believe and which accounting system to choose. We use the term “innova-
tive” precisely for a project that requires choosing the right accountant and
the right accounting method, in order to decide which actors are important
and which ones are dangerous. By this measure, yes, Aramis is decidedly
an innovative project.

“But we have the same problem,” I said, rather discouraged, after

reading his commentary in the train that was taking us to Lille to visit
the VAL system. “Who are we supposed to take seriously? Lamoureux
places a lot of stress on the failure of the demonstration with Lagardere
at the Orly site. The others tell us that that had nothing to do with it.
Not until the forty-fifth interview, the one with Cohen, do we hear
that the connection between probabilistic security and Aramis is an
absolutely crucial link that explains the whole project. Other people
are telling us that ‘in any event, in the Paris region, you can never
introduce radical innovations in public transportation.’ ‘In any event,’
others say, ‘it’s not a transportation problem; you can never innovate
across the board, and Aramis involves innovations across the board, in
everything: components, functions, manufacturing, applications. And
the other guy, Chalvon, is telling us that you can’t do anything about
vandalism. It’s really kind of discouraging, How can you claim to explain
an innovation by taking into account the determining elements if there
are as many lists and hierarchies and ways of accounting for these
elements as there are interviewees?”
“We are de-sorcerers, my friend, not accusers. We deal in white

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? 73
 magic, not black. Each of these accusers is pointing a finger and blaming
someone or something. Our job is to take all these sorcerers into
account. If the project had succeeded, they’d have more to agree about.
Look at VAL: everybody is rushing to shore up its success, and every-
body agrees about the reasons for it, even if they divide up the credit
differently. It’s only because the project failed that blame is flying in all
directions. No, these discrepancies don’t bother me. We aren’t going to
settle our accounts in their place. What we have to understand is why
the fate of the project didn’t allow them to come to an agreement even
on the same accounting system. Why isn’t there any object which they
can see eye-to-eye on?”
“Wait a minute, do you mean youre not going to tell us after all
who killed Aramis? You're not going to find the guilty party? But that
was the deal! You're cheating! Columbo always figures it out; he gets
all the suspects together and points his accusing finger at the one who’s
guilty. He holds up his end of the bargain.”
“Fine, but in the first place Columbo is a fictional creation, and
in the second place he deals with human corpses and their murderers,
whereas our job is to look for dismemberers of assemblages of humans
and nonhumans. Nobody has ever done that before. Except in a couple
of nineteenth-century masterpieces—which you have to read, by the
way. One is by Mary Shelley . . .”
“Mary Shelley? Isn’t she the one whose imagination ran away with
her? The one who succumbed to her own fictional creatures?”
“Yes, she was the daughter of the first great feminist, the wife of
the poet, the mother of Frankenstein.”
“And the other one?”
“Butler's treatise. In Erewhon they got rid of all the machines
because, like all good Darwinians, they were afraid that machines would
take over. Erewhon, my friend, is Paris and its intelligentsia. They've
wiped out all technologies, large and small; intellectuals never give
them a thought. And it works out perfectly: our finest minds, our most
exquisite souls really do live in Erewhon.”
We arrived at the train station in Lille. All day we had the pleasure

74 IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE®@
 OTe
of admiring the architecture, the slow, steady glide of driverless trains,
the remote guidance from the command post [see Photo 7].

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

“I'm giving you my own personal version. . ." [no. 32]

"I'll try to reconstruct what | thought at the time...” [no. 29]
“It's hard to be objective. Here’s what | could see trom my window . . ."
[no. 20]
‘I'm not speaking from Mars; | hope you don't expect anything more trom
me. This is just my own point of view, that of a minor local representative...”
[no. 44]
“What | have to say is very subjective. I'll just tell you everything all jumbled
together, and you'll have to sort it out..." [no. 12]
“With hindsight, that's what I'd say, but the president doesn’t see things the
same way. [no. 42]
“I'm not here to tell you the truth, just how we felt about things at the time.”
[no. 37]
"You know, in a case like this, you just have to speak for yourself, since our
own higher-ups don't agree. Bill and | are in the same department; we see
things more or less the same way. You have to get right down to individual
opinions.” [no. 3Q]

About technological projects, one can only be subjective. Only those

projects that turn into objects, institutions, allow for objectivity.
Is the Aramis story already over, or has it not yet begun? The
interviewees can’t settle this issue. After all, we can step aboard VAL, in
Lille; we can’t step aboard Aramis, in Paris. Hundreds of thousands of Lille
residents head for VAL every morning: they go to its stations, follow its
signs, learn how to pay, wait on the platforms in front of closed doors,
sense the train gliding past the glass windows in a white blur; they see
doors opening, climb into the train, listen to announcements made by a
synthetic voice, and look at the doors that close before they are carried off
into dark tunnels. Actually, that’s not true; they see nothing, feel nothing,

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE¢ _7s

 hear nothing. Only tourists are still surprised to see a simple placard in
place of a driver and are a little shaken up by the station stops required
by the intrinsic security system. Lille residents have come to take VAL so
much for granted that they no longer think about it, no longer mention it
when they want to go from one place in the region to another. VAL goes
without saying. “M. Ferbeck? M. Ficheur?” No, those names mean nothing
to them. Yet those are the names of VAL’s creators, its developers, its stage
managers! “No, really, we don’t know a thing about them.” More fortunate
than Parisians, Lille residents don’t even have to recall the existence of
humans on strike days, since the automatic pilots aren't unionized. Only
on those rare occasions when the system is down do Lille residents remem-
ber that “they” exist and that “they” are about to come and fix things.
No one takes Aramis in the thirteenth arrondissement in Paris, or the
fourteenth or the fifteenth, or in Nice, or in Montpellier, or even at Orly in
the middle of a beet field. Few people think about Aramis—not because it
has become so obvious that it no longer counts, but because it has become
so inconspicuous that it no longer counts. In 1988 Aramis exists as a thorn
in the side of the RATP, Matra, the Transportation Ministry, and the Budget
Ofttice, which is still wondering how the adventure ended up costing nearly
half a billion francs. Aramis becomes a textbook case for the Ecole des
Mines. It tugs painfully at the memory of some thirty engineers who have
given it the best years of their lives. Dispersed among thousands of gestures,
myriad reflexes, and immense know-how on the part of Matra and RATP
engineers, it survives, but in a state that leaves it unrecognizable. People
say, “Let’s take the Aramis case.” They don't say, “Let’s take Aramis to the
boulevard Victor.”
VAL, for the people of Lille, marks one extreme of reality: it has
become invisible by virtue of its existence. Aramis, for Parisians, marks the
other extreme: it has become invisible by virtue of its nonexistence. The VAL
project, full of sound and fury, arguments and battles, has become the VAL
object, the institution, a means of transportation, so reliable, silent, and
automatic that Lille residents are unaware of it. The Aramis project, full of
sound and fury, arguments and battles, has remained a project, and
becomes more and more so; soon it will be nothing more than a paintul
memory in the history of guided transportation.
The VAL object gathers to itself so many elements that it ends up
existing independently of our opinion of it. Of course, the descriptions by
the Lille residents, by Notebart (who is its father), by the supervisors in the

p78 IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?

 control room, by Ferbeck (who is also its father), by Lagardére (who is also
its father), by the RATP (which claims to be its father), by Alsthom (which
also claims to be its father}—all these descriptions are going to vary, and
especially on the question of paternity! There are as many points of view
as there are heads. But these points of view are all focused on a common
object, as if, while walking around a statue, each person were offering a
different description that was nevertheless compatible with the others. Ex-
cept for the point of view, the description is the same. VAL, because it exists,
unifies points of view. It transforms people’s opinions of it into “simple”
points of view about an object that remains independent of them. With
Aramis there is nothing of the sort. Since it does not exist, it cannot unify
points of view. There are as many possible Aramises as there are minds
and points of view. Matra’s point of view and the RATP’s and the ministry's
are irreconcilable; within the RATP, within Matra, within the ministry, indi-
vidual opinions are equally irreconcilable; the same Matra engineer, from
one interview to another, or the same ministry official, between the begin-
ning of an interview and the end, will also have irreconcilable viewpoints.
They really don’t know. Their opinions can’t agree, since for want of
agreement among them the object has failed to exist independently of them.

Schooled by my professors in the culture of objectivity (Norbert

called my school the College of Unreason, in an allusion to Butler’s
book), I had trouble getting used to the idea that the Aramis actors
were all telling us stories. At Orly, however, they had tried to tell a
story that held together. To do so, they had gone ahead and developed
bits and pieces in their workshop. They had gone to hangars, to
catalogues, to manufacturers looking for electric motors, auto bodies,
laser and ultrasound receptors, chips, concrete-and-steel sandwiches,
feeder rails, electric circuits, emergency brakes, doors, and—to make
it all work—activators with little electric motors. They really did try
to bind all the different elements together. But Aramis didn't hold up.
It turned back into a heap of disconnected scrap metal.
I had my own private interpretation, but I no longer dared express
it to Norbert. Aramis didn’t hold up because it was untenable. Period.
From the very beginning, it was a fiction, a utopia, a two-headed calf.

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? we
 Instead of that, my professor insisted—and with such arrogance!—that
one had to live with variable degrees of objectivity! And wasn’t it
Unreason pure and simple that he was teaching me in his school? I had
a name for his variable-geometry reality: I called it playing the socio-
logical accordion!

No one can study a technological project without maintaining the

symmetry of explanations.
If we say that a successful project existed from the beginning because
it was well conceived and that a failed project went aground because it
was badly conceived, we are saying nothing. We are only repeating the
words “success” and “failure,” while placing the cause of both at the
beginning of the project, at its conception. We might just as well say that
Nobel Prize winners are born geniuses. This tautology is feasible only at
the end of the road, when we've settled down by the fire, after history has
distinguished successes from failures. A comfortable position—but only in
appearance, for as time passes the positions may be reversed: Aramis may
become, in Chicago is going to become, the transportation system of the
twenty-first century, and an obsolete VAL may be wiped out by the economic
downturn in the Lille region. What does the pipe smoker say in such a
case? Don’t think for a minute that he’s deflated: “Aramis was well thought
out, you could see that right away. All you had to do was look at VAL to
see that it was old hat.” The incorrigible know-italls! They‘re always right;
they always have reason on their side. But their reason is the most cowardly
and servile of all: it’s the one that flatters the victors of the day. De Gaulle
after Pétain; Queuille after de Gaulle; de Gaulle after Coty. And it’s the
fine word “reason” that they distort for bootlicking purposes. Vae victis,
yes, and tough luck for the vanquished!
No, honor and good luck to the vanquished. Failure and success
have to be treated symmetrically. They may gain or lose in degrees of
reality; one may become a utopian project and the other an object. This
does not modify their conception, or their birth, or day 3, or day n. All
projects are stillborn at the outset. Existence has to be added to them
continuously, so they can take on body, can impose their growing coher-
ence on those who argue about them or oppose them. No project is born
profitable, effective, or brilliant, any more than the Amazon at its source

7a IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?
has the massive dimensions it takes on at its mouth. Without modifying the
explanatory principles, one has to follow projects lovingly through their
entire duration, from the time they're just crazy little ideas in the heads of
engineers to the time they become automatic trains that people take auto-
matically, without thinking about them. Conversely, one has to stick with
them while the automatic trains (on paper) that passengers (on paper) take
as a matter of course turn back into wild ideas that float around, that have
floated, in the heads of engineers. Yes, from the extreme of objectivity to
the extreme of subjectivity and vice versa, we have to be capable of
traveling without fear and without blame.
Let’s not make a vertical separation between what exists and what
does not exist. If we reestablish symmetry, then there is again transverse
continuity between what exists and what does not exist, between VAL and
Aramis. The project that does not exist is both easier and harder to explain
than the one that does. To study VAL, classical relativism suftices—everyone
has his or her own point of view on the thing; it’s a question of perspective,
of interpretation. To study Aramis, we also have to explain how certain
points of view, certain perspectives, certain interpretations, have not had
the means to impose themselves so as to become objects on which others
have a simple point of view. So we have to pass from relativism to relation-

nn
ism. The war of interpretations is over for VAL; it no longer shapes the
object; VAL’s paternity, profitability, scope, maintenance, and appearance
are no longer at issue. The war of interpretations continues for Aramis;
there are only perspectives, but these are not brought to bear on anything
stable, since no perspective has been able to stabilize the state of things
to its own profit. Aramis is thus easier to follow, since the distinction
between objectivity and subjectivity is not made—no “real” Aramis is the
sum of the virtual Aramises—but it is also harder to follow, precisely since
it is never possible to give things, as we say, their due. Everyone, even
today, still tells us stories about it.

(DOCUMENT: TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION BY MATRA OF THE ARAMIS

PROTOTYPE AT ORLY, JUNE 1973; EMPHASIS ADDED]

Report on the end of phase 0.

The Orly Aramis prototype: technical description.
The following pages are the outcome of a synthesis of the

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? / 79
 reports and numerous explanations provided by Matra engi-
neers during the Orlytrials.
They should not be read as the description of atranspor-
tation system, but rather as that of a prototype of atrans-
portation system-that is, of a coherent but essentially
changeable set of solutions, often quite original ones, to
the problems raised.
This “technical description” thus emphasizes the proj-
ect’s original features and neglects other more classical
sets which have nevertheless been used and even sought after
inthe effort to avoida “race toward gadgetry.”

To study a technological project, one must constantly move from signs

to things, and vice versa.
Aramis was an exciting discourse. It became a site at Orly. And now
it has become discourse again: text, reports, explanations. What would
Aramis’ story be if it held together on its own? It would be a story that
would work; it would carry away, would transport, without breakdown,
those who gave themselves over to it. The door closes, the passenger
punches in her destination, and the vehicle, without a hitch, without stop-
ping at intervening stations, at 50 kilometers an hour, watched over from
on high, delivers the traveler to her destination and opens the door. A whole
program! But in 1973 Aramis is a narrative program, a story that is told
to the decisionmakers, to stockholders, to local officials, to future passen-
gers to “bring them on board,” but it is also a work program, a flow chart,
and a distribution of tasks, so that Matra can be an enterprise that works
well. These programs are translated in turn by a computer program in 18-bit
series: “111, give the number of the car; 0111, check the message; 01,
open the door; 10, release the emergency brake; 00, display the number
of the target station; 11, parity.” Finally, all these mingled programs, all
these trials, all these attempts produce a real story, written down: a pon-
derous text, the report on the end of phase O. With Bardet, we were still
at the point of daydreaming on paper, scribbling calculations on the back
of an envelope; then we moved on to more serious writing, to patents. Next
came protocols, signed agreements. Then we went on to hardware, to Orly,
to grease and sparks and cement mixers and printed circuits. Now we've

| so IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?
come back to print. The whole passage through hardware helps make the
written history a little more credible. Bardet’s affair was a tenuous dream:
we weren't going along with it, it didn’t work, they're pulling our leg.
Lamoureux’s story and Cohen’s and Gayot's is a story that works: people
believe in it, Orly is behind it--yes, unquestionably it all holds together.
The account of a fiction is generally easy to follow; you never depart
from its textual form and subject matter. Wherever you look in the narrative
of The Three Musketeers, Porthos, Athos, and Aramis always remain
figments of the text itself. The account of a fabrication is somewhat more
difficult, since any one of the figures may move from text to object or object
to text while passing through every imaginable ontological stage. In order
to follow a technological project, we have to follow simultaneously both
the narrative program and the degree of “realization” of each of the
actions. For example, the rendezvous of Aramis’ platoons is an action
programmed at the time of Bardet’s earliest ideas, but its degree of realli-
zation varies according to whether we go from the earliest discussions with
Petit to the patents, to Matra’s plans, to the Orly site, to the imprinting of
the chips, to the reports on the experiments, or to the report on the end of
Phase 0. Depending on the point at which we look into the action, the
“meeting of the branches,” we will have ideas, drawings, lines in a pro-
gram, trains running before our eyes, statistics, seductive stories, memories
of trains running before the eyes of our interlocutors, photos, plans again,
chips again. For the engineer substitutes for the signs he writes the things
that he has mobilized; he attaches them to each other so they'll hold up;
then he withdraws a little, delegating to another self, in the form of a chip,
a sensor, or an automatic device, the task of watching over the connection.
And this delegating allows him to withdraw even further—as if there were
an object. If only we always went from signs to things! But we also go in
the other direction; and we soon find ourselves not in a subway train but
in a conference room, once again among signs speaking to humans—as
it there were subjects!

Alas, VAL speaks well for itself, holds up all by itself. Why can’t I?
Oh, why did you never come to an understanding that would have
endowed me with the same depth, the same weight, the same breadth
as VAL? Why did you argue about me instead of agreeing on a unique
object? Why was I words, and never the same ones, on your lips? Why

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? si
 can’t I put identical words into your mouths? Proceed in a train! Move
ahead! Split up! Behave! Go! Stop! Merge! Haven’t I carried out all
these orders? What more do you want? Do you want me to become
embodied, to take on flesh? Action? That I am. Program? That I am.
Verb Iam as well. Why, ob why have you abandoned me, people? What
do I have to do with prosopopoeia? Will you ever console me for
remaining a phantom destined for a work of fiction when I wanted to
be—when you wanted me to be—the sweet reality of twenty-first-
century urban transportation? Why didn’t you give me my part, the
object’s part? Why did Lamoureux, Gayot, and Cohen treat me as
cruelly, as ungratefully, as Victor Frankenstein?

“It was on a dreary night of November that I beheld the accom-

plishment of my toils. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony,
I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark
of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. It was already one in
the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my
candle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extin-
guished light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed
hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs.
“How can I describe my emotions at this catastrophe, or how
delineate the wretch whom with such infinite pains and care I had
endeavored to form? His limbs were in proportion, and I had selected
his features as beautiful. Beautifull—Great God! His yellow skin
scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath; his hair was
of a lustrous black, and flowing; his teeth of a pearly whiteness; but
these luxuriances only formed a more horrid contrast with his watery
eyes, that seemed almost of the same colour as the dun white sockets
in which they were set, his shrivelled complexion and straight black lips
... He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may
be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some
inarticulate sounds, while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have
spoken, but I did not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemingly to
detain me, but I escaped, and rushed down stairs. I took refuge in the
courtyard belonging to the house which I inhabited; where I remained
during the rest of the night, walking up and down in the greatest
agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it
were to announce the approach of the demoniacal corpse to which I
had so miserably given life.” [From Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, or the
Modern Prometheus]

pon IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE?

 “Do you comprehend the crime, the unpardonable crime?” Nor-
bert asked me indignantly. “Victor abandons his own creature, horrified
by what he has done. Popular opinion has got it right, because it has
rightly given his name to the monster, who didn’t have one in the novel.
Frankenstein, all stitched together, full of hubris and remorse, hideous
to behold. The monster is none other than Victor himself.”

IS ARAMIS FEASIBLE? Me ss
ae
SHILLY-SHALLYING
IN THE SEVENTIES ad
“We're making progress, my friend——we’re crossing suspects off
our list one after another. The cause of death can’t be located in the
final months; that much we've known all along. According to all the
witnesses, it was inscribed in the nature of things. We know it can't be
found in the initial idea, which everybody was excited about. We also
know that it can’t be found in the Orly phase, which went pretty well,
all things considered, since it didn’t commit the project to go in one
particular direction or another. So let’s move on to the other suspect
phases.” —
“There’s at least one point on which everybody agrees,” I said,
consulting the files. “After Orly, there was a period of shilly-shallying—
“stop and go,” they called it in Frenglish. You can see it in the chart
of annual expenditures. Here: this goes from 1972 to 1987. I’ve marked
where we are in black” [see Figure 1 in Chapter 1].
“You should have added the cost of our postmortem study in
1988.”
“It’s such a trivial amount, in comparison; it’d be invisible—a thin
line at best.”
“Yes, but if we'd done it five years earlier, they would have saved
a small fortune!”
We have to overlook my boss’s weakness for thinking he’s useful
and efficient, even though he himself of course criticizes other people's
notions of usefulness and efficiency . . .
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At Matra headquarters M. Etienne is speaking:

‘Aramis never had an engine. That was the real problem, the congenital
defect, all those years."
‘An engines”
“| mean a local engine, a driving force: a politician, an elected ofticial,
somebody with pull who would have made it his cause, who would have put
his shoulder to the grindstone, somebody devoted enough, stubborn enough
_.. Somebody like Notebart, who supported VAL in Lille.
"Every public transportation system is so expensive that it needs a local
political engine, a local base, to make it pay off over the years.
“But Aramis never had that. The godforsaken mess wandered from one end
of France to the other and ended up in Paris, where, as it happens, there’s
nobody in charge of urban transportation. In Paris, it’s the worst of solutions,
and furthermore it had to fall under the thumb of the RATP, which is an enormous
machine."

A technological project is neither realistic nor unrealistic; it takes on

reality, or loses it, by degrees.
After the Orly phase, called Phase 0, Aramis is merely “realizable”;
it is not yet “real.” You can’t use the word “real” for a nonfailsafe 1.5-kilo-
meter test track that transports engineers from one beet field to another. For
this “engineers’ dream” to continue to be realized, other elements have to
be added. So can we say that nothing is really real? No. But anything can
become more real or less real, depending on the continuous chains of
translation. It’s essential to continue to generate interest, to seduce, to
translate interests. You can‘t ever stop becoming more real. After the Orly
phase, nothing is over, nothing is settled. It’s still possible to get along
without Aramis. The whole world is still getting along without Aramis.
The translation must be continued. What has to be done now is to
recruit a “local engine” for this automated transportation system. And this
engine in turn will attract local users, who will have to give up their cars
and their buses in favor of Aramis. In order to oblige them, seduce them,
compel them, Aramis will have to go exactly where they are headed; it will

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES zs

 have to help them get there faster and more comfortably. Each one of us,
by taking Aramis to reach our regular destinations, will contribute a bit of
reality to this transportation system.
Obviously, Aramis won’t find itself “up and running,” ready to trans-
late my crosstown itineraries, unless the local officials, after many others,
become excited about its prototype and decide that Aramis translates their
deepest desires. The task of making Aramis interesting never ends. For
technology, there’s no such thing as inertia. Here’s proof: even an ordinary
user can make Aramis less real by refusing to get into one of its cars; or,
it she’s a local official, by refusing to get excited about it; or, if he’s a
mechanic or a driver, by refusing to work for it. No matter how old and
powertul, no matter how irreversible and indispensable, thus no matter how
real a transportation system may be, it can always be made a little less
real. Today, for example, the Paris metro is on strike for the third week in
a row. Millions of Parisians are learning to get along without it, by taking
their cars or walking. A few hundred shop technicians have stopped doing
their regular maintenance work on the system, and a few dozen engineers
who've benefited from the Aramis experiment are plotting to make the next
metro completely automatic, entirely free of drivers and strikers, thanks to
the Meteor project. You see? These enormous hundred-year-old technologi-
cal monsters are no more real than the four-year-old Aramis is unreal: they
all need allies, friends, long chains of translators. There’s no inertia, no
irreversibility; there's no autonomy to keep them alive. Behind these three
words from the philosophy of technologies, words inspired by sheer cow-
ardice, there is the ongoing work of coupling and uncoupling engines and
cars, the work of local officials and engineers, strikers and customers.
So is there never any respite? Can’t the work of creating interest ever
be suspended? Can’t things be allowed just to go along on their own? Isn’t
there a day of rest, after all, for innovators? No: for technologies, every
day is a working day. You can forget the work of the others, but you can’t
manage if there’s no one left working to maintain the technologies that are
up and running. People who talk about autonomy, irreversibility, and inertia
in technology are criminals—never mind the purity of their motives. May
the ashes of Chernobyl, the dust of the Challenger, the rust of the Lorraine
steel mills fall on their heads and those of their children!

Las SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

a
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Parlat, project head, speaking at RATP headquarters:

“Before anything else, Aramis is a series of stop-and-go movements. That
tact has played a major role. If you look at the history of the project, you see
continual starting up and shutting down. Matra broke up its teams several times.
How can you hope to get any continuity under these conditions?” [no. 2]
M. Etienne, director of Matra, responding to questions:
“Did this shilly-shallying make things hard for you?"
“No, we'd come to terms with the slow pace; the internal reason, foo, which
can now be revealed, was that we were supposed to keep the costs down.
As early as ‘75 or ‘76, VAL had priority for us. Notebart had his shoulder to
the wheel; we didn't have the same sort of pressure with Aramis—except trom
Fiterman, and that was later and didn’t last very long.
"We didn't give up on Aramis, but Notebart kept after us. We handled the
slowdowns without too much trouble, but it’s true that in 1977 we almost
entirely dismantled the Aramis team.” [no. 21]

Messrs. Bréhier and Marey, speaking at the RATP bureau of economic

studies:
‘At Lille there was a real contracting authority. Here SACEM has one as
well. But Aramis never had one. For SACEM, we have a need and we're
figuring out how fo meet it; for Aramis, we had an object and were trying to
see where to put it, just as we've done with TRACS. But Aramis finally got
finished.”
“Finished off, you might say!” [laughter]
“There was a lot of fiddling around, a series of stops and starts that
complicated things.
‘At first, we thought we'd use the Bus Division, so it wouldn't get too heavy,
like the metro (Aramis was supposed to be light, like automobiles). Then they
said no, it was going to be in the Subway Division, since it was really tough
work trom the technological standpoint.
"The operating agency within the RATP was consulted only marginally. The
operators didn’t get involved in the project until the end, and in my opinion it
was too late.
“The feedback loops between utilization constraints and technological con-
straints were relatively slow for the first ten years. At the same time, with a deal

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES a7

 as innovative as this one, you can't let yourself be derailed by people who
aren't used to it and who panic." [no. 30]

The time frame for innovations depends on the geometry of the

actors, not on the calendar.
The history of Aramis spreads out over eighteen years. Is that a long
time, or a short one? Is it too long, or not long enough? That depends. On
what? On the work of alliance and translation. Eighteen years is awfully
short for a radical innovation that has to modify the behavior of the RATP,
Matra, chips, passengers, local officials, variable-reluctance motors—what
an appropriate name! Eighteen years is awfully long if the project is
dropped every three or four years, if Matra periodically loses interest, if
the RATP only believes in it sporadically, if officials don’t get excited about
it, if microprocessors get involved only at arm’s length, if the variable-re-
luctance motor is reluctant to push the cars. Time really drags. What
happens is that actors get involved and back out, blend together or set
themselves apart, take or lose interest.
Is VAL’s time the same as Aramis’? No, even though 1975, 1976,
1977, 1979, and 1980 are critical years for both. It’s no good taking out
a chronometer or a diary so you can measure the passage of time and
blame the first project for going too quickly and the second one for going
too slowly. The time of the first depends on local sites, on Notebart’s role
as engine, on Ferbeck, and on Matra, just as the time of the second
depends on the absence of sites, on hesitation over components, on the
motor’s fits and starts. All you have to do is reconstruct the chain of
permissions and refusals, alliances and losses, to understand that a project
may not budge for a hundred years or that it may transform itself completely
in four minutes flat. The obsession with calendar time makes historians
sprinkle technologies with agricultural metaphors referring to maturation,
slowness, obsolescence or germination, or else mechanical metaphors
having to do with acceleration and braking. In fact, time does not count.
Time is what is counted. It is not an explanatory variable; it is a dependent
variable that needs to be explained. It doesn’t offer a framework for
explanation, since it is an effect that has to be accounted for among many
other, more interesting ones. Grab calendar time and you'll find yourself

| 20 SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

a
empty-handed. Grab the actors, and you'll get periodization and temporali-
zation as a bonus. Here is sociology’s sole advantage over history.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gueguen, the RATP’s director of infrastructures, is speaking at company

headquarters, in the cramped oftice he has occupied since the dismantling of
the Aramis team.
‘Aramis is pointto-point; it's on-demand service. That's the main ditference
between PRIs and all other transportation systems. There’s no fixed line. But
that part had to be given up right away, because of implementation issues.
That was the whole problem for Aramis, in those ten years after Orly. The very
thing that made Aramis so different, its ace-inthe-hole, was scuttled at the start.
“What costs the most in a guided-transportation system like Aramis that has
an exclusive guideway? It's the intrastructure—the bridges, the tunnels, the
viaducts, the tracks.
"Okay, Aramis has a big advantage in being small and light; but look,
here's the problem. [He takes out a piece of paper.] They wanted to give good
service, so they said: ‘Let's put a station roughly every 300 meters.’ Now in
the metro, it's every 400 or 450 meters. Wait, though—the station is on a
siding, because you don't want to block the cars behind that aren't stopping.
That's the whole idea: not a single stop until the final destination.
“But the cars that stop have to have a shunt line to separate from the train.
They also need room to slow down, plus a platform long enough to accom
modate the number of cars, plus another shunt line so they can speed up and
rejoin the train, which is running—or so Matra was saying at the time—at about
50 kilometers an hour without stopping. Do you see?
“Over a distance of 300 meters [Figure 6], if you don’t want the passengers
to be thrown all over each other (and passengers aren't cartridges or bottles]
intinite acceleration and deceleration aren't possible . . . You see the probleme
"Well, you guessed it: there are actually two tracks almost the whole way.
So even if Aramis is a narrow-gauge system, you have to carve out tunnels and
make trenches for a very wide gauge! This is how an attractive advantage
turns into a disadvantage. That's why the project changed shape so fast; it was
impossible.
"So they said, ‘Okay, PRT service is really two things: no intermediate stops,
no transfers.’ They kept the second, but they gave up the first. It’s what's called
a ‘polystate.’ Some stations are offline, some aren't.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES =e

 7 , Station |
0 ©) Station 2
“300 meters
Figure ©.

“But at the same time, that had an impact on the idea of service on demand.
At first, the idea was that it would be like a horizontal elevator. Every passenger
presses one button to say he’s there, waiting, and another one to say where
he wants to go. The elevator decides on the best route. But a transportation
system is always asymmetrical. People all go in one direction, then the other.
It you let people direct their own cars to their destinations, at the end of the
day all the cars would be at the end of the line; how would they get pack?
“Or else you'd have to have so many cars, the system would have to be
sO enormous, that it would cost a fortune. So people said: ‘We have to
predirect the cars. The whole system has to be controlled by the operating
agency; we won't need to do anything but post the destinations. The passenger
gets into the car that displays the destination he wants.’
“But you can see that it gets complicated. It all possible pointto-point
destinations are posted, there are problems with the itineraries, with the sign
system. So we gave up user control of cars during rush hours; we kept it only
tor nighttime.
"So of the four ideas we started out with [he counts on his fingers}—one,
passengers con't have to think, they sit down and only have to look up when
they've reached their destination; two, they control their destination themselves;
three, there are no intermediate stops; and four, there are no transfers, no
changes—we kept the fourth one and wattled on the others: there are interme
diate stops, but not so many."
‘And moving as a train? What does that depend one”
"Moving as a train is a matter of volume. If the cars are separate, with their
security margins, there simply isn't enough volume. You have to have fixed
groupings and give them considerable cruising speed.”
“What's more, don’t forget, is that the passengers are seated; that’s an
advantage, a strong point of the service, a plus that we kept almost to the end,
but it's also, it you'll pardon the expression, a f—ing nightmare.

20 SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 "For the RATP, remember, the only way to adapt transportation supply to
demand is to take advantage of the compressibility of the human body. During
rush hours, you compress people; that way the relation of supply to demand
remains elastic. But this no longer applies to Aramis, since everybody is sitting
down. If you're even one seat short, you have to have another car. [Counting
on his fingers again] One, the problem of cost; two, the problem of system
management.
"But even the polystate was so complicated fo manage that Matra finally
proposed a simplitied Aramis, an omnibus that stopped everywhere.
"Ot the idea we started with, only the elimination of transfers was left. The
advantage is that we no longer had any stations on sidings, so we got back
the single track with the advantages of a narrow-gauge system. We lost
something, but we also gained something.
“But then that brought up a new problem. Since we now have omnibuses,
there are fewer destinations, and in theory more people per destination; as a
result, we can have larger cars. We started with four passengers, then we went
to six, then ten, and then, atter 1981, we had twenty passengers! Don't forget
that the more people you have per car, the less it costs per seat. There was
another advantage: it increased security, cut down on fear of crime.
“Only here's the thing: a car with more passengers but a narrow gauge is
longer, and if it’s longer it doesn't turn easily, and if it doesn’t turn easily it has
a hard time fitting into the sites. And don’t forget that in the beginning, that was
the promise Aramis held out: closely spaced stations, good adaptation to sites.
lt could turn in the narrowest streets.
“Well, the only way to make sharp turns is to have front wheels that can
turn. It's like in supermarket carts. The front wheels go off in the right direction
on their own, and that helps the onboard steering system. But if you have front
wheels that turn, the car itself can't go anywhere but forward! And that’s a
tremendous constraint; they had the same problem in Lille with VAL. You have
to have turnarounds everywhere to get the damn things pointed back in the
right direction.” [no. 10]

Projects drift; that’s why they’re called research projects.

To follow them, it’s impossible to trace a target, a starting point, a
trajectory. Pointto-point service by a programmable carriage taking two or
tour people without stopping along a network with multiple origins and

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES mos

 destinations: that’s the idea that got them all excited—Bardet, Petit, La-
gardére, and their constituents. There it is: the goal for modern transporta-
tion. Now, this is precisely the idea that has to be given up first, because
it is, their engineers insist, unimplementable. Let’s say rather that it’s “in
contradiction” with other ideas that they also want to keep. Since these
ideas conflict, they can’t all be kept together within the same project. One
of them has to give in. “Please, you go first.” “No, by all means, after you.”
“Out you go!” Let’s give up pointto-point and modify the goals.
Well, well! The engineers don’t know what they want? The essence
of technology isn’t meeting objectives? There’s a war of ideas going on in
the heads of these peaceful engineers? There are internal contradictions?
Trials and tribulations? That’s right; because to relate means to ends is
possible only in peacetime, when the engineers know where they’re going
and when they know in advance who agrees with whom, who allows what,
who forbids or authorizes what. Now, Aramis is a research project because
the engineers haven't yet completed their little sociology of ideas. Until the
calculation was made, no one had noticed that stations on sidings every
300 meters would mean two continuous tracks and thus would wipe out
the advantage of a narrow-gauge system. This is where the battle started.
Locked up in the Matra engineers’ craniums or computers, Station-on-a-Sid-
ing keeps Narrow-Gauge-System from enjoying its advantages, or else
Speed has to shift from 50 kilometers per hour down to a snail’s pace, or
else the passengers have to turn into cartridges or pawns, or else the State
has to give Matra an infinite sum of money, or . . . Everywhere, people are
beating their head against the wall; no one wants to give in. Until the day
when—but of course, the whole problem is those blasted stations! After all,
why not give up Station-on-a-Siding? “Out of the question!” it yells indig-
nantly. “Without me, Aramis is pointless!” Well, let’s work out a compro-
mise. We'll have one station out of three on a siding. The rest will be lined
up omnibus fashion. That way we’re holding on to the goal—though maybe
it's a little tarnished now. The speed is still acceptable; the narrow gauge
comes back into sight, and we can hope to transport flesh-and-blood
passengers without knocking them about. Calm down, ideas! You see
you've now become compatible. See if you can’t get along together . . .
until the next crisis. Which comes along very soon, when some sly fellow,
taking advantage of Siding’s demise, proposes to make the cars longer—
they're now almost omnibuses anyway—so as to lower the costs of auto-

[on SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 Figure 7. From a grid network to a branched system.

mation (they'll be divided by ten instead of four). “Out of the question!”

exclaims Curve-Radius. “If | go from ten meters to fifteen, what will become
of my buddy Site-Adaptation?” A new dilemma. New squabbles in the
barnyard of ideas. They don’t subside until Steerable-FrontEnd is intro-
duced; however, this creature will agree to move in only if her fiancé,
One-Directional-Car, comes along; and he'll cooperate only if his mistress,
Complete-Loop-at-Every-Terminus, is part of the picture as well. That makes
for quite a crowd; it costs a lot to keep them all fed, and they add up to a
lot of problems for our engineers, whose initial aim was simply to produce
Aramis.

“Watch out, now, this is a very important shift,” Norbert said.

“They started—-on paper—with a dense network, lots of pickup points,
small, reversible, four-passenger cars summoned by passenger demand
and connecting all points of the network with no intermediate stops.
They end up—still on paper—with a line on which nonreversible
ten-passenger cars circulate omnibus-fashion. The passengers are still
seated, it’s true, and branching points allow the system to maintain a
worthwhile volume at the ends of the line. Still, this seems to constitute
an enormous transformation, a tremendous downgrading [Figure 7].
“But here’s the hitch. In fact, in spite of the severe limitation of

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES =

 the network, all the problems of automation remain. The complete
Aramis system is a little less problematic, but individual Aramis cars
still have to be able to move together in a train, merge, demerge, and
come together again. I have the impression that there’s a fundamental
problem here: no matter how much the implementation is simplified,
the moving component remains as complicated as ever.”
“I may be dimwitted,” I remarked, “but even if we give up the
agricultural metaphors I don’t see how we're any better equipped to
study innovations. I certainly learned how to calculate trajectories in
school, but I had moving objects to work with, and degrees of speed,
accelerations, measuring instruments, differential equations. How am I
supposed to study Aramis, when there are no moving objects, no fixed
points, when there’s constant drift, when no one agrees with anyone
else, and when | don't think you're in a position to come up with very
many equations?”
“Stick to the actors, my friend, stick to the actors. If they drift,
well drift along with them.”
“But that’s what you always say.” It was actually one of my boss's
little weaknesses: to stick to the slogans of his discipline no matter
what, as if by repeating them he found himself less at a loss in
confronting the technological arguments where we didn’t understand a
thing.
“Always simplify,” he continued. “When things get too compli-
cated, when the actors wear us down, we resimplify. After all, linguists
describe all the sentences of a language through paradigm and syntagma;
these are their words. ‘The barber,’ ‘The barber left,’ “The barber left
for the pond,’ ‘The barber left for the pond with a fishing pole.’ You
see, I’m following the syntagma, the syntagmatic dimension, the asso-
ciation, if you like; or, to make it even simpler, I’m using AND, as in
programming language. But if you replace the barber with ‘the grocer’
or ‘the butcher’ or ‘the programmer,’ and if you change ‘left’ to
‘returned’ or ‘arrived’ or ‘spit,’ and if you replace ‘for the pond’ with
‘for church’ or ‘for the oven’ or ‘for the mill,’ and if instead of ‘with a
fishing pole’ you say “with a pen’ or ‘with a soldering iron’ and so on,

/ 2s SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

then you're descending, digging in; you're exploring all along the
paradigmatic dimension. You're creating, setting up, the list, the series,
the dictionary of all words and all expressions that could be substituted
without altering the sentence’s meaning, its plausibility. ‘Spit,’ for
example, can’t be substituted in this sentence, so it doesn’t belong to
the paradigmatic—that is, to substitution, or (if we simplify again) to
OR, as in programming. AND and OR, association and substitution: it’s
as easy as ple.
“It’s the same with Aramis. All the technological projects in the
world couldn't make a set larger than all the possible sentences in a
language. If linguists don't get discouraged, why should we? With these
two dimensions, the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic, OR and AND,
we can follow all the drifts. At first, everything goes along fine; sentence
elements are added. ‘Aramis is point-to-point,’ “Aramis is nonstop
point-to-point,’ and then, bang, you suddenly run into a statement that
doesn’t make sense: Aramis is feasible, but at infinite cost. End of the
syntagmatic line. It doesn’t hold together any longer. So you have to
replace some of the sentence elements by other ones. You have to
replace ‘nonstop’ with ‘with some stops,’ and ‘stations every 300 meters’
with ‘polystate.’ And that’s how it works: you keep on drifting until
you have a sentence, a project, that makes sense. You see, we're getting
our bearings perfectly well, there's nothing to panic about.”
Norbert took so much pleasure in enlightening me, he filled in
his charts with so much satisfaction, that | would have felt guilty
sounding skeptical. Student engineers (like engineers themselves, as I
was soon to learn) can maintain a little peace of mind only if they
respect the technological manias of their bosses and patrons.
In any event, I had learned something from M. Gueguen that was
more important to me than that mishmash of paradigms and syntagmas.
Every time I was squeezed in the metro at rush hour, I now knew that
this was the RATP’s way of adapting the supply of transportation to the
demand. What gives an economic function its elasticity is the flexibility
of my body! I found it easier to put up with the long rides our
investigation required.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES | gs

ae
 eee
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Etienne, head of Matra Transport:

“In 1974, the Transportation Ministry designated the RATP as the contracting
authority for the project.* The RATP was flourishing at the time. Those were the
days of Giraudet; the agency was modernizing the metro, doing away with
ticket punchers {remember the ticket puncher at the Porte des Lilas station@),
: redecorating stations, installing an automated system to help steer the trains."
“Giraudet was having so many problems at that time, with the reduction in
the work force, the attitude toward change. Why did he put his weight behind
a project as sophisticated as Aramis?”
“He had ulterior motives. Giraudet didn't believe in Aramis, but it didn’t cost
him very much to support it, and he had a good excuse: ‘We're modern,
tuture-oriented. It didn‘t cost much; the RATP had the contracting authority for
250,000 francs. No, he got hold of the thing in order to scutile it...
“When | came on the scene, it had already cost Matra 10 million francs.
Once its feasibility had been demonstrated, we turned to the RATP and said,
‘M. Giraudet, what are we going to do with it?’ And he said, ‘Oh, we're
going to do the South Line.’ That was its death knell.
“Giraudet knew perfectly well that it wasn't feasible. The thing meandered
about, far trom central Paris: there wasn't much tratfic, there were fifty stations,
maybe ten passengers an hour, and you had to plan on having 2,000 cars!
Atter that, the RATP said, very astutely: ‘Aramis is complicated. We're going
to create something else—Arabus.' This was a site-specific bus system.
“Obviously, by doing comparative studies, they demonstrated that Aramis
wasn't feasible. This is when we began to question the poinHo-point feature,
and the idea of preprogrammed control. This is what led to the idea of the
polystate, at the time.”
“Would Giraudet deliberately have led you down the garden path?"
"No, that's probably putting it foo strongly, but he had enough insight to

*The “contracting authority” /maitre d’ouvrage] is in charge of spearheading a

project and has overall responsibility for it; the “contractor” [maitre d’oeuvre] is
responsible for carrying out the project, for its actual realization. Normally, the RATP
also plays the role of contractor for its projects. It turns to industrial subcontractors
[ensembliers] for specific tasks, but maintains full decisionmaking control.
"The Paris metro works on automatic pilot, in the sense that the driver’s job
is only to make sure everything is running properly. The only decision he makes is
the decision to start up again, when he gives the order to close the doors. In VAL,
as in Aramis and the Meteor, there is no driver at all, or, to be more accurate, the
“driver” supervises the ebbs and flows from afar, from the control room.

Lee SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 ask for the South Line route, knowing full well it wasn’t feasible. | was a little
discouraged, and | didn’t hide it. [Pause. ]
"On the other hand, yes, he’s quite bright enough to know exactly what
he’s doing. In 1980 | had a revelation: the southern part of the Petite Ceinture
in Paris. | knew someone at the SNCF, Charles, who was responsible for the
suburbs. He told me confidentially, making me promise not to use his name:
‘I've got an idea. It's the Petite Ceinture, the PC. It’s been closed since 1939;
there's potential for trattic. It’s not doing the SNCF any good, so maybe they'd
let you use it.’ | told the RATP (I'm pretty sure it was around 1980}, ‘Why not
the Petite Ceinture?’” [no. 21; see the map in the frontmatter]

At the Institute for Transportation Research, M. Desciées and M. Liévin are

sitting in a large sunny office overlooking lawns and fountains. In the distance,
one can hear the rumbling of traffic on the turnpike leading south.
M. Desclées:
“The problem with Aramis is that they looked all over for a place to put
itNice, Montpellier, * the southern suburbs—and they finally made the worst
choice of all: inside Paris itself.”
“Why was that the worst choice? | thought it was indispensable as a
technological showcase.“
"No, it’s the worst, because there’s a law | learned atter years with the
ministry: you can never introduce major innovations in urban transportation in
Paris. For three reasons:
"First, because technologically speaking everything gets very complicated
right away: there are always huge fluctuations in volume, and you're always
right at the outer limits from the word go. You can’t start small and expand
progressively.
“The second reason is political. In Paris, you never know who's in charge:
there's the mayor, the regional authorities, the prefect, the minister! . . . No

*It was in Montpellier that the preliminary studies went farthest. Georges
Freche, mayor of Montpellier since 1977, a leftist and a great modernizer, wanted to
implement a revolutionary public transportation system. The loop he wanted to insert
in the old city was well adapted to Aramis, because it was not in competition with
an existing metro. When the project was abandoned in 1987, Freche wrote a virulent
pamphlet in protest.
"Because of its size and importance, Paris is a very complex entity from an
administrative standpoint. There are administrative agencies at the city level, the
departmental level, and the regional level (the Seine Department is also part of the
Ile-de-France Region). In addition, since Paris houses the national government, many
administrative functions are carried out directly by a prefect at the State level. There
are also numerous ad hoc organizations linking Paris with the suburbs.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES 2

 body can commit himself; it's impossible. So by the same token there’s never
any support, never any local driving force.
“Third, in Paris you're necessarily dealing with the RATP, and the RATP isn’t
capable of undertaking any technological innovations where there's a high
level of risk. This is not because their people are unenthusiastic, but because
the RATP is a huge enterprise whose job it is to transport millions of people
sately. So it goes overboard; they're perfectionists. They take so many precau-
tions, they're so hypercaretul, hyperprotectionist, that they can’t take any risks,
especially if the innovation is really on the cutting edge. And it's a good thing
they don't take risks, actually; it’s not their job."
“Sorry, but | don’t understand. If what you're saying about the RAIP is true,
why did it latch on to the most complex, most innovative, most radical system,
and why did it always oppose efforts to simplify the system, to make it sturdier,
less innovative?”
M. Liévin:
“| think you have to start with the hypothesis that the RATP was ambivalent
about it. | have a feeling that in the beginning the RATP wanted to sink VAL.
"VAL, VAL's success, Matra’s success, was experienced as a tragedy by the
RATP. It's the first time in France that a metro has been developed without the
RATP, not to mention a fully automated one. High tech. The theory is a bit
Machiavellian, but you can't rule it out.”
“I'm probably being naive, but | still don't understand. Why not produce a
VAL, then, instead of Aramis?”
M. Liévin:
“No, on the contrary, the RATP couldn't get interested in VAL; VAL is much
too close to the metro. What's more, VAL was earlier—it goes back to 1967.
From the start, the RATP flirted with VAL in Lille. Some of its agents actually
helped develop it in Lille.
“But VAL was a done deal: it had taken off. VWWhereas Aramis, while it was
technologically more advanced, was less destabilizing administratively.
“They couldn't get interested in VAL without declaring that the era of the
Paris-style metro, with drivers, was over. And they couldn't accept that."
M. Desclées:
"With a drivers’ strike looming, and the whole nine yards . . . Yeah, Liévin
is right: VAL contirms my three laws. It’s in Lille. It’s got the unanimous support
of the politicians. It’s not under RATP control. Besides, it’s too close to being a
metro. Socially and institutionally, that makes it unacceptable to the RATP. It's

pss SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 only now, fen years later, that they're talking openly in Paris about automating
the metro. They've skirted the issue for ten years. At the time, it was unthinkable.”
‘Okay, | can see why VAL is unacceptable. But why choose Aramis in
particular?”
M. Liévin:
“There was simply nothing else on the market at the time that was at all
innovative or exciting.
“It had to be Matra, because the RATP had to get hold of Matra’s techno-
logical competence, the competence they demonstrated in Lille.
"With Alsthom, they went way back, they didn't need an alliance. But with
Matra, with a new gimmick, small-scale, local, which wasn't VAL... No, it
was the best possible alliance, the best compromise.
‘And beyond that, on the other side, the Matra-RATP marriage was very
important to Matra; for them, it was a fantastic plug.” [no. 11]

“We're onto something here,” said Norbert. “For the first time
things are getting a little clearer. The delegation of the contracting
authority to the RATP in 1974 and the choice of a site inside Paris in
1980—these were both crucial decisions. They entailed commitments,
they determined outcomes, they constituted the project’s destiny.”
I didn’t dare point out to him that after each interview things “got
a little clearer,” only to get muddled again during the next one.
“Do you play Scrabble?” he asked me suddenly. “I'll play you for
your salary.”

The only way to increase a project's reality is to compromise, to

accept sociotechnological compromises.
The good Scrabble player is not the one who uses permutations to
get terrific words on his rack, but the one who succeeds in making good
placements on the board, even if the words are shorter and less impressive.
A few letters in a strategic position can bring more points than a fully
spelled-out “Aramis” that you can’t place anywhere and that forces you to
give up your turn so you can keep it intact while you wait for a better

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES =

 configuration on the board. Besides, skipping your turn won't solve any-
thing, since as the game progresses your chances of placing your word
without any alterations or deletions may decrease instead of increase.
Competitors proliferate. The board gets saturated. A wrenching moment
for the engineer, as for the player entranced by his fine word: “Aramis”
has to be abandoned for another combination, or worse still, has to be
tossed back into the pool at the risk of drawing “zyhghv”! It’s this moral
crisis that leads the pure Aramis—the first Aramis, the one that could do
everything—to be called nominal,* while the series of altered and compro-
mised Aramises is referred to as the simplified Aramis, or the degraded
Aramis, or the VS (for very simplified) Aramis. If the player is reluctant to
compromise his construction, he has lost. He'll be lucky if he can place the
prefix “mis-,” or the word “rat.” Like the overly fastidious heron of the fable:
“Hunger gripped him; he was quite happy, perfectly delighted / To come
upon a slug.”
The compromise is all the more difficult to bring about in that it really
should blend social and technological elements, human and nonhuman
agents. Behind the actors, others appear; behind one set of intentions there
are others; between the (variable) goals and the (variable) desires, inter-
mediate goals and implications proliferate, and they all demand to be taken
into account. The engineers responsible for establishing Aramis in the
southern suburbs have to take into consideration platform length, passenger
flow, the number of mobile units, curve radii, and the fact that the cars are
nonreversible. As if that weren’t enough, the engineers also have to reckon
with the age of the captain, as it were: the RATP director's ulterior motives,
the corporate culture of the engineers, the history of disappointments built
up by the VAL adventure taking place 200 kilometers away. The mainte-
nance of Nominal Aramis requires so many sidings that the system ends
up costing twice as much, it appears. But giving up Nominal Aramis would,
apparently, infuriate the RATP engineers, who are looking for a new system
that is as different as possible from VAL. Where is the technological com-
ponent? Where is the social component? The only questions that count are
the following: Who is compatible with what? Who agrees to stay with
whom, and under what conditions, according to what hidden intentions?

*“ Nominal” here means in conformity with the original functional specifica-

tions. The dictionary offers other, more conventional definitions that fit Aramis
better—e.g., “existing in name only, not in reality.”

j199 SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 “| embrace my rival—so | can crush him.” In order to solve the problem of
doubling the tracks without giving up stations on sidings, let’s increase the
distance between stations from 300 meters to one kilometer. Impossible,
for Closely-Spaced-Service is furious and pulls out: How can you make
passengers walk half a kilometer, when you’re asking them to use Aramis
the way they use their cars? Too bad, we'll just get along without Closely-
Spaced-Service; let’s increase the size. But if we abandon Small-Size,
Aramis starts looking like nothing so much as an automated metro. All the
RATP drivers, under the heading “Project Aramis,” will read “wholesale
automation of the Paris metro” as an entirely different project, “conquest
of Paris by profit-hungry Matra, through an already-obsolete mode of
transportation,” and they'll all be furious to be treated as incompetents or
underdeveloped types. After all, up to now haven't they been the best metro
builders, the only ones?
But wait a minute, some will object, we're dealing with technologies,
not passions; with drawings, not plots; with logic, not sociology; with
economic calculus, not Machiavellian calculations. Ah, but they’re wrong!
The two sets come together in research rooms and administrative council
rooms. The pertinent question is not whether it’s a matter of technology or
society, but only what is the best sociotechnological compromise. Neither
the RATP nor Matra can agree at the time on a mini-VAL inside Paris,* but
they can agree on an Aramis that must be neither too simple (or it will
infuriate the RATP) nor too complex (or it will cost a fortune). It must be
neither too far from Paris (or it will infuriate Matra and run in the red) nor
too close (or it will have too many passengers and be burdened with too
many tedious regulations). This is illogical? No, socio-logical. Aramis inside
Paris is an alliance, a compromise. The “best possible alliance,” said our
interlocutor, M. Liévin, a modern-day Pangloss. Let’s say instead that there
are as many possible Aramises as there are possible compromises among
all those—humans and nonhumans—who have made themselves necessary
to its gradual realization. The only impossible solution is an Aramis that
would accept no compromises; that would suspend the work of recruiting,
of generating interest, of translating; that would expect the Orly Aramis to
come into being all by itself, on its own power, from the feasible prototype

*Fven though the Meteor project today constitutes a new compromise between
Matra, VAL, and the classic Paris metro, since it is automated like VAL but with the
volume of a metro. As we shall see, some observers credit Aramis for this compromise,
which it finally made acceptable.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES / 101

 to the real transportation system, as if the words in a Scrabble game jumped
all by themselves from the rack to the board, as if the characters in a novel
could go out in the street without their readers, as if the monsters of Victor
Frankenstein’s laboratory could simply skip town.

“Well, Norbert, are your syntagmas and paradigms still working?”

“Of course, chum, of course, how can you think they might not
be? Studying a technological project isn’t any harder than doing literary
criticism. Aramis is one long sentence in which the words gradually
change in response to internal contradictions imposed by the meaning.
It’s only a text, a fabric. Look:
Established in Orly. 2 passengers in 1971.
Established south of Paris. 4 passengers in 1972.
Established in Marne-la- Vallée. 4. passengers.
Established at La Défense. 4. passengers
Established in Montrouge. 6 passengers in 1974.
Established in Toulon. 6 passengers.
Established in Dijon. 6 passengers
Established in Nice. 10 passengers in 1977.
Established in Montpellier. 10 passengers.
Established on the Petite Ceinture in 1980. 10 passengers in 1982.
Established on Victor Boulevard in 1984. 20 passengers.
. Established nowhere in 1988. O passengers in 1988.
The passengers are seated in 1973.
The passengers are seated.
The passengers are seated.
The passengers are seated.
Some passengers are also standing in 1987.
There are no passengers in 1988.

“There’s the declension of our Aramis, the paradigms. And here

are the long sentences of the Aramis story, which hangs together better
and better. Here are the sequential syntagmas:
“1, Aramis is a programmable bench that interests all city-dwellers
and especially M. Petit of DATAR;

som SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 “2. Aramis is a machine transfer system that obeys the laws of
kinematics and interests M. Bardet;
“3. Aramis is an original means of transportation that follows the
fashion of PRTs and that interests Matra, which is attempting to
diversify and which is applying automobile and space technologies to
guided-transportation systems;
“4, Aramis is a small car that has four yellow seats and electronic
couplings, that can link up, separate, and merge, that has probabilistic
security, that is tested at Orly, and that is fimanced by Matra, the
Transportation Ministry, Aeroport de Paris, DATAR, and the RATP;
“S. Aramis is a revolutionary transportation system that has 2,200
nonreversible cars with six seats each, onboard steering, and sixty
stations on sidings, that allows passengers to go where they want to go
without transfers and without intermediate stops, that serves the south-
ern suburbs, and that costs a fortune.”
(Gasping for breath like a singer.)
“6. Aramis is a new transportation system that has cars with ten
seats, that is equipped with variable-reluctance motors, that uses the
omnibus format, with stops but no transfers, that has branching points
requiring separations, mergers, and couplings, that serves the Petite
Ceinture in the south of Paris, that has the RATP as its contracting
authority.
“And so on.
“The story gets longer and longer. It’s a sea serpent, a more and
more complex sentence, but one that’s more and more reasonable, since
through trial and error it has rejected or eliminated everything that
didn’t make sense. It becomes so complete, so comprehensive, so
enveloping, so detailed, that volumes of reports and specifications are
needed to contain it.”
Since the 1960s, French intellectuals have had a certain weakness
for seeing texts everywhere. For my mentor Norbert, educated in the
era of Barthes and Lacan, Aramis was becoming literature; it was a
poem to be composed by modifying sentence components, trusting to
luck, as with Raymond Queneau’s 100,000 poems.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES 103

 As a young engineer, I refused to confuse motors and railroad
tracks with words.
“But which one of those sentences tells the right story?”
“All of them, none of them. The one you get carried away with;
the one that would really carry you away, from the boulevard Victor to
Bercy——that’s the one that would be the right story.”
“But then the right story would be endless; the sentence would
be so long you wouldn't have enough breath to say it, or enough paper
to write it down.”
“No, because the more reality we take on, the more the arithmetic
changes. An infinity of stable elements becomes a single element. For
you, for the user, the sentence becomes: ‘I’m taking Aramis and I’m on
my way.’ Not even. The sentence is: ‘I’m on my way, I'll be at the
boulevard Victor at 4:30.’ You don’t even mention Aramis’ name any
more.”
A text so long that it becomes a mute thing, a text so long that
it ends up recruiting enough things and endowing them with enough
meaning to keep quiet and make me speak, me, the animal endowed
with speech—this mystified me even more than the puzzle we were
supposed to be solving. Now that my mentor no longer dazzled me,
I’m sure the reader will understand why I took steps at that point—
unsuccessfully, alas—to change my internship and enroll in the program
in Man-Machine Interaction and Artificial Intelligence.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Berger, speaking at RATP headquarters:

“Throughout this whole period, you must remember, there’s something that
works really well, it's a major innovation: |'m talking about the rotary motor,
the variablereluctance moter. It isn’t functional; it’s not related to the transpor-
tation system; it’s not electronic. But maybe this is precisely why it's a great
success.” [no. 14]

pies SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 Y js STATOR Ux
Field )
VWLY: Ji
lines YS Orientation Y/
Af, Position of the field In fact, at this moment
at a given moment the field has shifted;
thus, the movement
continues.

Figure 8.

“We still really need to understand what this rotary motor is all
about. Everybody says it was Aramis’ biggest success. You're a real
engineer, so that’s your area, chum; it’s your job to understand that.”
“According to what I’ve been told, it’s an electric motor that
doesn’t involve a power transfer. You don’t have a shaft or a sprocket;
there are no mechanical parts except for the rotor, which is the axle.
You have little notched wheels that allow very finely tuned displace-

eee
ments’ [see Figure 8].
“Okay, we can leave it at that. Anyhow, it’s a black box that looks
pretty isolated in the project. If nobody goes into it, we don’t need to
go into it either. It’s independent. It’s not what scuttled the project.”
You can see that my boss transformed his rules of sociological
method into convenient devices for absolving his own ignorance and
his intellectual laziness . . .

(DOCUMENT: CONCLUSION OF THE CET REPORT]

The motorization of Aramis with the variable-reluctance

motor, which has been homologated by the RATP, represents an
important innovation as a new mode of propulsion.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES | 108

 OO ee
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

In M. Hector’s office at the Research Bureau of the Transportation Ministry.

‘Still, it wasn’t a complete waste; there was the variable-reluctance motor.”
“Yes, but do you know a single application for it? Do you know one person
who wants ite”
“No, you'te right. In robotics, though, don’t they think it might be usefule”
‘Does it have the right power"
“Uhh, no.”
‘So you see, even the motor, okay, it works, but nobody wants it. Can you
call ita success, if there are no takers?”
‘Okay, | see your point. Anyway, you can’t use the motor to justify the whole
Aramis project. Five hundred million francs for a motor nobody wants—that'd
be pretty expensive. ”
“Right!” [no. 31]

In the first place, a project isn’t one project. It’s taken as a whole or
as a set of disconnected parts, depending on whether circumstances are
favorable or unfavorable.
In the first place it’s abstract,* since each element, once drawn in,
once “interested,” pursues its own goals and tries to conform as little as
possible to the common translation. It becomes concrete only gradually, if
it can count as one in the eyes of all its users, who are simply content to
“take Aramis” on the Petite Ceinture so they can go about their business.
But if circumstances are against it, then the project decomposes, and each
element, disinterested, goes its own way, making Aramis more and more
abstract. That’s why the sum of the elements that constitute it can never be
fixed once and for all, for it varies according to the state of the alliances.
In 1971 Aramis is a programmable bench allowing point-to-point service
with on-demand user control. The word “Aramis,” the character called
Aramis, seems to be unique and unified. It really does designate a project,
an idea, a concept. Yes, but it is still no more than an idea, not very real,
not very realistic, not very fully realized, and it interests very few people.

*In Gilbert Simondon’s sense; see Du mode d’existence des objets techniques (Paris:
Aubier, 1958; rpt. 1989).

Hos SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 In 1976, on the other hand, it is composed of hundreds of membra disjecta,
each of which is evolving in terms of its own alliances and prohibitions.
The variable-reluctance motor holds up, but not the stations on sidings; and
not the polystate. Matra sticks with it, but not Aéroport de Paris, which has
long since dropped the whole thing. Finally, in 1988, there’s no longer
anyone who can explain what constituted Aramis’ unity, since it has been
dismembered once again, since the teams have been disbanded and the
research center destroyed, and since there’s talk of “spillover”: the vari-
able-reluctance motor is now isolated, abstracted from the whole, saved
from the shipwreck to become one of the positive elements of Aramis
endowed retrospectively with a life of its own. “At least there was the
motorization—a great technological success, even if it’s a little costly and
hasn’t yet found clients.”
To count these successive states, a very peculiar arithmetic is re-
quired, since each element, by virtue of the pressure brought to bear on it,
can become either an autonomous element, or everything, or nothing,
either the component or the recognizable part of a whole. The question of
how many elements compose a technological system cannot be answered
by ordinary arithmetic. When there are breakdowns, accidents, strikes, the
components separate into individuals and proliferate; then, when the sys-
tem starts up again, they disappear, and literally do not count any longer.
The lack of flexibility of the space shuttle Challenger’s O-rings after a cold
wave became apparent only after the explosion—from that point on, it was
necessary to reckon with cold temperatures.* The lack of flexibility of the
maintenance-shop workers in the Paris metro after an action by the CGT
[Confédération Générale du Travail, a labor union] became apparent only
after the long strike in 1988—trom that point on, the workers had to be
reckoned with. Before the catastrophe, didn’t it ever get cold at Cape
Kennedy? Before the strike, weren’t there any bitter young nonunionized
workers? The cold and the young workers were absent and present at the
same time. Yes, it’s a weird arithmetic that can't pin down the numbers.

*Thomas F. Gieryn and Anne E. Figert, “Ingredients for a Theory of Science

in Society: O-Rings, Ice Water, C-Clamps, Richard Feynmann and the Press,” in
S. Cozzens and T. Gieryn, eds., Theories of Science in Society (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1990). See also J. L. Adams, Flying Buttresses, Entropy and O-Rings
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE civennics

 SS
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Parlat is speaking in the small, unused shanty on the boulevard Victor:

"We hesitated a long time over the transmissions. We started with optical
linkages for short distances and ultrasonic ones for the long distances. The
couplings between cars went through a lot of changes. In 1974 we had
ultrasound for long distances and optical couplings for short distances; then,
in 1983, everything was ultrasonic; finally, we had hyperfrequencies for long
distances and ultrasound for short ones.” [no. 2]

The topology of technological projects is as peculiar as their arith-

metic.
It a project were made up of Russian dolls, everything would be
simple. You would take the big doll, knowing that there were other ones
inside, but you'd let the experts—who are more and more highly special-
ized—open up the dolls, one at a time. So you’d have a transitive series
of dolls, each of which would hide and protect the next one down, and
also a transitive series of specialists, each of whom would hide and protect
the next one. You want to know how the rotary motor works? Eighth door
on the left after you get out of the elevator: see the assistant head of the
subolfice of motorization. You want to talk about a site for Aramis? That's
the big doll that contains all the others, smiling, friendly, attractive. Go see
the director, the fortunate M. Etienne. Division of labor, division of prob-
lems. A good flow chart to handle all the embeddings, and we'll be all set.
A technological project would thus be neither complex nor simple; it would
be a well-organized series of Russian dolls.
Unfortunately, arrangements of this sort are valid only for finished
objects that need simply to be supported and maintained. The lovely series
of successive tasks and embedded specializations is not valid for projects.
The dolls aren’t Russians but savages, or Russians like the salad of the same
name, or like the nationalities liberated by perestroika. Their topology is
so nonstandard that the very smallest one may, from time to time and for
a certain period of time, contain the larger ones. Is nonmaterial coupling
Aramis’ content or its container? Hard to say. If Aramis were in operation
today, its transitivity would be easy to observe: Aramis would be the
transportation system of the Petite Ceinture, which would control a dense

[sos SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 network, which would control detachable mobile units, which would control
nonmaterial couplings, which in turn would control communications and
programs for linking up. From the general to the particular, the logic would
be easy to follow. But in the real Aramis, precisely the one that does not
exist, we see that nonmaterial coupling becomes, for some people, the big
doll that contains and justifies all the others: “It’s the biggest innovation in
guided-transportation systems.” The dense network is only one of its con-
sequences; as for the Petite Ceinture, it is only an unimportant experimental
site. From footsoldier to general: the chain of command is clear, but
reversed.
For projects or objects that have broken down, this sudden mutation
may take place at any point in the old chain. Is the eighth microprocessor
that controls the movement of trains in its turn contained by or contained
in the nonmaterial coupling? Here’s a new uncertainty. And it grows larger
as it’s examined carefully, to the point of blocking the entire Aramis project.
From two cars to three, from three to four, the logic is no longer so sound.
There’s no possible generalization. At the third car, the train is disturbed,
starts bunching up like an accordion, gets dislocated . . . The last doll
becomes the first one, the one that holds all the others: the nonmaterial
train doesn’t hold up more than a few seconds.

“Engineers think like savages, my friend, as Lévi-Strauss does not

say. It’s a matter of tinkering with what you have on hand to get yourself
out of terrible muddles: what was only a stage becomes an infinite
number of stages, a real labyrinth. What was once a command chain
becomes an unruly mob, a true case of every man for himself.”
“But wait a minute,” I exclaimed, indignant at so much bad faith
and because, by chance, I had read Levi-Strauss for my exams. “Levi-
Strauss contrasts modern engineers with mythical tinkerers.* We engi-
neers don't tinker, he says. We rethink all programs in terms of projects.
We don’t think like savages.”
“Hah!” Norbert muttered ironically. “That’s because Lévi-Strauss

*Claude Lévi-Strauss, Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968;

orig. pub. 1962).

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES 108.

 did his field work in the Amazon rain forests, not in the jungle of the
Paris metro. What he says about tinkerers fits engineers to a T, his
ethnologist’s bias notwithstanding.”
“But there really are experts in the field,” I replied, letting my
exasperation show, “engineers who don’t tinker, who don’t compro-
mise, who don’t translate, whose instrumental universe is not closed,
who...”
“Of course there are, my friend,” Norbert replied calmly, “when

OO
everything is running like clockwork, when the project is over, when
everything is going along swimmingly; of course, then it’s as if there
were ‘experts’ quite unlike tinkerers and negotiators. But at the end,
only at the end. And since Aramis wasn’t lucky enough to have such an
end. . . No, believe me, you don’t have those who tinker on one side,
and those who calculate on the other.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Girard, who has since lett the RATP. but who was responsible for Aramis’
fate when he was chief executive officer:
‘Aramis always suftered trom being badly integrated into the RATP culture.
When | was in the Rail Division of the RATP, | wasn't the least bit motivated by
Aramis, whereas | did all | could for AIMT—the wholesale automation of
subway trains . . .
“Aramis was interesting because of its rendezvous and its dense network,
with multiple origins. | had suggested to the Bus Division that they should take
over the project. It's lightweight; it's automobile technology, in terms of its
construction; it’s on tires. We had pulled out a few engineers, but there again
the RATP culture was hostile.
By simplitying it, we denatured it; when we abandoned the pointto-point
principle, we killed the project right there, and those who simplitied it didn’t
realize the consequences their decisions would have.” [no. 18, p. 4]

“Here's the first trail, my dear Watson, the first serious trail. “We
killed the project by denaturing it, by simplifying it.’ They shouldn't
have abandoned point-to-point, the dense network.”

110 SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 “But everybody else says just the opposite: “The thing was doomed
because it wasn’t simplified enough, it wasn't fleshed out enough, it
wasn’t changed enough, there was no local force driving it.”
“That’s it: we're getting hot, were closing in on the major
argument about what is negotiable in a project and what isn’t. One
group says that the initial idea had to be abandoned right away because
it wasn't feasible, and the other guy claims that giving up the initial
idea is what did the project in.”

Eee
“Guess what I just found in the Larousse Encyclopedia! An article
on Aramis! A long paragraph—listen to how it ends: ‘Adoption of the
system was considered on the basis of studies undertaken by several French cities,
Paris in particular.’”
“Well, well! If your name appears in the Larousse Encyclopedia, you
exist a little bit after all.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Etienne, head of Matra:

“Some good engineers convinced us—and they were right—that you had
to proceed in stages, starting with subsystems.
“Michel Frybourg, head of INRETS at the time, had convinced everybody,
myself included. It was a reaction against the Bertin style of invention: Bertin
invented a whole system around a single component, the linear motor, and it
was a dud.
“So we said, ‘Okay, let's do it in stages.’ We knew, for example, that at
Orly we didn't have the right motor; that’s when the idea of the variable-reluc-
tance motor came up, with the Jamet brothers.
"We did the bulk of Phase ] on the motor. We said to ourselves, ‘We're
not going to try to implement the system until we have the components and the
subsystems.’ Everybody was encouraging us to work in terms of subsystems.
They were telling us, ‘We won't come on board if you move too fast.’ Every:
body agreed, and it wasn’t stupid; | was as convinced as anyone, and | still
am.
"Maybe we manufacturers are in more of a hurry than everyone else. But
we were moving slowly. Everybody was encouraging us to proceed slowly.
‘Watch out! Watch out!”

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES aim

 What counts, in a technological project, is deciding what has to be
negotiated, and deciding on an official doctrine that will make it possible
to proceed with any negotiation at all.
To hesitate is not necessarily the same as to renegotiate. In Scrabble,
too, a player may hesitate before placing the perfect word that she’s
composed so lovingly on her rack. She can even break it in two and resign
herself to placing only half of the word—for example, “Ara” (“climbing
bird—Platycercides—scientific name ‘sittace,’ large South American parrot
with brilliant plumage”) instead of “Aramis” or “Ararat” (“volcanic peak in
Turkey where Noah's Ark landed after the Flood”). But hesitation and
breakup do not lead to the same solutions as does the renegotiation of the
whole word according to the positions to be occupied on the board and
the letters available on the rack. Intellectually and emotionally, the two
operations remain different, even if, for the other players, they are both
translated by a period of anxious waiting and a lot of head scratching.
Should we hesitate to implement Aramis, or should we completely rebuild
it?
At this point, between 1974 and 1980, nothing yet proves that
“Aramis” is a good word. Nothing yet proves that it should not be com-
pletely reformulated. However, the people carrying the ball for the project
make a major decision as to what is negotiable and what isn’t. Implemen-
tation, size, operation, financing, the dense network—all these are open
to discussion; the mobile unit with nonmaterial couplings is not. Now, such
a decision constitutes a commitment for the future, since it brings to the
negotiating table players who don’t have freedom to maneuver—freedom
that they'd need in order to be able to rethink the entire project as circum-
stances change. They’re obliged to maintain the mobile unit intact (it has
become the heart of Aramis, its essence}, whereas everything else is subject
to change. Now, how can one make a clean break, in a transportation
system, between the unit that moves and the network in which it moves and
the city in which the network is to be implanted? Yet the decision isn’t really
a decision, since it remains implicit. No one entrusts the negotiators with
a list of priorities and a margin of maneuverability for each item; further-
more, no one recognizes that there is negotiation going on, with a nego-
tiating table, priorities, and maneuvers to be carried out successfully. On
the contrary: in place of such a list, we find a doctrine of “common sense,”
a piece of strategic advice offered by M. Frybourg, who recommends
carefully distinguishing between finding sites for the system and perfecting

pita SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 its components, such as the motor, the mobile unit, the transmission systems.
This hard-won “wisdom” acquired after the failure of a few grandiose
projects—like Bertin’s aerotrain—may turn into “folly” in Aramis’ case. No
retroaction is going to make it possible to redefine the mobile unit in light
of variations in implementation or operation.
People who study technological projects take too little interest in the
official doctrines dealing with the actual management of the projects. This
metalanguage appears parasitical. Yet it plays the same essential role that
strategic doctrines play in the conduct of wars. In the course of a battle or
a project, ideas about the way to handle battles or innovations play a
performative role. To separate the perfecting of the components from the
perfecting of operating conditions and sites, in the name of the hard-won
wisdom acquired in the board room of the Department of Bridges, is to
make a decision as important for Aramis as the decision to reinforce the
Maginot Line in the name of the hard-won wisdom acquired at military
headquarters. Writing a project’s history also means writing the history of
the ambient theories about project management. The history of technolo-
gies has to include the history of these doctrines, just as military history
includes the history of the strategies taught in war colleges and at general
headquarters. *

“But engineers don't play war games, Norbert. In fact, they don’t
play at all; they work. They're not ‘sent to the negotiating table’; they
perfect the most effective technology possible. In fact, they don’t
‘negotiate’ at all; they calculate. They don’t pay any attention to ‘chang-
ing circumstances; they leave that up to the politicians and the mar-
keting strategists and other busybodies. What engineers do is think
about the optimal solution. They have no use for ‘priority lists’ or
‘maneuvering room,’ or all the rest of the hoopla thrown around by
rhetoricians and business schools. Don’t forget, engineers aren't trained
at Sciences Po [Ecole des Sciences Politiques]. They're honest and
upstanding, and they don’t give a hoot for the ‘doctrines’ of merchan-
dising and compromise.”

*For military examples, see J. Keegan, The Mask of Command (New York: Viking,
1987).

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES L118

 a
“That’s an interesting theory all right, and it’s often come in
handy,” Norbert replied ironically. “In fact, that may be exactly what
killed Aramis. It would give us a pretty good criminal.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At the Institute for Transportation Research, M. Liévin, affable and sarcastic,

is speaking once again:
“There's the main difterence, | might say, between Aramis and VAL. VAL, in
Lille, started small, and gradually got complicated in accordance with local
demands.
"At first it was referred fo as ‘the whatchamacallit.’ That should give you an
idea. | was there when it started up, in 1968-69. Watch it, now, don't go
and call me one of VAI's fathers; it already has a lot of fathers.”
“Yes, it’s not like Aramis. There aren't any paternity battles over failures!”
"Exactly. Okay, so we did the studies and we were dealing with an internal
transportation system in Villeneuve-d’Asq.* Ralite, an engineer trom the General
Council on Bridges and Roads, asked us to do a study; he really took us by
surprise the day he asked us to extend the system so it would go all the way
to the Lille station.
"We were very much intluenced by a Swiss minitrain, the Habegger, which
still exists. Then Ralite gradually presented his project as the beginning of the
Lille metro.
‘A call for bids was put out; Notebart had assured us that the urban
community would go along.
“In 1972, when the bids were examined, there were tive proposals: Matra,
Bertin, Soulé, | can’t remember the others. It should all have been automatic.
"There was a meeting. The Matra bid was officially declared the best.
"At that point Professor Gabillard, from Lille, a hypertrequency specialist,
and very active on the local scene, a wellknown figure, a Rotarian, sensed
that the university could profit from the situation, and he latched onto the idea.
He hasn't let go, either; he’s still there. You really have to go see him.
“He put the Habegger and Matra’s proposal together. His ideas have been
twisted around several times, but he was a very effective stimulus. The papers

*Villeneuve-d’Asq was a newly created town on the outskirts of Lille where a

new university was being established. A novel transportation system was to be added
to the novelty of the town itself.

Era SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 were full of articles on the ‘Lille inventions.’ In terms of local implementation,
we couldn't have done better; and besides, we moved from something simple
fo something complicated." [no. 15]

“Tf I understand correctly, to write the Aramis story we have to

rewrite the VAL story.”
“Yes, since it’s the same company, Matra was working on both _
systems during the same period, and the two project heads had been
classmates. Furthermore, this gives us an admirable point of compari-
son: a failure, a success, the same men. There’s no way to say the
industrialist is no good, since he succeeds in one case and loses in the
other. With the comparison, we're compelled to see the symmetry. And
technologically speaking, one is as complicated to produce as the other,
even if Aramis is even more on the cutting edge. No question about it:
I sense that were about to add a chapter to Plutarch’s Lives, and if you
still think it’s impossible to be both a good engineer and a good
negotiator, get ready to squirm, Mister Young Engineer.”
“But I’ve been squirming all along, Mister Literary Graybeard!”
As you can see, over time I had become rather cheeky.
“Right. So our next meetings will be about VAL?”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At Matra headquarters, in the office of M. Fréque, who worked on VAL

before going back to Aramis in 1981. The same postmodern ceramic building.
The same charming hostesses. The Aramis cabin is still in the hall. Delighted
to be able to talk about his offspring VAL again, M. Fréque compares the two
projects for an hour, without waiting for questions.
“Yes, it's true, the contrast between Aramis and VAL is striking. In our
response to the call tor bids, we had proposed a single line without a network.
We had nonreversible units with loops and a door at each side, for the purpose
of simplitication. The functional specitications of the competition were very few
in number: a one-minute interval during rush hours, and a fairly low external
noise level, for the site. The greatest possible technological freedom was lett
to the manufacturer. That was in total contrast with Aramis.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES 115

 “With VAL, we moved gradually from something simple to something com-
plex. The system underwent two major changes in definition, one functional
and one technological.
“The most important by far occurred in 1974, after the trial runs on the test
track with the prototype—there was a CET, just as there was for Aramis.
“Notebart showed up—he hadn't shown much interest in the project up to
that point—and said, ‘It’s a mission for the future, it’s a very good image on
the political tront, it’s the rebirth of public transportation. A route in the new city
is great, but if we used it to connect the new city and Lille itself, it would be
better yet. What | want is a network. What do you have to change in your
whatchamacallit to do a network?’*
“For us it was an extraordinary opportunity. He had taken on an adviser,
Rullman, an Ecole Polytechnique graduate, who played a very useful role; he
was an RAITP retiree. At first we took him for an old fart, it’s true. Wwe were
young; we said, ‘Why's he hanging around bothering us with all his old+ash-
ioned ideas?’
“Still, the confrontation of ideas got tully played out. It was a crash course!
Actually, he was quite independentminded and he offen disagreed with the
RATP; those guys didn't believe in wholesale automation. He was a good guy,
Rullman, because he always said, ‘You have to . . .’ That's what the experts
always said: ‘You have to . . .’ | always looked for technological justitications
behind their ‘You have to,’ to see if it might be just a question of habit.
“So we had serious hassles because the shift from the little line to the network
didn't go smoothly. We had to go trom nonreversible to reversible so we could
extend the lines, and that led to really major changes.
“The contracting authority tor the new city stuck with us; that was Ficheur,
a territic guy, really dynamic, who untortunately died quite young.
"At first the people of Villeneuve didn’t like the idea that we were compli-
cating their system, because that increased the costs and the time frame, and
then the specifications changed. But Gabillard, who was against it at first—he
always said, ‘You're going to complicate things’-—finally came out in favor of
the change, and from then on all the others followed along.
“Within six months, before the end of 1974, everything on the test line had
been redone. | remember, it was before the end of December . . . There were
violent arguments, but in six months’ time we had adjusted to the specs. The

*On the administrative history of the project, see the somewhat self-serving
book by Arthur Notebart, Le Livre blanc du métro (Lille: Communaute Urbaine de Lille,
1983), 190 pages with photographs.

jie SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

 system was a little more complicated: it moved trom extreme simplicity toward
increased complexity. That, too, is the opposite of Aramis.
"Be careful here, you mustn't think that the project developed ditterently trom
Aramis because it was less innovative. VAL was just as new, at the time. In
Atlanta, * VVestinghouse had produced an automated metro, but the distances
were very short, and they'd also put in a moving sidewalk in case of break-
downs! And it was all in tunnels, whereas we had both viaducts and tunnels.
That may not seem like a big difference, but it actually changes a lot of things.
"No one believed in VAL. It was a first. The RATP people had said, ‘VWVe
don’t want our name involved in a thing like that.’ They even wrote a letter—
obviously they regret it today—in which they said they could take no respon-
sibility whatsoever if wholesale automation was involved.
“People were saying, ‘It’s a new Concorde,’ ‘a new aerotrain.'
“Everyone agreed that it wouldn’t work. Notebart’s opponents were the
ones saying that. ‘VAL is kaput,’ as they claim up there. | have to say that in
transportation, there have been quite a tew innovations that have failed.
“The second major change came about in 1977. | noticed that the CMD
for a minor increase in performance brought the cost up tremendously. |
proposed fo the Lille authorities that we should modify it after the contract was
signed. |’d thought a little about it before, but | didn’t want to stir up any trouble!
“It was a minor downgrading, because when there’s a breakdown auto-
matic docking is abandoned. It was more rustic, but less attractive for a
technician.
"Ficheur winced at this; he thought about it for a few weeks, and finally
gave the go-ahead. | have to say that automatic docking in case of breakdown
was included in the original specitications. | myself had suggested that we give
up docking completely. You'd send someone. I'd said that in the long run there
wouldn't be many breakdowns. But in the beginning there'd be too many
breakdowns to send people to fix things by hand.
“That's always the question: Do you size things for the transitional phase,
or for the permanent phase?
“You see, we really butted heads with the Lille authorities. In public, we
were stubborn. On weekends, we talked things over more calmly . . .
"Finally, | let myselt be convinced. We kept the docking, but not the CMD.
In the long run, it's been a plus. We're trying to sell this ‘plus’ abroad, but it’s

tional were at the Atlanta airport. |

*For a long time, the only entirely automated systems that were really opera-

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES p17

 hard; you’d need to build it into the specifications, and that’s not easy when
you're dealing with other countries.
"| should say that there were only about fitteen people in charge. There
weren't a lot of hierarchical levels. Far fewer people were involved than with
Aramis. Broadly speaking, when Ficheur, Rullman, and | were in agreement,
plus Notebart in the political arena, plus the Matra bosses, then that was
enough.
“The atmosphere wasn’t sectarian, and, more important, people weren’t
looking for technological performance. |n Aramis, on the contrary, technologi-
cal performance was an end in itself.
“The possible exception with VAL was the one-minute interval. Ficheur
insisted absolutely on that. From time to time I'd say to him, ‘Give me a minute
and a halt, and | can simplity your whole thing.’ ‘There you go, Fréque, you're
downgrading my whole system.’ He stuck to his guns; | admit he was right.
Finally we got there.
“The arguments sometimes got pretty lively. You heard everything: ‘Greedy
industrialist!’ ‘Protiteers!” ‘Assholes!’ But in the long run we reached an agree-
ment.
“The problem with Aramis is that not enough people yelled at each other.
Below a certain level, that’s not good.
"You see, sometimes my ideas got rejected, other times | came out the
winner; sometimes things got simplified, other times they got complicated. That
proves it was a real debate, a real negotiation." [no. 41]

There are two models for studying innovations: the linear model and
the whirlwind model. Or, if you prefer, the diffusion model and the trans-
lation model.
The two trajectories are quite different. In the first model, the initial
idea emerges fully armed from the head of Zeus. Then, either because its
brilliant inventor gives it a boost, or because it was endowed from the start
with automatic and autonomous power, it sets out fo spread across the
world. But the world doesn’t always take it in. Some groups, blinded by
their petty interests or closed-minded when it comes to technological pro-
gress, are jealous of this fine idea. They downgrade it, pervert it, compro-
mise it. Sometimes they put it to death. In certain miraculous cases, never-
theless, the idea survives and continues to go its way, a fragile little flame

jase SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

that burns in people’s hearts. Finally, with the help of some courageous
individuals who are open to technological progress, it ends up triumphing,
at the price of a few adjustments, thus covering in shame those who hadn’t
known enough either to recognize it or welcome it. Such is the heroic
narrative of technological innovation, a narrative of light and shadow in
which the original object is complete and can only be degraded or main-
tained intact—allowing, of course, for a few minor adjustments. A religious
narrative, naturally: a Protestant narrative, a Cathar narrative.
In the second model, the initial idea barely counts. It’s a gadget, a
whatchamacallit, a weakling at best, unreal in principle, illconceived from
birth, constitutionally ineffective. A second difference stems from the first:
the initial gadget is not endowed with autonomous power, nor is it boosted
into the world by a brilliant inventor. It has no inertia. A third difference
stems from the first two: the initial gadget moves only if it interests one
group or another, and it is impossible to tell whether these groups have
petty interests or broad ones, whether they are open or resolutely closed
to technological progress. They are what they are, and they want what
they want. Period. So how, under these circumstances, can the whatchamo-
callit interest anyone at all? By translating, as we know, from another mode
and into another language, the interests of these groups. Hence the fourth
difference: every time a new group becomes interested in the project, it
transforms the project—a little, a lot, excessively, or not at all. In the
translation model, there is no transportation without transformation—except
in those miraculous cases where everybody is in total agreement about a
project. Hence the fifth and last difference: after many recruitments, dis-
placements, and transformations, the project, having become real, then
manifests, perhaps, the characteristics of perfection, profitability, beauty, }
and efficiency that the diffusion model located in the starting point. A
Catholic narrative. A narrative of incarnation.
There is something in the Aramis narrative that links it with the first
model, and something in the VAL story that links it with the second. VAL
starts small, and gradually becomes more complicated as it recruits local
authorities who are all interested in the project as a way of advancing both
their own affairs and the VAL line: Villeneuve-d’Asq’s EPAL is developing
the image of a new city along with VAL’s cutting-edge technology; in a
single breath, Professor Gabillard, a recruit himself, talks about hyperfre-
quency, the university, his own career, and VAL; Notebart, interested,
pushes the Lille community, his own career, the prestige of the region, and

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES p18

 also VAL; Ficheur, the contracting authority, excited about the project, is
also pursuing his own all-too-short career, automated transportation sys-
tems, and VAL; and of course Fréque, Etienne, Lagardére, and Matra are
advancing their own careers, their capabilities, their company, their stock-
holders’ money, and VAL. All these interested people transform the project
and put conditions on their interest: Notebart wants a network that obliges
the nonreversibility of the early VAL to vanish; Ficheur holds stubbornly to
his one-minute interval; Fréque doesn’t want the CMD, which is making his
life too complicated. What do they all do? They argue. They insult each
other on occasion. In short, they negotiate and transform the project as
often as they have to for it to end up holding its ground: the one-minute
interval stays, the CMD goes, the network gets longer, the cars become
nonreversible . . .
With Aramis, the general trend of the negotiation is quite different.
The initial idea, an exciting one, of a poinHo-point network served by a
mobile unit with nonmaterial couplings is downgraded, but it is not rene-
gotiated; it hesitates to locate itself somewhere, but it is not recombined
from top to bottom. Aramis looks like a utopia, in the etymological sense—
like an idea that has no place to land. “Where are we going to put this
bloody mess?”

“I don’t understand any more, Norbert,” I confessed, increasingly

uneasy. “Is it because Aramis is not negotiable that it isn’t negotiated
during that six-year period, or is it because it isn’t negotiated energeti-
cally enough that it isn’t negotiable and that it stays in its unfinished,
hesitant state, stuck between being a mobile unit that is reaching
perfection and a system that drifts with the wind?”
“Everything is negotiable.”
“Not necessarily. If the very idea of Aramis is a take-it-or-leave-it
affair, if it’s all or nothing, it can be downgraded, modified, compro-
mised without ever being renegotiated. That’s what Girard implies: “By
giving up the point-to-point principle, they killed the project right
then.’”
“But there can’t be an intrinsic idea of Aramis; that would mean
returning to a diffusion model, to the autonomy of technologies, to

120 SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

their irreversibility, their inhumanity. Everything we're doing in our
research center runs counter to that idea. We might just as well say
that Aramis has an inherent flaw.”
“Well, why not?”
“I’ve told you a hundred times: because perfection is never inher-
ent; it always comes at the end of the line. Talking about inherent flaws
is the easy way out—it’s a retrospective accusation. ‘The thing doesn’t
work because it couldn’t have worked.’ It’s a tautology. It’s immoral;
it’s kicking a thing when it’s down. It’s the only crime our sociology
can’t forgive.”
“Well, forgive me, but what if Aramis were in contradiction with
your theories?”
“Impossible.”
I felt like laughing, but when I saw that my mentor was serious,
I bit my tongue and began to have doubts about his ability to solve the
riddle of Aramis’ death.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

In an urban research bureau run by the lledefrance Region, Mssrs.

Grinevald and Lévy, are delighted to talk about Aramis.
“I'd like to reopen the question of technological feasibility, in relation to the
question of profitability.”
M. Grinevald:
"A simplified Aramis, downgraded, a little bigger, if it’s significantly down-
graded with five missions—it might have worked. Intellectually, it’s not incon
ceivable, but we would have overinvested in supply because of the lack of
tlexibility and, in any event, it was very expensive. :
“That's our president's point of view: it works, but it’s expensive. He's
convinced that it's a question of profitability, that it’s like the Concorde. In my
opinion, however, it’s not because Aramis isn’t profitable that it isn’t in operation
today; it's like an unprofitable Concorde, that's true, but one that also functions
at subsonic speeds!
‘Aramis is intellectually conceivable in a downgraded phase, but the nomi-
nal Aramis is not intellectually conceivable unless it is really outsized and

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES ss

 completely ignores economic conditions and works as it would at a fair, without
many people on board.
“Either the system has to be simplified, and then it’s no longer a PRT, or else
it has to be built as a PRT, and then transports nobody, or hardly anybody;
there‘d be a whole lot of empty cars. So in addition, it’s an unprofitable and
passengerless subsonic Concorde! . . . [loud laughter]
M, Lévy:
“Yes, Aramis was put into intensive care; the thing was on full life support.”
"So, for you, there’s no mystery about it, because it was technologically
infeasible?”
Grinevald:
“The problem, let me tell you, is that Aramis is a false invention, a false
innovation. The PRT, trom the beginning, was an infeasible idea from the
operational standpoint.” [no. 33]

“There you are, sir!” I gloated. “Wasn't I right? Congenital defect!

I'm not the one who says so; it’s the actor himself, as you put it. It’s
quite simply an inconceivable idea—that’s what I’ve thought from the
start, because I’m an engineer and youre not. It’s perfectly self-evident
that it’s a false innovation.”
“I’m telling you that’s impossible. Grinevald and Levy are bitter.
You aren't born feasible or infeasible; you become so.”
In the Aramis story, as in my mentor’s obstinacy, there was a
mystery that eluded me, a source of incomprehensible resistance. On
the one hand, the engineers didn’t want Aramis to be downgraded; they
held to its essence come hell or high water—though they had progres-
sively improved the essence of VAL. On the other hand Norbert, a
perfectly preserved existentialist in the year 1988, was asserting that
existence preceded essence; the absolute cynicism of his translation
model looked to him like the only source of certainty and morality.

I am not yet among the powers that be. I am only a light breath, a
feather drifting with the winds, a murmur in an engineer’s ear, a wasp

saa SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES

to be flicked impatiently away, an attractive idea that flits from seminar
to colloquium to investigatory body to research report. “Aramis” is an
argument, a story that grownup children tell themselves: “What if I
were an automated car? ...” It’s an anecdote that moves from hand
to hand and stirs up engineers; a rousing possibility. As a story, it is not
yet cast in lead. It has not yet been replaced, in each of its words, each
of its lines of blueprints, by a steel bar, by an aluminum plate, by a
printed circuit. My story is told in words and drawings; it is not yet set
in hard type. What the account book foresees is not yet accounted for,
inscribed, engraved, burned in forever in the amorphous silicon. People
stammer out my name. Nothing happens between two elements of
Aramis that the engineers aren’t obliged to relay through their own
bodies. The motor breaks down, the onboard steering shakes and
shatters, the automatic features are still heteromats overpopulated with
people in blue and white smocks. Chase away the people and I return
to an inert state. Bring the people back and I am aroused again, but
my life belongs to the engineers who are pushing me, pulling me,
repairing me, deciding about me, cursing me, steering me. No, Aramis
is not yet among the powers that be. The prototype circulates in bits
and pieces between the hands of humans; humans do not circulate
between my sides. I am a great human anthill, a huge body in the
process of composition and decomposition, depending. If men stop
being interested in me, I don’t even talk any more. The thing lies
dismembered, in countless pieces dispersed among laboratories and
workshops. Aramis, I, we, hesitate to exist. The thing hasn’t become |
irreversible. The thing doesn’t impose itself on anyone. The thing hasn’t
broken its ties to its creators.

SHILLY-SHALLYING IN THE SEVENTIES | 23)

 i
INTERPHASE: as
THREE YEARS OF GRACE

“We must be closing in on our target by the sheer process of

elimination,” Norbert announced with a confidence that struck me as
excessive. “Neither the very end nor the very beginning nor the Orly
phase is to blame. And that whole horribly confused period from 19773
to 1980 can’t be suspect either: when the engineers—yes, I do mean
the engineers—do their summary report, whatever you may say to the
contrary, just look at what they write!”

[DOCUMENT: RATP GENERAL REPORT ON THE END

eee ee ee ee eee reer

OF PHASE 3A, JANUARY 1981; EMPHASIS ADDED]

6. Technical Summary of Phase 3A

Despite a five-month delay in signing the agreement, and
despite the many modifications required by the vehicle, the
technological verdict on this phase is very positive for the
following reasons:
—the track and its various components exist ina quasi-
definitive version;
—the maintenance setup is operational andthe automatic
sequencing of tests has been demonstrated and implemented;
—the test runs of the car have shown that its various sub-
components work properly and perform as anticipated.
In conclusion, the results observed during Phase 3A do
not invalidate any of the hypotheses proposed during the
earlier phases.
However, the development of a sufficiently powerful mo-
tor, the reduction of the minimal turn radius totenmeters,
and control of the cost of the electronic components require
progress or fine-tuning. [p. 19]

8. General Conclusion
8.1. On the technological level, the results of the vari-
ous tests lead to the conclusion that the completion of the
center for technological experimentation can be undertaken
in view of homologation of the Aramis system.
8.2. Comparing various possibilities led tothe reten-
tion of the Petite Ceinture site in Paris, along the boule-
vard Victor, for the creation of the Center for Technologi-
cal Experimentation, with an eye toward developing, onthe
basis of this initial infrastructure, a first line for com-
mercial experimentation leading to the Exhibition Park at
the Porte de Versailles; this line will be designed so as to
allow fora significant extension all along the southern
part of the Petite Ceinture.
8.3. The search for sites and the comparative studies un-
dertaken elsewhere confirmed the hypothesis that Aramis
might constitute an interesting solution for filling in the
gaps in service in certain sectors of the greater Paris re-
gion, either by improving the feeder lines to the railroad
network, or as analternative to an extension of the metro,
or by filling in the gaps inthe rail network, or by creating
a local network that either would be focused on a suburban
center or would provide internal service for amajor equip-
ment zone, or else through a combination of these func-—
tions...
8.4. Given that, as inthe earlier phases, the various re-
sults of the work undertaken in Phase 3A have once again been
evaluated favorably, the RATP supports the rapid completion
of the development of the Aramis system and thus considers
that the next phase must now be inaugurated, leading to the

INTERPHASE 1B
 construction of the Center for Technological Experimenta-
tion on the boulevard Victor. [p. 33]

“So for them, contrary to what Grinevald and Levy say, everything
is going along swimmingly. For the RATP, the decision is imminent. All
that’s left is to construct Aramis while refining the details that will allow
it to go into production.”
“Yes, Norbert, but if you look at the chart where we sum up the
phases (the line shows where we are now—-see?), practically nothing
happens between this euphoric document and the July 1984 decision
to create the CET [see Figure 1 in Chapter 1]. What could they have
been up to for three and a half years? They were dragging their feet,
weren't they?”
“That’s true. It’s odd, they want to get it done quickly .. .”
“And they wait forty-two months!”
“And in 1987 they finish it off rapidly. Poor Aramis.”
“You said it! In three months, a quick thrust to the jugular .. .”
“It’s an extraordinary case,” Norbert continued. “The project is
completely ready to go, according to the engineers, but it’s also
completely stalled. The whole thing must have played itself out in this
interphase, right after the presidential election, during the Socialists’
period of grace.”
“Ah! I’m finally going to see the connection between technology
and politics that you’ve been beating me over the head with for three
months.”
“If that’s what you think, my friend, get ready for some surprises.”

The more a technological project progresses, the more the role of

technology decreases, in relative terms: such is the paradox of develop-
ment.
As a project takes shape, there is an increase in the number, quality,
and stature—always relative and changing—of the actors to be mobilized.
Petit was just one highly placed official. Now ministers and presidents are

p16 INTERPHASE
involved. By moving from conceptual phases to preproduction phases, you
move from saints to the God they serve. Since the project is becoming more
and more costly, since it is agitating more and more people, since it is
mobilizing more and more factories, since the nonhumans it has to line up
are numbered in the thousands, since it is a matter no longer of plowing a
beet field but of tearing up parts of southern Paris, actors capable of
providing resources adequate to the new scale must henceforth be reck-
oned with. Ten times as many actors are now needed for the project, and
they cannot be recruited one by one—one pipe smoker after another, one
iron bar at a time. We have to move from those who represent small
numbers to those who represent large numbers. In other words, the actors
who are recruited and interested have to be spokespersons who already
aggregate resources that are themelves multiplied: the region, the Paris
mayor's office, the Left, the Right, France, industry, the country’s balance
of payments, exports. But the more the fate of the project is bound up with
these new participants, the more room they take up, comparatively speak-
ing. The only thing a technological project cannot do is implement itself
without placing itself in a broader context. If it refuses to contextualize itself,
it may remain technologically perfect, but unreal. Technological projects
that remain purely technological are like moralists: their hands are clean,
but they don’t have hands.
This change of scale makes a project resemble an onion in which
each layer of skin would be ten times larger than the one before, and it
accounts for the impatience of the public. So: Is Aramis finished or not? Is
it real or not? The answers to these questions depend not on the earlier
stages but always on the latest one, which is also the most expensive, the
most troublesome, the fussiest, the most complicated. Every two years the
project bets its life on the red carpet, double or nothing! Ninety-eight
percent of projects disappear in this game of roulette—so much for the fine
folk who complain about irreversibility and the autonomy of technology.
How the Matra and RATP engineers would like Aramis to be irreversible
and autonomous! Would to heaven that the fine folk were right. The project
engineers would light candles to Saint Ellul—never mind that he’s Protes-
tant—if it would help Aramis lose a little of its discouraging reversibility.

INTERPHASE L127
 Oe
a
(INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At the Ministry of Transportation, a technical adviser is speaking:

‘| have trouble seeing why you're doing this study; there’s really no mystery
here. May 1981—you do know what that was all about. And March 1986
as well.* The Left brings Aramis back to life and the Right kills it off.
"Each time, there was a lag of a year or two; that’s normal, given the snail's
pace at which they deal with dossiers. The technologists stubbormly kept on
with their work. Not the politicians, who'd changed their minds. That happens
a lot. Nothing can be done in this country without the shock waves provided
by elections. The politicians have been completely inconsistent in dealing with
this project.”
“But it seems to me, since it’s general and applies to all projects, that an
innovation ought to be able to hold up against these changes in political
personnel. VAL lived through two changes of administration; SACEM did, too,
and so did the Poma-2000, the Rafale, and who knows what else.”
“Yes, but Aramis was much more vulnerable to variations in the political
environment; no one really wanted anything to do with it.”
“So there are other ways fo account for this vulnerability2” [no. 13]

“You don’t seem to believe in the political explanation.”

“No. That’s all Big Politics. Wait till Wednesday; you'll see whether
or not Big Politics explains anything.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Piébeau, an economic adviser at the Transportation Ministry:

"What is completely left out of your question, Sir (although it does include
interesting assumptions that I’m not going to dispute}, is the economic dimen-
sion.

*Francois Mitterand, a (lukewarm) leftist, was elected president in 1981;

Jacques Chirac, head of the Gaullist Party, was named prime minister in 1986, in the
wake of an electoral defeat for the Left.

jie INTERPHASE
 "You want fo solve a mystery, do you? Fine. But there is no mystery as far
as I'm concerned.
‘Aramis works very well, but the economy hasn't kept up. Aramis began in
a period of euphoria; moreover, a pretty rosy picture was painted of what the
project would cost. Okay, but then the costs went way up and we went into
a period of crisis. So Aramis no longer had priority. It’s not much more
complicated than that. It's a question of ebb and flow. Like tides. Aramis was
tloating along at high tide; then it washed up on the sand."
“Excuse me, but that strikes me as an unfortunate metaphor. In Brittany, it
you go boating, you get poles ready, or a removable keel, so you can run
aground sately. Whereas it seems to me the Aramis project didn’t anticipate
the reversal of the flow. It thinks it’s still sailing in the Mediterranean, where, as
everyone knows, there aren't any tides.”
"You're playing with words. You can't prepare yourself for a major economic
crisis—an oil crisis, for example.”
‘Sorry to lean so heavily on this point, but the decision to construct the CET
was made in July 1984, ten years atter the oil crisis.“
“Protitability—you're not going to jettison that, are you? A project has to be
profitable, at least a little bit."
‘Again, forgive me, but all the economic reports during the entire fifteen
years devoted to the Aramis project—all except the last one—were favorable
to Aramis, highly so.“
“But we all know what economic studies are worth.”
“That's my point, that’s exactly my point! So there are other reasons; there
must be. . ."[no. 8]

“The economy, then?”

“I don’t believe in the economy any more than in politics. The
economic calculus—it’s like that American joke: ‘When my wife and |
agree, my wife makes the decisions.’ We'll have to look at the profit-
ability calculations, but I have the impression they came after the
decisions were made. In any case, in public transportation, according
to what Lievin told me, what is profitable? With the compulsory
transportation tax of 1 percent or even 1.5 percent on every salary,

INTERPHASE 138
 Oe
every year?* You could pay for Aramis. Strasbourg’s VAL, the VAL
planned for Toulouse, the Orly-Val that’s in the works—are they
profitable? The transportation tax is the envy of the world, it would
appear. The Economy is much too big a thing to explain Aramis. We re
not really going to drag Last-Minute-Determinations out of their beds
and wheel them off to our metro. We'll see on Thursday.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Maire, one of RATP’s directors, is speaking in his plush oftice at the

agency's headquarters:
“lt seems fo me that you're rather grasping at straws, if | may say so. You
won't make any sense of this story if you don't talk about the Budget Office.
The Budget Office rules France.
“It is—since you know the phrase now, and if you'll pardon the expression—
in a state of intrinsic security. In a normal situation, you get Mr. Nyet: ‘No
money.’ It takes enormous pressure to litt the ban and untie the purse strings.
“Okay, the Fiterman period was a nightmare from the Budget Office point
of view. A strong and well-organized Transportation Minister—we'd never seen
that before. | have to say that the guys in the Budget Office were getting worked
over every day.
"Fiterman signed the CET the day before he resigned—maybe three days
before, | don't remember exactly. It was when the Communist ministers left the
administration [ July 1987]. So what happened? The Budget Office did what
every intrinsically failsate system does: in the absence of pressure in the other
direction, it troze everything.
‘Aramis progressed against the Finance Ministry only because of the com-
pletely exceptional circumstances of the post-1981 situation. As soon as its

*In 1973 the mayors of Lyon and Marseille—Messrs. Pradelle and Defterre,
respectively—transformed a temporary tax on salaries, intended to finance their
subway systems, into a proposed law that was welcomed enthusiastically by local
officials. A mayor may levy 1 percent (and even 1.5 percent, when heavy investments
are involved) on all the salaries in his district to finance public transportation. This
guaranteed manna, whose flow is tightly controlled by the local elected officials, makes
it possible to ensure relatively high salaries for positions in public transportation and
allows for very significant investments with borderline “profitability”—if this word
means anything at all.

j130_ INTERPHASE
 supporters lost their fighting spirit, it was all over. In this business the Budget
Ottice is everything."
“But all expensive projects are subject to the same pressures by the Budget
Office. This doesn't explain away Aramis.”
“It's true that in aeronautics they're better organized. They have submarines,
you might say, in the Budget Ottice [laughter]. Over here in ground transpor-
tation, our relations aren't as good.” [no. 22]
M. Gontran, researcher with the Institute for Transportation Research:
“Besides, there’s a special problem with ground transportation. Its relations
with the Budget Office aren't cozy—they’re not like those of civil aeronautics,
for example. Those guys have got Budget Office personnel assigned to them.
It's like the Trojan Horse: they explain, they make things clear. But with the DTT
it doesn't work so well.
“Even for the SK, they had to tell the Budget Oitice sob stories to get three
million out of them, which is minimal. The Budget Otfice made a huge fuss
over those millions, even though the Japanese bought the system!
“| have to say that this lack of confidence is due to failures, to the Bertin
business. There are lots of skeletons in the closets.” [no. 42]

“Now that one really has me convinced. The Budget Office is

crucial,” I said enthusiastically.
“But it’s still too big, my friend. Why not Parisian centralization,
Napoleonic France? Why not technocracy, while you're at it? Everybody
talks about the Budget-Office-which-blocks-all-decisions-to-innovate.
Forty Americans have written theses on the topic. No matter what the
subject, the Budget Office is the obstacle. France has been carrying on
for four hundred years, but Colbertism, Napoleonic centralization, and
the Budget Office, according to our distinguished analysts, prevent any
change on principle. “Plus ¢a change, plus c’est pareil,” he added with
an American accent. “It’s not reasonable. It’s crude sociology.”
“And what kind of sociology are we doing?”
“Refined, Mister Young Engineer, refined sociology which applies
to a single case, to Aramis and only Aramis. I’m not looking for anything
else. A single explanation, for a single, unique case; then we'll trash it.”

INTERPHASE —
 a
A “trashable explanation”! The exact opposite of what I’d been
taught about the universal laws of Newton and Einstein.
“So were waiting for Friday?” I went on, without calling attention
to Norbert’s epistemological aberrations.
“Exactly. No, Monday. Friday’s meeting has been canceled.”

LINTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Pierre, a Research Ministry official in charge of transportation studies:

“You have to put yourself back in that atmosphere. In 1981, in all the
ministries, you had an intlux of people who'd been out of power for twentytive
years. In research—which had been a stepchild for ten years, remember—there
was SaunierSeité, the researchers’ nightmare. Then Jean-Pierre Chevénement
came along, determined to make the first Ministry of Research and Technology
the big project of Mitterand’s first term, and to endow it for the first time with
a single, coherent budget—which he wanted to double. The little world of
ground transportation didn’t escape the mobilization.* And in particular, at the
Transportation Ministry, Fiterman—one of tour Communist ministers—took over;
you'll remember how their entrance into the administration ‘shook up the
Western World.’ Fiterman wanted to take a relatively weak technological
ministry and turn it into a major one; he wanted to bring infrastructures—
roads—and public transportation together for the first time. In August 1981
another Communist, Claude Quin, was named president of the RATP. He
wanted to make that outfit a showroom both for social relations and for the
technological quality of service. In January 1982 the managing director of the
RATP was replaced by the former director of the railroad, Girard. The new
political context? They were it, and they really did represent a significant
change, or at least the desire for a signiticant change.
‘As tor the handtul of RATP engineers, this change was rather disturbing.
The new director was known to be skeptical about Aramis, if not downright
hostile. People were sure he was going to kill the project. For Matra, a
company that could be nationalized, the success of the Left and the installation
of two Communists in positions that were key for the metro—these develop-

*In France, roughly a thousand researchers specialize in transportation: some

300 are employed by the major automobile manufacturers; another 300 work for
major enterprises, the SNCF, and the RATP; and the rest are scattered among public
research organizations.

[isa INTERPHASE
 ments boded no good. Aramis was at a standstill, in a position of extreme
weakness, on the eve of an enormous request for funding for the construction
of the CET. The only element that augured well for the researchers in ground
transportation was the Left's stated desire to develop industrial research and to
bolster the image of France as a nation on the cutting edge of technology. You
have fo put yourself back in the atmosphere of the times. We hadn't seen
anything like it since De Gaulle’s early days."

“Finally, straightforward politics,” I said delightedly. “We've got

them all, the Commies, the pinkos, Big Politics. It wasn’t so complicated
after all. Contrary to what you were saying, Norbert, it wasn’t worth
the trouble to go into all the technical details. All we needed to do was
look at the overall context. He’s right: it’s a question of atmosphere.”
“Atmosphere, atmosphere,” my mentor repeated drily.

A technological project is not in a context; it gives itself a context, or

sometimes does not give itself one.
What is required is not to “replace projects in their context,” as the
toolish expression goes, but to study the way the project is contextualized
or decontextualized. To do that, the rigid, stuffy word “context” has to be
replaced by the supple, friendly word “network.” The big explanations in
terms of politics, economics, organization, and technology always turn up,
without fail: “It’s politically unacceptable.” “It isn’t profitable.” “Society isn’t
ready for it.” “It’s inefficient.” These explanations are always used precisely
because they can't be worn out. They're not designed to explain—if that
were the case, they would have to wear out in contact with the hard,
contorted circumstances. Rather, they’re intended to move from hand to
hand and to serve, like the weasel in the children’s game, to get rid of the
problem by designating the one who failed to pay attention and got caught
with the ring in his hand.

ll court, il court le furet The weasel is running,

Le furet d’ la politique, The political weasel;
ll court, il court le furet The weasel is running,
Le furet d’ la technique. The technological weasel.

INTERPHASE 193
 ll est passé par ici He came this way;
ll repassera par Id He'll go back that way.
ll court, il court le furet. The weasel is running,
Le furet d’ l'€conomie. = The economic weasel.

This is what children sing as their moist hands polish the ring that is
passed around on a string.
To get rid of one’s own responsibility, the big explanations are useful;
but as soon as one stops trying to blame someone else, these big explano-
tions have to be replaced by little networks. Who decides that Aramis must
be influenced by the change of administration in 198 1? Four or five people,
all identifiable and interviewable. Who decides that aeronautic projects
don’t have to be subject to the vagaries of changes in administration? Ten
people, some of whom, it is said, are camping out in the Budget Office as
“submarines” or “Trojan horses.” Who decides about Aramis’ economic
profitability? Eight people, all identifiable and interviewable. Who decides
that the economic calculations that prove Aramis’ profitability are pure
fictions? Again, four or five people, the same ones or others, equally
identitiable and interviewable. Who passes judgment on Aramis’ techno-
logical feasibility? Three people, maybe four. Who passes judgment on
Aramis’ technological infeasibility? Fifteen people or so; they’re harder to
pinpoint, but their tongues loosen after a few hours of conversation. It’s
clear: Aramis is not in an overall context that has to be taken into account.
To study Aramis after 1981, we have to add to the filaments of its network
a small number of people representing other interests and other goals:
elected officials, Budget Office authorities, economists, evaluators, certain
members of the Conseil Supérieur des Ponts. |
The few elected officials recruited by the project certainly don’t count
as Politics; the economists who calculate profit margins don’t constitute
Economics; the handful of engineers who evaluate Aramis’ technological
refinement certainly don’t equate with Technology. The impression of a
context that surrounds the project comes from the fact that one forgets to
count the handful of mediators who speak in the name of money, Official
Bodies, chips, or voters. Once we add the spokespersons back in, every-
thing clears up: the network is extended, but its nature doesn’t change.
We've gone from a network to a network and a half.

pia INTERPHASE
 “I don’t understand why you don’t want to give any importance
to politics, to the context. You're a sociologist, after all.”
“Precisely because we're in the process of making a sociological
discovery. Because we've had the luck to come across a unique case
that’s never been described by anyone. In 1981 Aramis was at a
standstill. It had no inertia. It could disappear without shocking anyone,
or veer to the right, or...

eee
“Veer to the left.”
“Yes, but without any impetus. They really went looking for it;
they picked it up. That’s what’s unique. The zero-degree inertia. Mr.
Britten even showed me a 1986 report that compares all the Personal
Rapid Transit systems in the world. Do you know what the Canadians
said in their report?”

[DOCUMENT: FROM R. M. RENFREW, M. L. DRISCOLL, AND K. ROSE, PEOPLE MOVER

MARKET REVIEW (CANADIAN INSTITUTE OF GUIDED GROUND TRANSPORT, 1988)]

The concept of the people mover as a technology response

to mobility problems gathered momentum in the 1960s as a con-
sequence of broad administrative support—and invery rare
cases, support by transit operators. It received unprece-
dented industrial interest when the aerospace industry in
Western Europe and the U.S. came to the conclusion that inno-
vative transit represented a significant new business area
to compensate for declining aerospace opportunities.
[p. 1].
The bubble burst rapidly and catastrophically. From1975
to 1980, there was a retrenchment to completion of commit-
ments made earlier—frequently truncated—and a modest tech-
nology program. .. until the core groups disappeared by at-
trition and eventual termination by management. Long before
the cardiac arrest of the industry became final, the transit
operators in Germany, the United Kingdom and the United
States had ceased to follow the people mover development at
all. Most of them became bitterly opposed to the diversion
of public funds which they felt should have been employed in

INTERPHASE as
 a
building reliable, predictable, conventional transit sys-
tems. [p. 4].

“So you see? In 1980 all it took was to do nothing at all to kill
Aramis, since everywhere in the world—-Germany, Japan, the United
States—-PRTs were in a state of ‘cardiac arrest,’ as they say. Moreover
(and this confirms our hypothesis about the innocence of the earlier
phase), after Orly all PRT projects had the same defects: hesitation,
absence of normalization, cost overruns, delays, total chaos. So there’s
nothing unusual in this period. The project is normal.”
“Do they mention Aramis in that report?
“Yes, of course. On page 65 they say—-speaking of the year
1986—that Aramis is ‘the only credible PRT system under development
at this time.’ They say that it’s crucial for the future of PRTs because
of the rotary motor, the platoon configuration, and the automated
self-diagnostic mechanisms, but that it costs a small fortune.”

M. Girard, speaking in a temporary office:

“When | was appointed [as head of the RATP] in 1982—'ll be honest with
you—-when | opened the file, | wanted to close it right then. ‘Enough fooling
around with that stuff; we can place our bets more effectively than that.’
“Lagardére probably had the same thought. ‘Every day brings its own
troubles. VAL is bad enough—why run after miragese’ The head of the RATP,
the head of Matra, in their heart of hearts, were determined to kill Aramis.
“| myself became a convert, for two reasons. First, | went back upstream,
as it were, back to the somewhat utopian thinking of the 1960s. It's still a
current issue, too: we need something like cars that join together, trains that
split apart. A bit maliciously, | even thought it would work for the existing
network, especially the RER. Aside trom a few very crowded transter stations,
the RER amounts to a lot of long, empty cars that we drag around the country:
side. Couplings and uncouplings are terrible problems. Cars that come together
smoothly might well come in handy. | said to myself, ‘Hey, in five or ten years,
we'll need a system like that tor the branch lines.’

136 INTERPHASE
 “The second train of thought that accounts for my ‘conversion,’ if you will,
was the 1989 World's Fair. Every exhibit presupposes a new form of transpor-
tation. Within the gamut of what was being proposed, Aramis was really
innovative: France could really present something that would symbolize French
technology at the end of the 1980s. That's what made me change my mind."
[no. 18]

The work of contextualizing makes the connection between a context

and a project completely unforeseeable.
The history of technology—like history, period, “big” history, full of
sound and fury—is at the mercy of a reversal, an overturning, a bifurcation.
The new company head opposed Aramis when he was with the Rail
Division. He opens up the file. What influence will he decide to exercise?
As a builder of major metro systems, will his cultural hostility to this toylike
jerry-built gimmick come to the fore? Or will his president's fondness for a
major technological project capable of mobilizing the energies and enthu-
siasm of engineers win out? A moment of uncertainty. A crossroads. Kairos.
The word “conversion” has to be taken seriously, especially when it is
uttered by an engineer who is also a theologian. The company head meets
his road to Damascus. He was against Aramis. Now he is for it.
In fact, every element of the aforementioned context decides, or not,
to be a conductor of influence, a semiconductor, a multiconductor, or an
insulator. Transforming the context into a certain number of people who
represent interests and who all want to achieve the goals of those they
represent thus does not suffice to enable one to decide whether or not they
will have any impact on Aramis, still less to calculate in advance what the
impact will be. In a given context, the same projects do or do not feel an
impact; a single context can bring about contrary effects. Hence the idiocy
of the notion of “preestablished context.” The people are missing; the work
of contextualization is missing. The context is not the spirit of the times which
would penetrate all things equally. Every context is composed of individuals
who do or do not decide to connect the fate of a project with the fate of
the small or large ambitions they represent. The new people that elections
bring to power may decide to make Aramis one of the great ambitions of
the technological Left; but they may also decide that Aramis is one of the
many projects that the Right is dragging in its wake, projects that devour

INTERPHASE / 137
 public funds vampire-fashion and that have to be finished off, like the
aerotrain, with a solid stake through the heart.
Aramis can be contextualized, but it can also be decontextualized.
This freedom to maneuver is all the greater in that the project finds itself at
a standstill, and in that all the PRTs in the world have been dismantled or
suspended. To bury Aramis, it is enough, literally, to do nothing. The new
people may decide that Aramis belongs neither to the Right nor to the Left,
and thus may abandon it to the limbo it has kept on entering and leaving
since the Orly phase. They may also decide nothing at all. They may never
even hear a word about Aramis. How do you account, then, all you
contextualists, for the fact that in May 1981 Aramis could have gone
completely unnoticed, could have been on the Left, could have shifted to
the Right, could have transformed itself entirely to become a mini-VAL, could
have called itself Athos or d’Artagnan? “It’s no accident,” you say? No,
indeed, nothing happens by accident; but nothing happens by context
either.

Clearly I had judged him too quickly; perhaps my professor was

less incompetent than I’d thought. What had happened was that the
label “sociologist” had been leading me astray from the start. He never
used the social context as a starting point. On the contrary, the social
context was what he was driving at: he wanted to explain it. I should
mention that our interlocutor, M. Girard, was so precise, so frank, so
cultivated, that in fact he did the sociology all over again in our stead,
just as Norbert had predicted.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Girard again:
"| presented the idea to lagardére. Lagardére let himself be drawn in,
reluctantly. Of course, he was interested by the 1989 showcase [the World's
Fair], but he lacked his usual enthusiasm.
“That was when | was betrayed by the World's Fair technicians and experts.
The RATP people told me, ‘We won't be able to bring if off within the allotted

jae INTERPHASE
 time frame unless we can use sate, tested technologies—that is, no nonmaterial
couplings on the cars.’
“In other words, it was a denatured project. What's more, there were
people connected with the fair who wanted an ironclad guarantee that we
would connect the two sites, Balard and Bercy: ‘We're ready to do it only if
there’s a full technological guarantee.’
“What was | supposed fo do? | took a chance on a dubious operation. |
tried out the simplified solution; that way | could reassure the experts, and if it
worked | could reintroduce nonmaterial couplings. | was sure | would get
somewhere.
“Of course, it wasn't elegant—it was a compromise.” [no. 18]

“Watch out now, it’s getting tricky; we have to note everything,

because the possible Aramises are about to multiply. Girard is ready to
kill:
“1. a gadget-Aramis that has provided enough amusement already.
“On his side, according to him, he has:
“2. an Aramis that is preventing Lagardere’s VAL from progressing
(‘every day brings its own troubles’).
“But he’s ready to defend:
“3. an Aramis that is composed of cars capable of linking up in
five or ten years, and that will allow the RER or the metro to handle
branch lines.
“He’s also ready to defend:
“4. an Aramis that will serve as a French showcase for the 1989
World’s Fair.
“Let’s keep tallying them up, all these Aramises, because their lives
are at stake:
“5. an Aramis with rendezvous capability for the World’s Fair that
doesn't interest Matra very much;
“6. an Aramis with rendezvous capability for the World’s Fair that
is infeasible in the time frame allowed, according to the technicians;
“7, an Aramis for the World’s Fair that is technologically tried and
true and that doesn’t have rendezvous capability.”

INTERPHASE / 138
 “Number 7 is incompatible with number 3, since it no longer has
rendezvous capability, and it’s almost incompatible with number 4, since
it isn't really new.”
“Yes, but because it’s denatured, it has the support of the World’s
Fair technicians. That gives us:
“8. A denatured, compromised Aramis, reluctantly supported by
Matra, feasible in the allotted time frame according to the technicians,
with no rendezvous, for the World’s Fair; and:
“9. the same, with the later addition of nonmaterial couplings,
which takes us back to number 3 but not to number 4.
“It’s true that it’s not elegant.”

Oe EE
“Seeing as how youre always in favor of sociotechnological com-
promises, Norbert, you must be happy.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

The same M. Girard, as direct and precise as ever:

“Then Aramis became a political symbol associated with the image of the
World's Fair and with the left-wing administration supported by Quin, the [RATP]
president and by Fiterman, the minister. Quin liked Aramis because ot its
research aspect, because it was good for France, because it was the flagship
ot RATP research; and it became almost a political slogan of modernization . . .
“It I'd been reasonable, | would have stopped it the day the World's Fair
ended [in June 1983]. But Aramis was so promising, the administration had
invested so much at the level of discourse, that | let things go on. | should have
done something, but then | went back to dreaming, back to my RER, and | told
myself, ‘Maybe it's not so stupid,’ knowing perfectly well that it wasn't very
satisfactory.
“That's why | was interested in Montpellier— because the city was moti-
vated, the traffic wasn't too heavy, and you could have a dense network, one
with multiple origins and destinations. So we decided on the CET, but you must
realize that the project always had that congenital defect. |t wasn't supported
by the RATP—it was politically vulnerable.” [no. 18]

140 INTERPHASE
 “One more congenital defect,” I exclaimed enthusiastically, “and
even two, but this time not on the technological side: on the political
side, on the cultural side.”
“Let’s keep on counting the translations. The more complicated it
gets, the more we have to stick to our little accounting processes:
“10. It’s a technologically modern, political flagship of the Left.
What Aramis means now is: ‘We're modernizing the RATP.”
“But what does it do technologically, this last Aramis?”
“We don’t know what it does, but we do know that the president
and the minister love it, as long as it’s complicated enough to be a
symbol of modernization.”
“Ah, if there’s love, then youre going to be happy, Norbert.”
“Yes, because with my little chart I can deploy the loves and hates
that fluctuate according to the various shapes of objects. Look, we have
more:
“11. Aramis without the World’s Fair no longer interests the
company head, who again wants to kill it.
But:
“12. Aramis is loved by the president and the entire Left; they
don’t want to kill it.
“Hence an Aramis:
“13. with nonmaterial couplings for the RER, without the World's
Fair, which is not stupid but not satisfactory;
“Followed by:
“14. an Aramis in Montpellier that the company head likes a lot,
but that probably nobody else does, except for the mayor;
“and finally:
“15. the Aramis that is the CET in Paris, a stepchild of the RATP,
with a bit of support from a smattering of people.
“Look at that plot, my young friend. If it were a play by Corneille,
people would call it a miracle; they’d admire the violence of the

|
passions, the intensity of the reversals. Yet we're dealing with automated
subway systems and technocrats. This is the real literature of our day.”
“Too bad the company director didn’t kill off Aramis in 1983—
we'd at least know what it died of.”

INTERPHASE tad
 “Yes, we've made a lot of progress. The mystery is not its death
in 1987 or 1982, but why it came back to life between 1982 and 1987.
Now that it’s loved by so many people, we're going to have to move
from the little guys to the big guys. Ready to take on the stratosphere,
Mister Young Engineer? You must admit you re learning more here than
in your classrooms, where you solve equations the professor already
knows how to do. Do they talk about love, at least, in your school?
They never teach technology in engineering schools, if they don’t teach
you to follow a project from the smallest cubbyholes up to the loftiest
spheres. Our laboratory is Paris and its antechambers.”
“Then Paris is ours!” I exclaimed in a moment of excitement for
which the reader, aware of my youth, will surely pardon me.

Technological projects become reversible or irreversible in relation

to the work of contextualization . . .
Aramis, delicately balanced up to this point, has become so weak
that a puff of air could wipe it out: zero-degree inertia, maximum revers-
ibility. Aramis, now linked to Big Politics, becomes “promising”—"“so prom-
ising” that the company head can no longer stop it, he claims. Maximum
irreversibility: no one, despite the desires of the two chief protagonists, can
kill it. The type of irreversibility changes in just a few months—and will
change again, several times, proving to what extent projects are of course
reversible. This is because technological projects can be tied into different
contexts and can thus become promising or needy, depending on circum-
stances. They are set into context by the spokesperson, as something is set
fo music or “orchestrated.” Aramis in 1981 nearly becomes a pile of paper
covered over by the drab surfaces of closed files. It nearly becomes one of
those thousands of projects that slumber in engineers’ drawers and studies.
The company head could make it unreal. He has his finger on the button,
ready to send it back to the void. But then something happens: the work
of contextualization starts up and is so successful, so sprightly, that Aramis
finds itself solidly ensconced on the Left. After getting Petit, Bardet, and Lévy
enthused, all of a sudden it excites the Communist president. It has become
a political slogan, a reference in so many speeches and in so many
newspaper articles that it has a life of its own; it can’t be stopped. For a

142 INTERPHASE
a
project that was an amusing dossier that needed to be closed in a hurry,
it’s not doing badly at all.
Contextualization is fabricated and negotiated like everything else:
by tying bigger and bigger pots and pans, and more and more of them,
to the project’s tail. When it stirs, it’s going to stir up all of France. It makes
enough commotion to wake up a minister. But the pots and pans still have
to be found; they have to be tied on tight, and the beast has to be made
to move. A lot of work that the notion of “context-given-in-advance” haugh-
tily refuses to acknowledge. This neglect is all the more damaging in that
such work can be undone. When Aramis dies, in 1987, no minister will
stir. All the pots and pans will have been removed. Those who were
counting on the irreversibility of the context to keep their technologies alive
wake up in the cemetery.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Girard is speaking once again:

“How do you explain the paradoxical fact that the CET started up again
just when everybody finally was beginning to have doubts?”
"First, the backbone of the thing is the southern part of the Petite Ceinture,
with its branch lines. There we developed a project that corresponded, like it
or not, to a certain number of objectives. That project made it clear, perhaps,
that extensions of the metro were financial crimes.
“For example, there was a plan to extend line 4 toward the south; that
would have completely downgraded the line. The Porte d’Orléans terminus is
remarkable; it does its job in 80 seconds. We would have really messed things
up on the operational level and spent colossal sums if they'd insisted on
extending the lines. The RATP was burdened with a series of projects involving
the extension of lines—projects that it didn‘t know how to get rid of. Aramis
was an alibi. Everybody got excited about it; we spent three or four million
trancs for a mediocre interest, but in any event no one said another thing about
extensions.”
“Could you go back over the list of project supporters in 1983-842 This
is the period I’m having the most trouble grasping."
“Okay, there was the Mauroy administration, which strongly supported it.
It was supported by Quin. It was supported by me—I was very happy about
it, although skeptical; | would be able to nip in the bud the line-extension
projects that | really didn’t like. Then there was Orly-Rungis [predecessor of

INTERPHASE are
 Orly-Val], and then Montpellier. We told ourselves: ‘All these projects are not
stupid. They're worth it. In any case, the technological development is inferest-
ing, and there's a possibility of industrial development’. . .
“The end didn’t surprise me; all it took was a finance minister . . . It was a
colossus with feet of clay. Meanwhile, all the supports for the colossus had
disappeared. | should point out that there weren't any more suburban mayors
clamoring for lines. The Paris mayor's office, for its part, remained interested.
Chirac wrote to the RATP asking that something be done on the Petite Ceinture.
Since the success of the Lille project in 1977-78, Matra believed in nothing
but VAL, and it was all over for everything else. Aramis was just ‘to see what
would happen.’
“lt hardly matters who provided the last straw that did the system in; that's
a proximate cause. In any case, the point is that a last straw was all it took. It
doesn't matter who killed the project. | don’t actually know the proximate
cause."
“But the remote cause—do you know thate”
"Yes, of course. You know, when | understood that Aramis had been
terminated, | wasn't surprised; for me, it was built into the nature of things. “[no.
18]

“Why do we do the sociology and history of technology,” asked

my mentor Norbert, with tears in his eyes, “when the people we
interview are such good sociologists, such good historians? There's
nothing to add. It’s all there. “Built into the nature of things: there you
have it—technology! Insert, engrave, inscribe things within, inside, right
in the middle, of nature and they flow on their own, they flow from
the source, they become automatic. Give me the remote causes—let’s
go back to the mainsprings of the tragedy—give me Matra, the Com-
munists, the Right, the Left, the mayor of Paris, the traitorous techni-
cians; let’s put them on stage in 1984 . . . and in 1987, here comes
the death blow. An implacable clockwork is operating before our very
eyes. And it’s he, the company head, who inscribes, who engraves, these
things in nature. He himself machine-tools the fatum that is going to
bring the plot to its conclusion with no surprises; he’s the deus ex

oo TT
machina, the god of machines. Enshrine the interviews and shut up—
that’s the only role for a good sociologist.”
Without letting myself get as worked up as he was, I went on
enumerating Aramises, as he'd taught me:
16. Aramis on the Petite Ceinture with a few branch lines—it’s
interesting, in spite of everything;
17. Aramis makes it possible to nip in the bud the projects for
metro-line extensions that the mayors wanted, and so it interests the
RATP even if it doesn’t get built;
18. Aramis with nonmaterial couplings no longer interests Matra,
after VAL’s success; it no longer interests the mayors either, but it still
interests the technicians a little, and it interests Montpellier a lot, and
also the Mauroy administration;
19. Something, but not necessarily Aramis on the Petite Ceinture,
still interests the mayor of Paris;
20. Aramis is not loved by the finance minister.
“There’s nothing more to be said,” Norbert announced, rather
irritated by my academic approach to the issue. “They're doing the
sociology for us, that’s all.”
“If they're such good sociologists,” I replied, bewildered, “if they
do such good sociotechnological analyses, why not say so in 1984? Why
not write it in the reports? Well, I want to point out that we find no
trace of these refinements in the documents we've read. Not a word
of doubt in the minutes of the development committee.* We find only
constant praise of Aramis, the eighth wonder of the world. Neither
visible compromise nor negotiation.”
“Say, that’s true! Well make something of you yet, if the goblins
don't get you. . .” It was the first nice thing he’d said to me since |
started my apprenticeship.
That was the happiest point in the investigation. | now respected

*To follow up on major projects, the ministries can delegate the task of scientific
oversight to a development committee that brings together all parties involved and
that is charged with informing the public authorities about the evolution of the
relationships between the contracting authority and the contractor. In practice, it
functions too often like a rubber stamp.

INTERPHASE tas |
 ee
a
Norbert’s sociology, he respected my abilities, and each new interview
brought us crucial information about this astonishing interphase.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

The RATP’s M. Gueguen reminisces:

"In 1983 we made a presentation to the board. ‘If this is how you're
showing it to me,’ declared the board president [M. Girard], ‘| can only
conclude that we mustn't do it. Show me some other way.’
“It wasn't really that there were problems, but there were a number of
technological risks, and putting them all together made the project really
marginal.
“You have to understand that the project was absolutely state-oHhe-art in all
respects.
"We all sat down around a table. Somebody said, ‘Aramis is new alll
around; it’s the wrong sort of step, just what mustn't be done.’ At the next
development committee meeting, things were sorted out difterently. ‘It's fine, no
problems.’ The risks just had to be turned into certainties. The risks had to be
wiped out; then they said, ‘Let's go.’ The red light changed to a blinking signal.
“Girard was convinced, but obviously he wanted the thing to be well
presented. The technologists couldn't stand up to the politicians. The current
line is that ‘technologically, it’s a success’—but that’s not how we put if. You
can have a look at it, but don't copy it.” fno. 2, p. 13]
[Fumbling through his documents, he gets the original handwritten minutes. ]

[DOCUMENT]

‘January 27, 1983: M. Girardis struck by the large number

of obstacles mentioned during this presentation. It seems
to himthat everything has been done to make it impossible to
pursue the Aramis project. However, this system strikes him
as having considerable potential value, and it would be too
bad if unavoidable delays forced him to give up the proj-
ect... Consequently, he asks the head of technological
services to prepare an attractive dossier for February 1,
1983, one that would justify a positive decision.’

148 INTERPHASE
 a
“Hey, this is really heating up,” I said, smacking my lips.
“I already told you, innovation studies are like detective stories.”
“And now,” he went on, “let’s go see whether M. Girard’s splendid
analysis turns out to be confirmed on the other side, at Matra.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At Matra, M. Etienne displays the same frankness, the same precision, the
same knowledgeability:
“There came Fiterman and Quin, and Girard along with them, all new guys.
‘Among their ambitions, one thing had struck Quin: the lack of a major
research project at the RATP. He wouldn't have minded being able to tell his
minister, ‘We've made a big effort in urban transportation.’ That couldn't leave
the Communists cold. It’s good for the workers, urban transportation.
“It wasn't stupid. Fiterman put up a good fight. It’s too bad they didn't back
the right horse. Also, Fiterman the Communist was all excited about working
with Lagardére [the capitalist].
“There were contlicts with the RATP right away; not with the politicians, but
with Girard. He didn’t believe in it at all, at first, but he couldn’t be against
everything; and besides, since he really likes to be in charge of things, he took
this one over, made it his baby.
“In addition, he knew pertectly well that the job of metro driver is a hard
one, that the way drivers feel is a delicate issue. You couldn't say that people
were thrilled about losing a job that was sometimes passed on from father to
son.
“We proposed an Araval to Girard. He told us, ‘You do the nominal Aramis
or we aren't interested.’ Girard went to bat for it. | was convinced that the Petite
Ceinture was viable; | wanted to take the quickest way, and | didn’t want to
see my company lose money. Araval was less complex, and it fit very well,
with its small size; it was less cumbersome than the tramway. Girard would
have none of it; he wanted the nominal Aramis.
“It's true—at that point | perhaps lost my nerve. | didn’t have the guts fo say,
‘No, Araval is better than Aramis.’”
“But again, why did the RATP plunge into the most complicated project?”
“Girard didn't trust me. He didn't want me to foist off a simplitied system on
him. | never should have called it Araval. The name was a kiss of death. |
should have called it Athos or Porthos!

INTERPHASE p47 |
 “In tact, | should have spent a couple of hours with Quin behind Girard's
back, to convince him it would never work." [no. 21]

“Extraordinary! Compare this with the previous interview. Girard

says, ‘If I’d been reasonable, I would have stopped it the day the World’s Fair
ended. But Aramis was so promising, the administration had invested so
much at the level of discourse, that I let it go on.”
“So they see eye to eye.”
“Yes, they agree, but on a misunderstanding! In twenty years as

OEE
a sociologist, I’ve never seen a thing like that. The two most important
decisionmakers both think that they shouldn’t have made the decision
they made—that they should have been more courageous. Magnificent.
Truly magnificent.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Still in M. Etienne’s office at Matra:

‘As for Lagardére, he said to himself, ‘Here | am in Notebart's position, with
the local locomotive that’s going to pull Aramis along for me.’
“He looked me straight in the eye. ‘Can you do it?’ | said, ‘It's complicated,
but we'll do it.’ Even though | thought it was unnecessarily complex.
“Obviously, then there was the World’s Fair; we thought that would help
us, and we were pushed along a path that we never were able to leave.
“The paradox is that when there was no more World’s Fair, Girard said,
‘You see, simplifying wasn’t worth it, since there’s no rush’. . .

OE
"Girard always leaned toward the complex solution. ‘Real high-tech, M.
Quin; not the semi-hightech that Matra has the nerve to propose to you.’ That's
what Girard was saying.
“For my part, | knew perfectly well that things had to get more complicated
as they went along. That's what Papa Dassault did. What do you make of a
thing that goes ‘Daddy! Mommy!” right away?
“If I've understood correctly, the quickest way to get to a reaHlife product
was the complicated way?"
"Yes, the shortest route was still a long one because it went by way of
 Girard, who didn’t trust us or our efforts fo simplity. Yes, we'd accepted that."
[no. 2]]

“You can see what that guy loves and hates. Look, let’s draw a
line that connects all the variations in feeling to each variant of Aramis:
what do we come up with? The Carte de Tendre, the Map of the Land of
Tenderness*—-a new one for the century, ours, a map that has been
neglected by novelists and the sniveling humanists. Yes, Aramis is loved,
Aramis is hated. It all depends on its changing forms. Here’s the Peak
of Conversion of the company head; here’s the Swamp of Cold Feelings;
further on, the Temple of Enthusiasm of the World’s Fair. Then you find
Love’s Trickery—ah! if only we'd called it Porthos!—and the Go-Be-
tween's Hut, and the Budget Office Cave, and the Pit of Disappoint-
ments, deeper than the Pacific Ocean . . .”
“And you get to Marriage in the end?”
“Yes, but a marriage of reason, a shotgun wedding.”
“But since it concerns love of technology, Norbert, we should call
it the Carte de Dur—the Map of the Land of Hardness.”
“Hey, that’s great! Come here, let me give you a hug! A real love
story. Yes, that’s it!” exclaimed my mentor. “They fell in love with
Aramis! If youre actually going to love technology, you have to give
up sentimental slop, novels sprinkled with rose water. All these stories
of efficient, profitable, optimal, functional technologies—it’s the ‘Har-
lequin Romances!’ It’s “The Two of Us!’ You get paid by the word, and
you sell them by the truckload. It’s disgusting. The two of us, my friend,
we re telling real love stories; we're not naive romantics.”

The shortest path between a technological product and its completion

may be the crookedest one.

*This map originally appeared in Madeleine de Scudéry’s allegorical novel Clélie

(1654). Using the conventions of what was then the new science of cartography, the
map depicted love affairs as so many trajectories through an imaginary space, which
Scudery called the “Royaume de Tendre.”

INTERPHASE / 140
 The rationality of technologies writes like divine Providence, straight
across curved lines, crossbars, forks in the road. The geometry of the
feasible and the infeasible, the complex and the simple, the real and the
unreal, is as miraculous in technology as in theology. In fact, the trajectory
of a project depends not on the context but on the people who do the work
of contextualizing. Araval, a small-sized VAL, stems from a sociotechnologi-
cal compromise that would simplify the Aramis project. Yes, but it would
no longer interest the company head. Aramis for the World’s Fair is a
revolutionary transportation system that everybody is excited about. Yes,
but the technologists are “traitors” and say “you have to have material
couplings” in order to make the eighth wonder of the world feasible. “Not
feasible,” “not interesting,” “not lovable.” All these terms are negotiable.
The result is a hybrid? Yes, an Aramis that is complicated enough to please
the company head, who is interested in it because it’s complicated and not
very feasible, but also because it gets people used to automation, because
it “nips line extension projects in the bud,” because it offers a good image
of high-tech research—and in any case it’s already too late to decide,
because the project has become promising. There’s no stopping a modern-
izing political slogan.
As for the manufacturer, he loved Aramis. But he said he had made
a mistake—still another past conditional, another “| should have.” For his
hybrid he invented a word that is itself a hybrid, based on the rival words
“Aramis” and “Val,” which the company head wanted to keep as distinct
as possible. Ah! If only he had put “Porthos” on his rack! Our manufacturer
was not a good Scrabble player. What's more, he didn’t dare bypass the
hierarchy to speak about his projects directly with the RATP president, the
only one who could have overruled his company head.
Still another twist in the road? Yes, another short cut—a shorter, more
meandering, more undulating route. Moreover, when his president took
him aside in private, he said, trembling a bit: “It’s doable.” What beautiful,
admirable symmetry! While the RATP technicians were rewriting the project
of the complicated Aramis, which they deemed infeasible, so as to make
it more presentable, the manufacturer was declaring to his CEO that Aramis
was feasible, even though it was a bit complicated for his taste. While the
company head is blaming himself—retrospectively—for having lacked
courage and saying that he “ought to have” killed Aramis, on the other
side the manufacturer is accusing himself—also retrospectively—of the
same sin. He “should have” had the courage to stop the project. With

2S
 perfect lucidity, the company head recognizes that he forced the manufac-
turer to complicate, reluctantly, a project he didn’t believe in, while the
manufacturer for his part admits that he agreed to complicate Aramis only
because it was the shortest path to achieving it, given the strategic position
occupied by the person who wanted to complicate it—a position that the
manufacturer had given up trying to modify!
Two conversions, one definitive and the other tentative, transformed
the Aramis project, which was ata standstill, into a political football. It was
deliberately attached to the context of Right/Left alternation by the RATP
company head. To this attachment, a Matra head had been reluctantly
converted. As for Matra’s president, he thought he had found a second
VAL in an Aramis supported by the Left. This enthusiastic support was itself
attributable to the RATP president and to the minister, both Communists,
who thought they had, in an Aramis unanimously supported (they believed)
by the technologists, a showcase that would present both high-level French
technology and a renovated public-transportation system. How could they
doubt Aramis, since both of the highest-placed directors of a private firm
supported the project along with all the engineers of the RATP and the
Transportation Ministry? Once again, as at Orly, Aramis was a dream, the
ideal sociotechnological compromise, the dream that would simultaneously
advance the P.C. (the Communist Party}, the P.C. (the Petite Ceinture),
capitalism, socialism, modernization, the maintenance of great social tri-
umphs, and in particular would make it possible to bring about, in one fell
swoop, both state-of-the-art research with multiple goals and industrial
development that would transport real passengers.

“Things are getting clearer,” my mentor declared. “Once again,

you see, all is for the best. It could have worked. Aramis’ road is paved
with good intentions. We have to go check with the other partners,
especially at the Transportation Ministry and the Ile-de-France Region,
to fd out whether they, too, believed in Aramis because the others
did.”
“But there’s no end to this,” I said to Norbert. “We'll have to go
from the minister’s office to the Minister himself, from there to the
president, and from the president to all their international counterparts.

INTERPHASE pts
 Why not go see Ronald Reagan, or the Chinese? And why not follow
the chips clear to South Korea? After all—they, too, decide on Aramis’
fate; they’re its context.”
“We have to stop somewhere.”
“So it doesn’t matter where? We just stop when we're tired?”
“One, when we run out of money for expenses; two, when the
contextualizers themselves stop. If they tell us, “The minister was
interested in it for only a few minutes; he had other things on his mind;
he put me in charge of the dossier,’ we can retrace our steps, since
Aramis has fallen out of the minister’s purview. Beyond that limit, the
analyses are no longer valid, since they're no longer specific. Then we’d
study something else—ground transportation, for example, or Com-
munist ministers, or technocracy.”
“But I thought we had to take everything into account. I even read
some philosopher, I think, or a sociologist, Edgar Morin, who said that
every techno-bio-political problem was also a political-techno-biological
problem . . . and that the politics of chips were also the chips of politics
or something like that. You're letting go while everything is tied
together.”
“Few things are coming together, on the contrary; they're rare
and fragile filaments, not big bubbles to be tied together by big arrows.
Their extensions are unpredictable, it’s true; their length as well. And
theyre very heterogeneous. Maybe we'll go to South Korea after all,
or we'll go see Reagan, but simply because the Aramis maze will oblige
us to draw a picture of that corridor of its labyrinth, and because an
Ariadne has slipped her thread into it, not because we have to take into
account the international element, or the technological infrastructure.”
He even obliged me to observe for myself that the violent blow
he struck with his fist on his desk had no visible influence on the chapter
of Aristotle’s Metaphysics that was filed under the letter A at the top of
his bookshelf.
“You see: not everything comes together, not everything is con-
nected.”
After that interesting physics demonstration, he harangued me

15a INTERPHASE
 eee
again about the notion of networks. They were all fanatical about
networks in that shop.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gontran, researcher at the Institute for Transportation Research:

“For Fiterman, the issue was modernization of transportation systems. Aramis
had a certain public appeal; it was good for export. These things made it
possible both to develop state-otthe-art technologies and to make the ministry
look good.
“Beyond that, Lagardére and the Communist minister intrigued each other.
“Obviously, it was more important as a project for Quin than for Fiterman.
Fiterman invested very little in Aramis. In comparison, he spent a year and a
halt tighting for the A-320; in the end, Aramis was just one more thing. But for
Quin, if was important. It was presented to him as something at the cutting
edge that could be implemented quickly. They cut all the corners; but since it
was an old project, they couldn't say that they'd still need four or five years
more to develop it!" [no. 42]
A former member of Fiterman’s cabinet, M. Marin, also a Communist, who
no longer works in transportation, showed us the very dossier Fiterman had on
his desk when he was making his decisions.
“You know, Fiterman had a kind of proletarian common sense. Even if his
triend Claude Quin was singing Aramis’ praises, Fiterman wanted to see for
himselt.
“| have one more note of his on the Aramis dossier” [brandishing it]:

On ———— Ee
[DOCUMENT]

Before deciding, sumup pros and cons on this matter after

getting opinions fromall “interested” parties. Seek out re-
liable and impartial opinions, if possible! —C.F.

“His own underlining! You see that he’s not naive. The entire technology
lobby was in favor. That's why |’m astounded that you're coming to see me to
tind out why Aramis died.

INTERPHASE _ 158
 “| called several meetings to verity the degree of commitment of everybody
concerned; we did several polls. Everybody was for it.
“The R&D eftort was very attractive. I’d really like somebody fo convince
me that it wasn’t feasible, with all those branches that gave it excellent coverage
and that let it go get customers and bring them back onto the standard metro
lines.
“It's true that there were security issues. A woman alone inside with a rapist
_. . We had some concerns . . .
“But if the RATP was ready to put millions on the table, it's because they
believed in it. And Matra, too, in the private sector. | didn’t have any inde
pendent way of doing a technology assessment in my office; if people coming
at it from ditferent logical angles came to identical conclusions, what could |
say?" [no. 43]

“It’s like the Orly phase: everybody is unanimous about Aramis,

but, as in a poker game, nobody thinks the others are bluffing.”
“Still, that hardly makes it worth our while to do ‘refined’ soci-
ology, Norbert. Say what you like, but the politicians have gotten
themselves all worked up—it’s as simple as that. They’ve forced the
engineers to do things they didn’t want to do. Even your famous
principle of symmetry is no use; we've got exactly the opposite situation
here—politicians distorting a technological logic that was perfectly
clear. It’s infeasible. I’ve felt that myself all along, but of course I’m an
engineer.”
“Of course, of course . . .”

During a given period, the form, scope, and power of the context
change for every technological project.
Aramis’ contextualizers tied in the major projects of the left with
decisions about the variable-reluctance motor, nonmaterial couplings (“in-
teresting for forking points”), and automation (“to prepare people’s
minds”). Very good; but this work refrained from adding to the mix a
number of other players that other contextualizers, interested in other pro-

134 INTERPHASE
jects, are about to extract from the context and reassemble as allies or
enemies of their business. At the same moment, with the same Left holding
the same powers, the European airplane, the Ariane rocket, the Poma-
2000, the Val-de-Marne tramway, the Rafale, TRACS, VAL, though very
close, are in other contexts.
That is why the Context is such a bad predictor of a project's fate,
and why the tedious argument over “individual freedom” and “the weight
of structures” does not allow us to understand Aramis. The company head,
the industrialist, the director of technological services—any of these people
could have decided, or not decided, not to bring to bear on Aramis the
weight of the Left, or of Technological Evolution, or of Necessary Modern-

ee
ization, or of the Equipment of the South Paris Region. They all could have
decided not to let these forces of different origins get mixed up with Aramis’
fate. Where is the freedom of the individual actors? Everywhere, in all the
branchings of the context. Where is the structure? Everywhere, traced by
all the branchings and relationships of the context.
Still more foolish, the quarrel between the history of the contingent
bifurcations and the sociology of the structural necessities is of no use at
all. To do contingent history is also to structure, to contextualize, and thus
to gain or lose in necessity. For Cleopatra’s nose to have any bearing upon
the battle of Actium, you still have to have a Roman general and an
Egyptian princess attached by bonds of love, and don’t forget the serpent
coiled up in fruit cups. All the attachments to context are so many exauisite
corpses.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Coquelet, a transportation official, is speaking in his office in the

llede-France Region:
It's a project from the culture of the Sixties, transporting people in a private
Espace instead of in public conveyances . . .
“Now, obviously, we're culturally out of phase. But in 1984 a Communist
minister wanted fo increase pure research independently of economic factors;

research?"
he wanted to showcase his enterprise so as to polish up its image with
cutting-edge research."
“But | don’t understand. Isn’t it really very applied, the CETe Isn‘t it seen as

“Yes, but don’t forget that at the time people thought they could apply it to

INTERPHAS ee
 the World's Fair; then they said it would serve as a transportation system. But
atter the project was abandoned, the costs turned out to be considerable.
“The contract of the StateRegion Plan is an addition, a compromise if you
, like, between the enthusiasm of Fiterman and Quin [on the Left] and the
enthusiasm of people trom the lledefFrance Region, such as Giraud and
Fourcade [on the Right].
‘Aramis was supposed fo be a matter of compromises, like the Valde-Marne
tramway, with less reticence about Aramis because of the research aspect. In
the Plan contract, Aramis was provided for in the document that contirms the
commitment, under the heading of transportation and trattic. It isn't on the list
of “extensions of the metro”: it has its own rubric, but it isn’t under research,
either—we don't have that. It's not the Region's job to finance research.
"| think that at the top they didn’t see the skepticism of the technological
levels. | personally was very skeptical. My president was very skeptical.
‘At Matra and the RATP, they had the impression that the engineers were
unanimously defending the project. They told us that it was going to work, so
you can understand that when they came to tind us later [in 1987] and told
us, ‘VVe've used up the money,’ when they hadn’t even gotten to the testing
phase, we said, ‘No, we've got to cut our losses.’
“| never had to convince Giraud to give it up, since we weren't enthusiastic
anyway. It was a compromise.
"The snag was a pretty big one, anyway. We'd spent 100 percent of our
budget, and we were in the middle of the river without any idea how deep
the ford was.
“In any case, the Region's commitment was a compromise; we had insisted
on specitic sites and we had accepted Aramis as a compromise, so as soon
as there was a problem, we didn’t put up a tight. The project wasn’t supported
by anything but an idea on the part of some technologists.
“Then the beast had to be snuffed out. It wasn't a ‘Tilthy beast,’ of course—
but it was a Rolls Royce. | may have been a little harsh, but Aramis is a bit old
| hat, atter all—a bit outdated. We need mass transportation, not individual
transportation.” [no. 34]

“You see?” Norbert remarked. “He tells us that it’s a technologists’

idea, and in the same breath that the people at the top didn’t see the
technologists’ skepticism. Really, we need an even more refined soci-

2
ology to explain this story . . . Did you hear what he said? The ‘filthy
beast’ that has to be snuffed out? It’s like the story of Frankenstein. In
Mary Shelley’s book, you don’t know which is the monster that has to
be crushed—whether it’s the master or the frightful thing he’s con-
cocted and then left behind.”

On an Alpine glacier, Victor encounters his creature, who seeks to

explain why he has become wicked after being abandoned:
“How can I move thee? Will no entreaties cause thee to turn a
favourable eye upon thy creature, who implores thy goodness and
compassion? Believe me, Frankenstein: I was benevolent; my soul
glowed with love and humanity: but am I not alone, miserably alone?
You, my creator, abhor me; what hope can I gather from your fellow-
creatures, who owe me nothing? they spurn and hate me. The desert
mountains and dreary glaciers are my refuge...”
“Why do you call to my remembrance,” I rejoined, “circumstances,
of which I shudder to reflect, that I have been the miserable origin and
author? Cursed be the day, abborred devil, in which you first saw light!
Cursed (although I curse myself) be the hands that formed you! You
have made me wretched beyond expression. You have left me no power
to consider whether I am just to you or not. Begone! relieve me from
the sight of your detested form.”
“Thus I relieve thee, my creator,” he said, and placed his hated
hands before my eyes, which I flung from me with violence; “thus I
take from thee a sight which you abhor. Still thou canst listen to me,
and grant me thy compassion. By the virtues that I once possessed, I
demand this from you. Hear my tale; it is long and strange...” [From
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein]

Why reject me? Have I not been good? Was I not born well-endowed
with virtues, unlike my brother VAL? Have I not been the dream, the
ideal? What pains were not taken for my conception! Why recoil in
horror today? Did not all the fairies hover over my cradle? Oh, my
progenitors, why do you turn your heads away, why do you confess
today that you did not love me, that you did not want me, that you
had no intention of creating me? And if you have given me existence,
why do you take it back again so soon? And if you did not want me,
why did you keep me alive, year after year, in that glacial limbo,

INTERPHASE | as7
a
 attaching to me dozens of poor devils who sacrificed their nights and
their ardor to me? If I have been badly conceived, why not conceive
me again? Why not take the trouble to reshape me? Why do you turn
your heads away? Am I a Medusa, then, I whom you so loved? Who
has committed the inexpiable crime of abandoning a creature drawn
out of the void? I, who did not ask either to be born or to die? Or you,
who insisted that I be born? Of all the sins, unconsummated love is the
most inexpiable. Burdened with my prostheses, bated, abandoned,
innocent, accused, a filthy beast, a thing full of men, men full of things,
I lie before you. Eloi, elot, Lama, lama sabachthani.

isa INTERPHASE
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THE 1984 DECISION: Te |

After the interviews, which were always exhausting because they

demanded our full attention, we often collapsed in the nearest cafe.
“So we know that everything happened during that three-and-a-
half-year interphase.” My mentor was recapitulating on the paper
tablecloth. “We also know that the mystery is not the death of Aramis
but its rebirth in 1981, since we’ve eliminated the influence of context.
Then there’s this mysterious three-and-a-half-year delay, which we know
was because of the upcoming World’s Fair, and then because the World’s
Fair was dropped. Here again, Aramis should have died. Okay?”
“But Aramis goes on as if nothing had happened. It’s intact, or
almost.”
“Yes, that’s the only mystery; the CET isn’t signed until July 1987.
To account for this survival, this delay, we have two elements: up above,
in the higher spheres, everyone is now in favor of Aramis, unanimously.
Although everybody has private doubts about the project, they give it
their own backing, however half-heartedly, because they see all the
others supporting it enthusiastically. Down below, with the technicians,
everybody is skeptical. . .”
“At least that’s what they’re saying now. At the time, no one
noticed the skepticism . . .”
“Exactly. Everybody was skeptical, but only in private. That’s the
whole problem: half-hearted enthusiasms come together on high, while
down below half-doubts are all scattered, isolated, buried in notes that
 we are often the first to see, in any case the first to bring together as
a whole. What’s more, every time someone up above asks somebody
down below for an opinion . . .”
“The person up above gets an opinion that’s more positive than
the one the person down below really holds, because the people down
below revise their opinions so they'll jibe with what they think the
people up above really want. . .”
“Exactly.”
“Because, between the top and the bottom,” I added, making my
own head reel with sociological analyses, “there must be people,
intermediaries, who do the translation, who transform the technolo-
gists’ doubts into near-certainties. So the decisionmakers think the thing
is technologically feasible in addition to being politically opportune;
and the same intermediaries transform the decisionmakers’ fears into
near-certainties, into orders given to the technologists. So the tech-
nologists think Aramis has political support.”
“Ah! So it’s the technocrats, is it? They’d be good villains . . .”
“Or else it’s just what I was trying to tell you, Norbert: they all
got carried away. If I were a journalist, I’d go tell the whole story to
the Canard enchainé*. They kept on going with a project that defies
common sense.”
“No, youre wrong about that—it’s a perfectly normal project.
The Canard would have nothing to sink its teeth into. And that’s just
what's bothering me. It’s a muddle, but it’s not unusual enough to
explain Aramis’ survival or, later on, its death. The technocrats are in
the same place, doing the same job of translation-betrayal in all the
successful cases: VAL, Ariane, the Airbus, the Poma-2000, the tramway.
No, they could have brought it off. In any case,” Norbert added
threateningly, “you're not to say a word to a living soul about this
without my permission; you’ve signed on the dotted line.”
“I was just kidding . . . Still, the fact remains that there are only
two solutions. Either they’re all incompetent, or else there's someone
who has a clear strategy and who's pocketing the cash. If you rule out
the first solution, you have to look into the second. It didn’t happen by

*A satirical weekly that specializes in uncovering secret scandals.

jis THE 1984 DECISION

accident, after all. There has to be somebody in this story who’s making
a profit. Or else I’ve had it right all along: they’ve all gotten carried
away. In either case, if I were a journalist—if I were, but of course I'm
not—there would be something for the Canard.”
“Strategy, my good man, is like context: an invention of vulgar
sociologists.”
“Do you mean to tell me we're going to do ‘refined’ sociology
again, just when good old-fashioned crude sociology would be all wed
need to denounce a good old-fashioned crude scandal?”
“Not refined, hyperrefined . . .”
And we went back to our interviews to “explain” the famous
decision of July 1984, giving up the helpful, handy solution of denounc-
ing the technocrats.
“The only actor that may have had a strategy was Matra. Remem-
ber what Girard told us.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Girard:
“In 1983, Matra was pushed. They couldn't go against the leftwing
administration, but at the same time they kept coming back to VAL.
“In fact, Aramis was imposed on Matra against the will of its leadership
team, which doesn't mean that they didn't do a good job; on the contrary, it
worked—the results are in—but they didn’t believe in it. They said to themselves:
‘For 30 million, if that’s what they want, okay, we'll do it, and it'll bring in 150
million in research money.’ But VAL was always their target.
“They remained wedded to the old standbys. After Bardet, there was
nobody who was prepared to pick up the somewhat radical innovations and
run with them. Matra never went back to Aramis, in the end. They stuck with
the classic standards, judiciously applied.” [no. 18]
M. Frégue, who headed the Aramis project at Matra atter the new startup
is speaking with the same frankness, the same subtlety in his analysis, the same
extreme cordiality. The Aramis cab is still on display in the entry hall.
“Let's say that we had the will to do it, but...”
“But not the way!” [Laughter]
“That's exactly right: we didn’t have the way!" . . .

THE 1984 DECISION pte.

 eS “The RATP said fo itself, ‘I'm behind, Matra’s ahead of me, | have to do
something better than VAL.’ We proposed a simplified Aramis, an Araval: it
was in a note in 1982, an internal memo. | still have it. The RATP reacted very
badly." [He reads excerpts from the internal memo, which he doesn't want to
hand over.]

[DOCUMENT]

M. Maire got a very bad impression. We backed away from de-

veloping Aramis. ..tIfwedoa VAL derivative, they won’t do
anything. ..Have to change our language at Matra... Not
give M. Quin the impression that we want to downgrade the
system. What motivates M. Quinis a sophisticated system.

‘At the same time, you can't say that simplitication would have solved
everything, since the cost is in the intrastructures in any case. But when you get
right down to it, what you have to see is that the RATP wanted more than VAL.
“On our side, we didn't see the technological imperative, but it was clear
that the client wanted it to be complicated. Again, doing away with train
contigurations didn't solve the problem. There’s no point exaggerating, after
all. There really wasn't any method, but we had to find a compromise.
"We had to tind a structure and an organization that would allow a
compromise.
“The operating agency overspecities; there's a normal, ordinary overkill built
into technologies and specifications. And on the other side of the fence, the
industrialist tries to do as little as possible that isn't specitied. He'll say, ‘It isn't
written down: I'll take that off the shelf and that's the end ot it.’
We had to find a compromise. On VAL, we were 80 percent there [see
M. Fréque’s description of the VAL negotiations near the end of Chapter 3].
But tor SACEM or for Aramis, there were a lot more problems.” [no. 6]

The actors don’t have a strategy; they get their battle plans, contra-
dictory ones, from other actors.
The actors in a technological project populate the world with other

BPE iss 064 vecision

 actors whom they endow with qualities, to whom they give a past, to whom
they attribute motivations, visions, goals, targets, and desires, and whose
margin of maneuver they define. It is precisely because of this work of
populating that they are called actors. For a given actor, this is the way the
strategy of the other actors is interdefined. What does Matra want? It’s M.
Girard, head of the RATP, who says what Matra wants. According to him,
because of its past, as builder of VAL, Matra is clinging to its own way of
being and no longer wants Aramis, in which it has very little faith; now it
wants VAL. What does the RATP want? According to the head of the Aramis
project at Matra, the RATP finds itself lagging behind Matra and wants to
catch up, presumably to get even. From this attribution of a past and a
feeling, Fréque deduces a behavior by applying a rule of continuity be-
tween the past and the future: the RATP doesn’t want a project that would
resemble VAL; only a sophisticated system is worthy of its interest. How
much maneuvering room does Matra have, as the RATP sees it? Not much.
From Matra’s customary behavior—the behavior of a company capable of
producing VAL—is deduced a tendency, a weight, an attractor: make
Aramis a mini-VAL. Why not make it an Araval? Because Matra doesn’t
dare displease the left-wing administration, and its director has bound up
Aramis’ fate with the Left. How much maneuvering room does the RATP
have, in Matra’s view? Not much. The RATP has the desire to produce
something other than a mini-VAL, at any price. The attractor, here, is VAL
as foil. Does there really exist a causal mechanism known only to the
sociologist that would give the history of a technological project the neces-
sity that seems so cruelly lacking? No, the actors offer each other a version
of their own necessities, and from this they deduce the strategies they
ascribe to each other.
What are the strategies that the two actors can deduce on the basis
of their own reconstructions of the motivations and maneuvering room of
the other actors? Matra draws the conclusion that “it’s especially critical
not to give M. Quin the impression that we're pursuing an Araval under
the guise of an Aramis”—that Matra has to “change its language,” has to
dissimulate its “real goals,” which are to take on the fewest possible
complications while aiming at Araval. The head of the RATP concludes that,
once desires have been inscribed in Matra’s nature, nothing more can be
done. Aramis has been in a state of abandonment since Bardet’s day.
Among the possible results of this interdefinition of the past, of motives,
goals, and more or less indirect means, it turns out that the two interviewees

ti ees occision
 agree. “They're aiming at VAL in spite of the complicated Aramis that we
wanted to impose on them.” “We were aiming at VAL in spite of the useless
complications that they wanted to impose on us.” This superposition is an
exception. The methodological rule that consists in letting the actors define
each other can accommodate all cases, including the miraculous one of
agreement between the one who is defining and the one who is |."
defined.

“But all these interviews, Norbert—-we'e doing them in 1987

and talking about 1981, 1982, 1984. How can we believe these people?
And besides, the fact that the project has been terminated makes them
even less believable. They all know what happened. They can all tell us
stories about ineluctable destiny; it doesn’t cost them a thing.”
“They're all telling us stories, that’s for sure. But they all tell
themselves stories, stories about strategy, scenarios, with lots of things
like: “Once upon a time there was an RATP that wanted to get even
for being humiliated’; or ‘Once upon a time there was a charming
capitalist who dreamed of entering Paris right under the king’s nose.’

se
We have to write everything down, that’s all. Who’s saying it? About
whom? To whom? When? Referring to what period?
“So you write it down:
) “M. Freque, on such-and-such a date, tells us (that’s you and me),
speaking about 1984, that in his opinion the RATP, represented by
M. Girard, wanted such-and-such a thing and that he learned it by
undergoing such-and-such a trial.
“Look at the note he didn’t want to let us have. That’s an
experiment. He thought the RATP was flexible and ready for a com-
promise. He notices that he was wrong. That the RATP was furious,
that Matra had to change its language. He tells us, us, that this experi-
ment revealed to him the true goals and inclinations of the RATP.”
“But is it true? Did it really happen that way? Did the RATP really
want that?”
“We don’t know a thing about it, and that’s not the issue. All we
do is write down the stories people tell us.”
path!”

a
“But you're not being asked to write a novel; you're supposed to
provide the truth. That’s what theyre paying you for, Norbert.”
“No. First of all, I’m the one who’s paying you to help me, and
I’m paying you to write everything down—all the stories of goals and
desire and trials. Not so youll unearth the truth in the actors’ stead.
The truth will come out of the novel, out of all the novels told by all
the interviewees about all the others.”
“A total novel?”
“Not even; we'll let the actors do the totals themselves.”
“Several different totals? When I think that I could have spent the
year doing real technology, that I had a good slot in the Man-Machine
Interaction and Artificial Intelligence program!”
“But youre there, my friend—-youre up to your ears in it. This
is what man-machine interaction is, and artificial intelligence.”
“Sure it is! Concocting a novel about people who're writing
technological-fiction novels and leading one another down the garden

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

On the boulevard Victor, in the project's now-abandoned offices, M. Parlat

is expressing rather heated feelings about the manufacturer:
“Let's say that Matra took us for a ride. They never intended to go through
with Aramis. VWhen they saw the problems piling up, they chucked it.
“It was a case of a manufacturer pursuing its own interest; that’s normal.
“We're rivals. Before this, the RATP always dealt with subcontractors. * But
this time they were acting as general contractor, so the less we knew about it
the better.
‘It's private versus public. It’s not a total loss for them, by the way, since
they paid for all their research for Lyon and for SACEM out of the Aramis
budget, the public budgets.” [no. 2]

*The question of who is in control of technological competency is a crucial

issue in all projects: the contracting authority is further removed from the details than
the contractor. As for subcontractors, they simply arrange for the various specialized
services.

THE 1984 DECISION p65

 a
“He agrees with me,” I remarked modestly.
“Well, you ask Matra the next question.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

At Matra headquarters, still in M. Fréque’s oftice:

“I'm sure you're aware that many people have floated a Machiavellian
hypothesis about your strategy, suggesting that you tinanced your research with
the Aramis contracts but that you were actually looking at something else, a
second-generation VAL. What do you think about thate”
“There's no such thing as Machiavellianism. To be Machiavellian, you have
to be very smart and work very hard for a very long time and be very
single-minded. Well, there just aren't many people out there who are very smart
and very hard-working and very stubborn . . . [Laughter]
“No, if you really look at it, from Matra’s point of view Aramis is a tinancial
catastrophe. VVe went over budget; we didn’t earn anything at all.
“What happened was that, on the contrary, we really believed in Aramis.
Turning the CET into a research center was a step backward.
“What happened was that we had doubts about VAL. We paid too much
attention to the other side, to people telling us: ‘It'll never sell’; ‘It was good for
Lille but not for Bordeaux or Brescia.’
“And VAL was too expensive from the point of view of infrastructure for a lot
of mediumsize cities. So, no, on the contrary, Aramis was cheaper, could be
cheaper. We really needed Aramis; it completed our product line—that's why
we were so determined to end up with a line.
"We had doubts about VAL. We were too pessimistic atter being too
optimistic, so much so that in Strasbourg we initially proposed Aramis instead
of VAL...
“In the end, in spite of the costs, it turned out that Strasbourg wanted VAL. *
It wasn’t the price tag that mattered fo them; it was the relation between price
and public image. For them, VAL wasn’t a gimmick; Aramis was, in spite of
everything.” [no. 41]

*“In the end” is as reversible in technology as in politics. The 1989 municipal

elections were fatal to VAL as well as to Aramis. In Strasbourg it was the tramway
that won out.

[166 THE 1984 DECISION ee

 The actors create both their society and their sociology, their lan-
guage and their metalanguage.
Not only do a project's actors populate the world with other actors,
but they also define how the populating will come about and how to
account for it. M. Girard, of the RATP, has his own ideas about social
physics: “Matra,” he says, “was pushed”; it floundered; it didn’t act; it was
a patient, not an actor. He also has ideas about what is possible in
France—the manufacturer “couldn't” go against the leftwing administra-
tion.
The RATP engineer, M. Parlat, has quite explicit views about the
interests that push or pull a manufacturer to profit from the weaknesses of
the powers that be.
The father of VAL develops very precise sociological theories: Ma-
chiavellianism is impossible for want of Machiavellis who are hard-working
enough and stubborn enough to stick with a strategy long enough. In
contrast, manufacturers are at the mercy of the “what-will-people-+thinke”
phenomenon, and they internalize others’ doubts about their own capacity
to accomplish major projects; they shift too quickly from optimism to pessi-
mism; they, too, are fragile and cyclothymic. As for provincial cities, they
cannot choose a solution by looking at profitability alone, since their
principle for choosing is a relation between “price and image” offered by
a public-transportation system.
There are as many theories of action as there are actors.
Does there exist, after all, a theory in which all these actors and all
their theories can be summed up, one that would enable the sociologistking
to speak with some authority?
That depends again on how the actors act to disseminate their own
theories of action. Can Girard’s social physics be extended to the point of
interpreting the others? Is it, on the contrary, the doctrine of the private-en-
terprise-that-pursues-its-own-interestat-the-expense-of-the-public that will pre-
vail and encompass the others, which are then accused of Machiavellian-
ism? Or will the winner be the doctrine according to which alll
Machiavellianism is impossible, owing to the weakness of human nature
and the uncertainties of economic calculations—in which case those who
level charges of Machiavellianism are themselves charged in turn with evil
intentions?
To the multiplicity of actors a new multiplicity is now added: that of
the efforts made to unify, to simplify, to make coherent the multiplicity of

THE 1984 DECISION per

 viewpoints, goals, and desires, so as to impose a single theory of action.
In the strange arithmetic of projects, everything is added; nothing is taken
away, not even the rules of the metalanguage, not even the arithmetic’s
variable rules by which addition and subtraction are defined!

“But it’s in his interest,” I said indignantly, “in Freque’s, that is,
to tell us that. If he chooses a sociology of interest, he can’t avoid being
accused of Machiavellianism. So he talks to us about uncertainty,
tinkering, pessimism . . . Another minute and he’d have had us weeping
over the manufacturer’s misfortunes; it was clear from the start. That’s
Machiavellian, isn't it? To say, out of self-interest, with your hand over
your heart, that you don’t have a strategy and that you're just a poor
slob with nothing but the shirt on his back who’s doing the best he
can.”
“And your interpretation, my dear sociologist, is based on what
sociology?”
“Well, people tell us what it’s in their interest to tell us.”
“Of course; but do they know what's in their interest?”
“I’m not sure. But spontaneously, unconsciously, yes, they probably
do. He’s such a good negotiator, that one, he looks so clever, Freque
does, that I’d be astonished if he weren’t quite up front in pursuing his
goals.”
“So you'd be ready to put your hand in the fire and swear that
Matra really did take the RATP for a ride to get its own research
funded, and that it never intended to go through with Aramis?”
“Let’s say my little finger. I don’t know enough sociology yet to
put my whole hand in. . .”
“Your modesty is not to your credit. It’s the height of arrogance.”
“ Arrogance?”
“Of course. You're an old positivist, in spite of your youth, and
modest positivists are the worst of all. We'll never know enough
sociology to judge the actors—never. They're the ones who teach us
our sociology.”
“And there are as many different sociologies as there are actors?”

jte8_ THE 1984 DECISION

 a
“Exactly.”
“As I was saying,” I sighed. “I should have stayed in the Man-
Machine Interaction program and AI.”
““Hee haw!’ you mean, ‘hee haw!’ You're just like Buridan’s ass,
you are—you never know what you want. . .”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Cohen, head of the Aramis project at Matra in the Orly days:

“They're ‘conversational,’ you know, the relations between people and
technological projects.
“The personalities of the project heads have a lot to do with it. If Fréque
had headed up Aramis at the start, the project would have developed difter-
ently, there's no doubt about it. And if I'd been the head of VAL, it would have
been a different VAL.
There's no question that if you compare the Aramis project team and the
VAL team (there were about ten people on each), you see that every project
has a personality. One project reasoned in terms of redundancy and looser
reliability: that was Aramis, automatically more creative. And on the other side,
with more intrinsic security but with its creativity more stifled, more strict as well,
more rigorous, there was VAL.
“The change of team accounts for a lot. The VAL team that took Aramis in
hand fatter 1984] overturned everything, and what they produced looked like
VAL.

“What's more, we know something now that we didn’t know at the time,
namely how much a transportation system costs. No matter how big Matra
was, they could not have done both at the same time. And they made a
judicious choice: they came down in favor of VAL. That was realistic, since
there were two concurrent systems.”
‘All that’s left is the size difference between Aramis and VAL.”
"Yes, the size difference remains.” [no. 45]

To study technological projects you have to move from a classical

sociology—which has fixed frames of reference—to a relativistic sociol-
ogy—which has fluctuating referents.

THE 1984 DECISION p69}

 If the actors in a project define not only the other actors’ essences
and desires but also the rules for interpretation that make these definitions
workable, all their viewpoints have to be deployed in a supple frame of
reference—a reference mollusk, as Einstein called it in his essay on relativ-
ity. Since they themselves establish their theories, their metatheories, and
even their metametatheories, the actors have to be left to their own devices.
It's a laissez-faire sociology.
Not only does Cohen, the former head of the Aramis project, say
that team culture and the preferences of project heads influence technologi-
cal choices; not only does he reconstruct possible stories (the story of a VAL
that he would have directed in Fréque’s place, the story of an Aramis that
he would have pulled off); not only does he blend cultural and psychoso-
ciological determinism (creativity on one side, rigor on the other) with
technological choices (probabilistic security on one side, intrinsic security
on the other); but in addition, during the interview he changes his rule for
interpretation, moving from people to organizational and economic neces-
sities (“in any event, Matra could not have done both at the same time”).
And all this in a interview fragment that lasts two minutes and twenty-five
seconds! What's more, the observer must now compare these variations
with the other interviews—for example, the one with Cohen’s old classmate
Fréque. “We really wanted to make an Aramis that would be different from
VAL,” said Fréque. Cohen’s answer: “Even if they had wanted to, they
couldn't have”—owing to organizational necessity (they’re too small),

Ee
financial necessity (it costs too much}, psycho-techno-cultural necessity
(Fréque, influenced by VAL, will never do anything but mini-VALs).
ls it impossible, then, to tell the story of Aramis if all the rules diverge,
if the laws of sociology vary with the point of view and from minute to
minute for a given point of view? No, because the actors also provide
themselves with the means to pass from one point of view to another, and
they unify, from their own point of view, and each for himself, the multiplicity
of points of view thus deployed. Each constructs his own instrument in order
to elaborate a synoptic view. All the actors thus repair, for themselves, the
disorder they create by multiplying perspectives.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gontran, a technical adviser in Fiterman’s cabinet, is speaking in his

ottice at INRETS, with the same attability, the same sensitivity to subtle variations

170 THE 1984 DECISION

 in technology and politics, the same modesty found throughout the whole world
of guided transportation:
‘Was Matra trying to get funds for research on other projects, or was if
seriously interested in Aramis? Could its approach be called somewhat Machi-
avelliane"
"| don't know.” [long silence. ] “I’m not sure if | can say anything very specitic
about it.
“What | do know is that Matra always contemplated going beyond the R&D
stage to the production stage. After Aramis, they considered selling a mini-VAL.
"No, | think they were really concerned about the manufacturing logic.
However, the minister and the RATP didn't have the same production concerns;
there was a game of catand-mouse going on.
‘Matra didn't want to get in too deep, without a decision to begin produc-
tion, and they were also pushing the dossier in order to get the line, for the
sake of having a line. With the [the World's] Fair, everybody was pushing,
but then the supports gave way and the project was left hanging . . ."

“That takes care of your interpretation,” said Norbert on his way

out. “The Machiavellian hypothesis doesn’t hold water. They really tried
to go through with Aramis, at least at first, and it was the RATP, on
the contrary, and the public powers who were not so interested. Hence
the game of cat-and-mouse. So Matra is the mouse that gets eaten.”
“No, no, it’s the cat. Matra is doing the manipulating; it’s playing
with the RATP.”
“Will your interpretation stand up to the test of the interviews
or not? That’s the only criterion. Everything hangs on the business of
the line. If Matra is pushing Aramis, the CET, and the Petite Ceinture
line simultaneously, it means they really do want to do Aramis. If you
can prove to me that they only want the CET to pay for their own
research but don't want the line, then Ill start believing in your
Machiavellian hypothesis.”

THE 1984 DECISION p17

 With a technological project, interpretations of the project cannot be
separated from the project itself, unless the project has become an object.
The actors’ or observers’ interpretations of the actors’ motivations
and interests become more real and less real as a function of the progres-
sive realization or derealization of those interpretations. Fréque attributes
intentions to his CEO, to the company head, to the RATP, to nonmaterial
couplings, and to variable-reluctance motors, just as he attributes rules of
behavior to provincial cities, to France, to the private sector, to the public
sector, and to humanity in general. He lines up the actors, humans and
nonhumans alike, in a narrative; he mobilizes them in a scenario in the
course of which Aramis exists for real on the Petite Ceinture; he offers them
roles, feelings, and ways of playing. He creates a whole world, a whole
movie, a whole opera. Will they follow along? Will they play with him? It
the actors lend themselves in large numbers to what Fréque expects of them,
then his interpretation of their roles as well as the Aramis object that they're
charged with creating will both be realized.
But some of them protest. “Intentions are being attributed to me!”
they cry indignantly. “I never wanted to pursue Aramis beyond the World's
Fair project,” say the public authorities. “It was never a question of anything
but research on automation,” say the researchers. “You're giving me the
role of the Rat, but | want to play the Mouse.” “You don’t know those
people—they’re Machiavellian.” And there goes Aramis, moving back-
ward along with the interpretations of one of the screenwriters. The actors,
disbanded, are recruited by other screenwriters, given new roles, dressed
in new costumes, entrusted with new scripts, and there they go again...
So translation is not the starting point for an action, but the first result
of a preliminary scenarization. To make someone deviate from her goals,
that someone first has to be defined; goals have to be attributed to her, a
social physics has to be proposed that makes her susceptible (or not) to
deviation, and a psychology has to be proposed that will make it possible
to explain the deep feelings of the being in question, whose desires are
then translated. Without that preliminary work, translation would be impos-
sible. There would be actors on the marked borders who would know what
they wanted and who could calculate the path that leads to their goals!
There would be well-defined social groups endowed with well-understood
interests! The world would be rational and full—and technologies would
therefore be impossible!

BEAM iis 05s oecision

a
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gontran again:
‘It's paradoxical, though, isn't it, that the project didn’t budge atter the
World's Fair tell through?”
‘You know, there’s such a thing as an announcement effect: when you've
spent a year and a hall selling a project to the press while you were actually
just shitting from research to development, you say, ‘It's going to get done,’ ‘It’s
getting done.’
"Nobody took responsibility for shutting down. The CET was a way to stay
in a holding pattern. Also, there was heavy pressure on the technicians: the
merger technology, the nonmaterial couplings, the dense network, the variable-
reluctance motor—all that was very seductive.
‘Besides, at a time when a lot of innovations were being snuffed out, this
was one of the few innovative projects in the field of transportation that the
public could see.
“None of the other stuff sells politically; you can’t have a ribbon-cutting
ceremony fo inaugurate if. All the political types had their pictures taken in
Aramis” [see Photos 8 and 15].

Technological projects are deployed in a variable-ontology world;

that’s the result of the interdefinition of the actors.
In a thirty-second portion of an interview, a single interlocutor offers
several theories of action. The same project which was “pushed” by the
actors becomes impossible to shut down. So here we have a physical
model. Aramis is a rock—of Sisyphean proportions—that has made it to
the top of a slope owing to the work of human beings, but that then rolls
back down the slope; human beings are powerless to stop it. It’s a ballistic
missile like the ship’s cannon Victor Hugo described in Quatre-vingt-treize:
a cannon that can’t fail to roll right over those who might have the foolhardy
courage to oppose it. But is the “announcement effect” also a physical
model? No. The same Aramis project is awaited by everyone who has
read in the newspapers that it was going to get done. Now we’re in the
social, or psychosocial, realm. But also in the juridical realm, since all
journalistic publicity prepares people’s thinking and forms habits that can-
not be undone without talk of “false advertising.” Already, lines of passen-

THE 1984 DECISION 173

 gers impatient to show up at Bercy are forming on the boulevard Victor;
“Aramis,” they whisper, “is almost ready.” So it's difficult to go back on
one’s word and announce, “Move along! There’s nothing to see here
except research projects.” For the announcers’ responsibility is on the line;
they can no longer retreat. With the “pressure” of the technologists who
add their power to the missile that’s rolling down the hill, have we returned
to the physical model? No, because their pressure originates in Aramis’
“seductiveness.” Technologists are enamored of the “merger technology”
and even more so of the “nonmaterial couplings” that attach them to their
project. So here’s a real monster. A force that is both physical and amo-
rous—a true Minotaur. But the interviewee doesn’t stop there. He moves
on to anthropology. How could someone who has already “snuffed out”
sO many innovative projects have the nerve to assassinate the latest one,
tender and charming as it is? Wouldn't he be immobilized by shame? All
the more so because Aramis can be “seen” by the public; it can be
inaugurated. What model is implied here? A good model of political vanity:
we love those who solemnly inaugurate what they have done with our
money, in our name, and for our benefit. But this model of visibility is in
turn interpreted thanks to the application of a commercial interpretation to
the political world: “An innovation that the public can’t see won't sell.”

ee
Let’s calculate the sum of forces—using this expression to designate
both the work all the actors do to sum up and the diversity of the ontological
models they use. Let’s add the thrusts of human labor, the fall of ballistic
missiles, the responsibility of promises, amorous seduction, the shame of
more killing, vanity, business—everything that makes Aramis impossible to
suspend. Yes, it’s definitely a strange monster, a strange physics. It’s the
Minotaur, plus the labyrinth, plus Ariadne and her thread, plus Daedalus,
who is condemned to die in it and who dreams of escaping. They’re really
fun, those people who write books in which they think they're castigating
technology with adjectives like smooth, cold, profitable, efficient, inhuman,
irreversible, autonomous! These insults are qualities with which the engi-
neers would be delighted indeed to endow their hybrid beings. They rarely
succeed in doing so.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gontran again, atter a long reflective pause:

"Matra's strategy? | think it was pretty simple.

p74 THE 1984 DECISION

 “Matra pulled off a tremendous coup with VAL, which really started to get
otf the ground in 1983, but they had some trouble selling it outside Lille; you
mustn't forget that it was implemented in the United States in 1984, 1985,
1986.”
“So Matra went through a dry spell that obliged them, out of concern for
survival, to look for some diversification, and Aramis was a way to make sure
Matra Transport would keep going. Without being threatened exactly, Matra’s
tuture wasn't a sure thing, at a time when Lagardére was having fo restructure
his activities...
“Matra really needed to relaunch Aramis in order to diversify, to maintain
its image of being in the technological forefront, and to get hold of public
tunding.
“Then | think there was a change of strategy at Matra, when they succeeded
in Toulouse in 1985, | think it was; atter that, the structure of Matra Transport
was stabilized and their R&D component became relatively less important.
“The headlong rush into technology that allowed them to survive on what
ever research funding they could get was no longer necessary fo their survival.
"They touched all the bases of a policy that was fairly interventionist at the
time, and they were aware of their superiority. And it's true that in terms of
technological competence, they had an advantage over traditional railroads.
“Matra, don't forget, was the only company in the field that was hiring. It
went from a small nucleus in R&D and technology fo a real enterprise that had
more normal and more traditional industrial characteristics.” [no. 42]

To survive in a variable-ontology world, the promoters of a techno-

logical project have to imagine little bridges that let them temporarily ensure
their stability.
Actors never swim twice in the same river. As they are defining one
another, as they are changing ontologies and offering each other their
theories of action, there’s no guarantee of their own continuity in time. To
say that the character of Hamlet in Act | is the same character we find in
Act V, or that the RATP of Chapter 1 is “the same” as the RATP of Chapter
5, or that the Matra company is the same in 1985 as in 1962, you have
to make an effort, impose interpretations, ensure continuity, recruit faithful

*In fact, VAL is being used only at Chicago’s O’Hare Airport and in Jacksonville.

THE 1984 DECISION / 178

 allies. Thus, not only is the actors’ size variable, not only are their goals
renegotiable, but their very isotopy is the product of work. For actors there’s
no such thing as the force of inertia, any more than there is for projects
themselves.
For M. Gontran, Matra was really transformed after 1985. The
company that loved Aramis was only a fragile being, the victim of a dry
spell, that was involved more in research than in commercialization and
that could survive only by a “headlong rush” into the frantic quest for
sources of public funding. It was this particular being that “needed” Aramis
so it could diversify, because Aramis was complicated and could therefore
attract money from the government, which was always ready to support
research. But the company, which finally succeeded in selling VAL outside
Lille, now has less need for public assistance, and thus no longer needs to
support complex projects; consequently, it falls back on VAL. Matra no
longer loves Aramis, but it’s no longer the same Matra. Not only has the
company itself changed, but its way of changing itself has changed. It had
been “rushing headlong” from project to project; now it’s “stabilized,” with
“normal and traditional characteristics.” Corporate bodies are no less
fragile than the characters in a novel. To guarantee them some continuity
from one end of a story to the other, you have to work like a dog, but the
scope of this work may diminish in the course of the narrative. The Matra
Transport company might have disappeared during its dry spell. Its disap-
pearance is a little less likely today. The company has finally given itself
the means to resist time. This is because its R&D component has become
“relatively less important,” while research is, as we know, the surest—
although the most enjoyable—way for a company to go bankrupt.

“This isn’t relativism any more,” I grumbled, “it’s mush. Okay, so

you have to take your informant’s frame of reference into account every
time—I can see that. It’s not simple; it messes up your notes. But finally
you can still follow them with a good coding system, something like
this: “I myself, on June 10, 1988, heard Gontran, a non-Communist
member of Fiterman’s cabinet, tell me that, prior to 1985, Matra had
been engaged in headlong rushes. ’

j176_ THE 1984 DECISION

 “Okay, next, the actors change size—fine. If you take the trouble
to figure out who’s talking, whether it’s the director, or his stockholders,
or some underling’s underling, or the janitor, you can still make it out.
“The actors’ goals change—tfine. All you have to do is connect
each definition of a target with the starting point, ¢,, and with the
destination, t,. It’s complicated, but it’s doable.
“If, in addition, it’s not the actors themselves who define who
they are or what they want but the other actors, and if you thus have
to follow Matra-in- 1982-for-the-RATP-in- 1984, which is of course not
the same thing as Matra-in-1985-for-the-RATP-in-1984, and of course
not at all the same thing as Matra-in-1985-for-Bus-Division-of-the-
RATP-in-1985, but not the same thing either as Matra-in-1985-for-the-
Budget-of-1988 . . ., then it’s already considerably less clear. We had
structure before; now we suddenly have nothing but lumps.
“But if, in addition, people start mutating as the story unfolds, if
there’s no longer anything but the proper name that allows us to spot
them, and if they go so far as to change the way they change—and all
this without counting the fact that they mix up their ‘ontologies,’ as
you put it, trusting to luck—in that case, there aren’t even any more
lumps; there’s just mush. I knew that sociology was a soft science, but
this is hypersoft, and don't try to claim that the reference mollusk is
hypersoft as well, because the physics of relativity, in the last analysis,
lands on its feet.”
“Yes, but you understand perfectly well that they can’t have any
strategy because they have no interests . . .”
“Obviously, no strategy is possible any longer in such a muddle.
You've completely dissolved the interests; there are neither strategists,
nor uniforms, nor Ordnance Survey maps, nor drums, nor bugles.”
“And that’s where we land on our feet, just as surely as Einstein.
That’s exactly why military types have learned to draw up strategies
and hierarchies, why they've invented uniforms and epaulets, why
they've created the maps, why Gribeauval perfected the general staff,
why military orchestras were signed up quite purposefully—precisely
so a strategy could become possible no matter what. You're always going

THE 1984 DECISION p77

 from one extreme to another. If you start from total confusion, then
you understand the work that’s required to clean it up.”
“And that’s how you hope to land on your feet?”
“Let’s say that I’m letting the actors take care of straightening out
the disorder they’ve created. You break it, you pay.”
“You sound just like my father. “You messed up your room; you
go clean it up!”

eee ee eee
[DOCUMENT]

Transportation Ministry, Bureau of Ground Transporta-

tion. Paris, March 23, 1984. Note addressed toM. Henri,
Transportation Ministry cabinet member. Subject: meeting
with M. Lagardere, CEO of Matra, Inc.
The attached note presents:
—the activities of Matra’s transportation division;
—the Matra group’s industrial strategy inthis area;
—potential directions for manufacturing;
—a report on the progress of the negotiations about the
development of the Aramis CET;
—initial information about the implementation of a VAL
system in Toulouse.
It appears that Matra:
—has an ambitious production policy that is not always
very well adaptedto the French and foreign markets;
—needs a short~- and middle-term work plan for the develop-
ment of its transportation division (hence its aggressive
commercial policy in Toulouse in particular) ;*
—may use its financial participation inthe Aramis CET as
a bargaining chip in return for government support fora
Matra project in Toulouse.

*A VAL system was under consideration in Toulouse at the time. It was

inaugurated in 1994.

178 THE 1984 DECISION

en
[DOCUMENT]

Ministry of the Economy, Finance, and the Budget: Budget

Division. Letter of April 27, 1984, addressed toM. Henri,
Transportation Ministry cabinet member:
Thus you would like the Ministry of the Economy to agree
to the request made by the Matra organization for support
for ANVAR. This would diminish Matra’s contribution to fi-
nancing the CET by 50 percent... Idonot deny the exist-
ence of such hopes [raised by Aramis]; they have been nour-
ished, moreover, by individuals who are technologically
competent in these areas.
On this basis, an intervention by the collectivity might
well have been considered legitimate.
It is nevertheless abasic principle that the manufac-
turer’s commitment to the operation remains clearly indica-
tive of his confidence in its success. That is the best guar-
antee that the State 1s not stepping in just when the company
itself has stopped believing in its project.
Under these conditions, the cost sharing for the CET that
was envisaged in the preparatory phases, which leaves one
quarter of the development expenses to fall to the manufac-
turer, although generous, could have been looked upon favor-
ably.
The request made to ANVAR, an organization financed by
public funds, completely disrupts that financing structure
by leaving Matra with only a small deductible—on the order
of 12 percent—instead of a financial participation that
would represent a real commitment. Thus, the request cannot
be accepted.

The actors themselves are working to solve the problem raised by the
relativist sociology in which they‘ve situated one another.
They have to ensure the stability of their interpretations by estab-
lishing catwalks that allow them to go from one reference frame to another
while modifying their own viewpoints as little as possible. The sociologist

THE 1984 DECISION L179

 isn't the only one who doesn’t know what Matra wants; this is also true of
the minister, the minister’s cabinet head, and even Lagardére himself,
Matra’s CEO. They, too, want to stabilize a certain interpretation of what
they are and what they want. And there they are, ordering notes and
questionnaires, which accumulate in a file that is soon complicated enough
to require new notes, syntheses, and summaries. What does Matra want,
in the end? What do we want, finally? The investigation carried out by the
external observer can be distinguished only by the time frame, the budget,
and the goal, from the innumerable investigations that punctuate the history
of the project. The final audit merely extends the ongoing audit. To make
tun of the files and the bureaucrats, to make fun of the two-page notes of
synthesis and the thousand-page appendixes, is to forget the work of
stabilization necessary to the interdefinition of the actors. It is to forget that
the actors, large or small, are as lost in the action as the investigator is.
The human sciences do not show up as the curtain falls, in order to interpret
the phenomenon. They constitute the phenomenon. And the most important
human sciences, always overlooked, include accounting, management,
economics, the “cameral sciences” (bureau-graphy), and statistics.
In order to keep their grasp on the branches, the actors install little
valorimeters in as many points as possible, fo ensure the translation of one
point of view into another. The responsible party in the Budget Oftice, for
his part, sets up a counter powerful enough to let him measure the test of
force; or else the private manufacturer takes an interest in the project and
pays for, let’s say, at least a quarter of Aramis; or else he asks to pay only
12 percent, and that proves that he’s no longer interested in the project.
The “deductible” is too low. As for the vice-director of the Bureau of Ground
Transportation, he provided himself with a battery of somewhat more
complex indicators to respond to his minister, who is going to meet the
CEO: by looking at Matra’s capital structure, by studying its indebtedness
and its failures relative to exports, he thinks he can deduce the negotiating
margin that may allow Fiterman and Lagardére to come to an agreement:
Toulouse for Aramis. After all, a Marxist minister can hardly be astonished
that the superstructure depends on the infrastructure of capital . . .
By multiplying the valorimeters that allow them to measure the tests
in store and to prove certain states of power relations, the actors manage
to achieve some notion of what they want. By doing their own economics,
their own sociology, their own statistics, they do the observer’s work and

180 THE 1984 DECISION

 I
construct the fluctuating object that the observer will have to investigate
later on. Bureaucrats are the Einsteins of society. They make incommensu-
rable frames of reference once again commensurable and translatable. The
protocol of agreement, red-penciled and ratified, starts moving again,
going from one reference body to another, tracing a path along the way,
a succession of fragile catwalks that make the agreement harder to break
each time, because it is now weighted down with the word of the State.
Officially, they’re all starting to come to agreement. The relativist crisis is
diminishing, the little seventeen-page memo is ready to be initialed. They
come to agreement—more or less tacitly—with a compromise: the hesita-
tions over Aramis have gone on long enough, we're going to do the CET,
we're not going fo spend more than 149 million francs, and we'll meet
again in twenty-seven months.

“But youre exaggerating a little, Norbert. Economics does exist

outside calculations, dossiers, economists, and statisticians. We're up to
our ears in it. It’s our world.”
“Yes, as context—-nothing more and nothing less. You have to
follow the economization of a project just as you do its contextualiza-
tion.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Bréhier and Marey, at the RATP. are again discussing the economic studies
they carried out.
M. Marey:
"We weren't worried about cars; we were worried about passenger flow.
We started with a complicated network, with forks, because without that it
wasn't worth doing Aramis, obviously.
“We started with around 10,000 passengers per hour during peak periods.
We got up to 600 pairs of cars, assuming that each train was made up of
tive or six pairs of cars. All this had retroactive implications, of course.
“The rolling stock generated trattic for us, which required us to have rolling
stock; then we went back to the technicians with our questions.

THE 1984 DECISION pts

 ‘Aramis has a lot of advantages because of the forks. Waiting time for a
passenger goes from three minutes, with a trolley, to forty seconds.
“The problem is that everybody's seated. With Aramis you can't say, ‘VVe'll
just cram folks in. So as soon as there's even just one more passenger, you
need another car.
“It isn't really an economic calculation we're making, because it’s a network
study. VVhat counts is the average travel time per passenger.
“In Paris, with the orange card, users pay a standard rate, in any case, so
the return on a new investment can't be calculated directly. On the other hand,
we know from experience that as soon as people are offered a new system
of public transportation, they give up private cars.
"So our profits come trom new passengers; those are the only ones we can
honestly count. . .
“Then there are three parts: one, the investments, the civil engineering—
that's what costs the most; two, the system, mobile and fixed; next, the tratfic—
that is, the new passengers and the new offer of comfort; and finally the
operation—that is, drivers and maintenance.
“What can be said, taking into account the narrowmindedness of the
Budget Office [Finance Ministry], is that all the economic studies showed that
Aramis was actually pretty well situated. It was completely conceivable, even
it the Budget Office was somewhat critical of the way things were calculated.
“But it was obvious that the operational costs of the rolling stock were awtully
heavy. Three billion francs in investments sounded reasonable enough, but the
hitch was the operating costs.
"Still, in the end, since the service was new, it was conceivable that the
quality would have attracted new people."
M. Bréhier:
"We started with a socioeconomic balance sheet by valorizing the passen-
ger, and then we looked to see whether it was tolerable from the standpoint
of the financial balance sheet.
“In any case, the Budget Oftice finds everything intolerable; as they see it,
no investment for a specific site is ever profitable. It's only it there’s a political
will behind a project that they decide it’s tolerable. VWWhereas we were pushing
tor the new service, the time gains, the increased comfort.” [no. 30]

jis THE 1984 DECISION

a
(DOCUMENT: LETTER DATED APRIL 27, 1984]

The Budget Office response:

As for the Aramis project as awhole, andits implementa-
tion along the former Petite Ceinture in Paris, first of
all, you know that the study conducted under your initiative
by the RATP—and with which my ministerial department had
very little to do—-concluded that profitability would be mar-
ginal. The picture improves only if the calculationis
broadened to take into account the time saved by passengers,
a qualitatively useful notion, but avery controversial one
when it comes to quantification in financial terms. And even
that “socioeconomic profitability” remains modest.

Economics is not the reality principle of technology; technology has

to be realized gradually, like the rest of the mechanism for which it paves
the way.
Every technical project has to define a type of economic calculus that
makes it more profitable. Economics is not a framework in which engineers
subsequently insert themselves, one that would serve as an overall con-
straint; it’s a simulation that mobilizes human-beings-on-paper by means of
calculations. Programming flows of instructions between the Aramis vehicle
and its colleagues is not so different from programming passenger flow;
the two tasks require the same computers and sometimes the same equa-
tions. The engineering system endows the rolling stock with properties: one
has to know where the cars are on the tracks. Similarly, the economist
endows his human-beings-on-paper with properties: they will give up their
cars only if they will actually save time by using Aramis. The flow of
simulated rolling stock is joined, on paper, by the flow of enthusiastic
passengers. So begins a calculated narrative that can hold its own against
the best detective stories.
How many mobile units should there be? 200, 400, 600? All the
know-how of the system’s dimension-determiners is in this joint scenario that
distributes roles to reasoning beings. Humans are flow; the transportation
system is a network; the computer has to maximize the load factor: not too
many empty cars, not too many waiting passengers, watch out for rush

THE 1984 DECISION | asa |

 hour. The human being in these scenarios is an interesting fictional charac-
ter, a rather new type, as idiosyncratic as Aramis’ intelligent vehicle. Or
rather the two together make up a new hybrid, “the potential Aramis
passenger,” which has surprising effects on the calculations. “Potential
Aramis passengers” can’t be crammed in, since they are all seated; they
have to know where they want to go, since every car goes its own way;
they have to give up their automobiles so the profitability calculus can
become visible.
The relation between the economic calculation in camera and that
in the greater Paris region is a relation to be established, to be performed,
to be maintained. It is no more a given than any of the other relations. The
profitability of the network and the efficiency of the rolling stock are twin
notions that are negotiated and gradually realized as functions of success
or failure. They follow; they do not lead. They are decided; they are not
what makes it possible to decide. The fact that the Budget Office gets mad
and challenges the mode of calculation does not intimidate our econo-
mists—the Budget Office would dearly love to be the reality principle for
all of France. And so we have a fine scientific controversy opening up
within economics to determine whether “socioeconomic profitability” is
acceptable or not. If politics imposes its will on the Budget Office, then the
Budget Office has to take into account the calculation of passenger time
and comfort, and Aramis becomes profitable once again. If politics hesi-
tates, then the Budget Office imposes its own method of calculation, and
Aramis goes back into the red. Aramis will survive only if it extends the
scope of its network to the point where it makes humans in Paris move and
modifies the usual calculation methods of the Budget Office.

“But the consumer demand? There must be a demand. In school

I did take courses in economics, after all, and there truly is such a thing
as demand. If Aramis doesn’t have any passengers, then the project is
done for.”
“Of course the demand exists—but like profitability, it was only
on paper. They tested it with a psychosociological study, on a model of
Aramis.”

pias THE 1984 DECISION

aan
(DOCUMENT: SOFRES COMMUNICATION, DECEMBER 1983]

Perception of the Aramis Systemby Its Potential Audi-

ence: A Psychosociological Study.
. . . The study shows that potential users have not yet
managed to position Aramis within the familiar universe of
collective transportation. In addition, there is consider-
able reluctance to use a system in which the emotional risks
and the physical disadvantages of forced proximity ina
small enclosed space are much more obvious than the func-
tional advantages of autonomy, flexibility, and speed.
Aramis indeed brings to the surface the most negative as-
pects of public transportation (the indiscriminate mixing
of people) without offering the refuge of anonymity in ex-
change...
The potential clientele is fairly opentothe ideaofa
completely automated transportation system. Inthe eyes of
the public, Aramis 1S not innovative inthis area; it merely
repeats a formula already tested by other modes of transpor-
tation, such as VAL.
1. The size of the cars is muchmore surprising, inthe
Aramis project, than its technological novelty.
What is novel about Aramis, inthe eyes of its potential
clientele, is the fact that the cars limit the number of pas-
sengers toten andthat all passengers must be seated.
Aramis comes to entail a notion of personalized comfort that
the public perceives as incompatible with the stereotype of
public transportation, which connotes crowds, cramming,
and discomfort.
2. The qualities for which Aramis is appreciated are the
very features that lead to doubts about the system’s effi-
ciency in the “normal” situation of public transportation.
. . . The proper functioning of Aramis, inthe public
mind, presupposes not only that people are relaxed, reason-
able, healthy, and disciplined, but that they agree to be
“distilled,” “stockpiled” inthe waiting mode, in order to
avoid any problems gaining access to the cars. In contrast,

THE 1984 DECISION 135

 the subway, by virtue of its accessibility, seems tobea
more reassuring system.
3. The various incidents represented and people’s ex-
pressed fear of being closed in reflect the difficulty of
adapting to this new mode of group travel.
.. . The small-group situation confers an exaggerated im-
portance on interpersonal relations: the situation resem-
bles that of a closed cell where the ten occupants of a vehi-
cle are condemned to associate with and put up with each
other ina restricted and confined space. As it is no longer
possible to isolate oneself or get lost inthe crowd, the
slightest posture or gesture could have an unfavorable (or
favorable) impact on the behavior of other passengers...
4, Endowing Aramis with its own special personality. Po-
tential passengers inevitably make comparisons with the
metro in order to assess the advantages and disadvantages of
Aramis. Inthe case of the metro, indeed, individuals facea
familiar universe whose rules they have definitively inte-
grated and whose advantages and disadvantages they have ac-
cepted, whereas inthe case of Aramis they face a system with
which they have no experience at all... Aramis has to be
perceived as the prelude to anew philosophy of transporta-
tion, addressed to responsible adults.
Thus, we have an inconsistent dual image, of which the two
parts refer to incompatible systems [p. 25]...
The metro ends up representing a higher psychological
comfort level: it can absorb passenger traffic more easily;
potential passengers can be certain of finding a place and
thus are apt to waste less time; it offers greater respect
for timetables; and, last but not least, it offers the bene-
fits of anonymity. [p. 31]
Suggested solutions:
Combat the sensation of being closed in; minimize the dis-
advantages of face-to-face contact; diminish the state of
tension among passengers resulting fromthe continual com-
ing and going; provide reassurance against the risk of vio-
lence.

rm THE 1984 DECISION

 The following is typical of the comments made by the pas-
sengers surveyed:
“This system,” someone said, “does not accommodate the
handicapped. No, it rejects them. There’s no access for the
handicapped, or for the blind, or for very tall people, or
for luggage. The constraints area little too constrain-
ing.” “Tf you only have young people, okay, it’1llwork. If
there are handicapped people with canes, then what hap-
pens?”* [p. 11]

Consumer demand and consumer interest are negotiable like every-

thing else, and shaping them constitutes an integral part of the project.
Aramis has been under discussion for ten years, and this is the first
time grass-roots customers have appeared. Petit and Bardet spoke of the
French who had to be saved from pollution and the automobile; Fiterman
was to speak of the “right to transportation”; the RATP’s dimension-deter-
miners spoke of passenger flow; the Matra engineers spoke of the passen-
ger—an ergonomic and more or less idiotic being who might well panic
all by himself in his car. But everyone was speaking precisely in the name
of passengers. From the very outset, in their view, the paper passenger is
enthusiastic, saved from private cars and public transportation. But will
flesh-and-blood passengers subscribe to Aramis’ version of them, and settle
nonchalantly into the comfortable spot that the experts have spent ten years
preparing for them? Do we have to wait, before raising the question, until
Aramis actually exists from head to toe? No; a minimum of retroaction is
required. The Aramis car has not yet been fully designed; it can be rein-
scribed so as to take into account the reactions of flesh-and-blood human
beings who do not belong to the research bureau. The RATP orders a survey
of the potential clientele. Of course, basic customers do not yet speak on
their own—they are mobilized, organized, translated by psychosociolo-
gists from the SOFRES polling firm who chose a representative sample of
men and women and got them to speak under controlled conditions.
They're still just sookespersons, but humans are finally speaking—the report

*Here we recognize the nightmare of the transit system’s creators: the little
old lady or the handicapped individual with a cane. See the interview with M. Petit
in Chapter 1.

| THE 1984 DECISION 187

 even includes direct quotes! A prototype sample gets into a mockup of
Aramis. A mockup public interprets the Aramis prototype.
As it happens, the representative and represented humans do not
subscribe to all that has been said about them for the last ten years. The
main advantage that the transportation experts are excited about—the
cross between private cars and public transportation—is profoundly shock-
ing to the man in the street. Customers constitute as disagreeable a bunch
of scoundrels as readers. You make a fine book for them, one that takes
them by the hand, and they call it incomprehensible; you make a lovely
Aramis for them, and they call it a gadget for healthy people or for a theme
park—and they claim that the metro is psychologically more reassuring!
It’s enough to make you tear your hair. You offer them the hybrid of dreams,
futuristic transportation, and they go off and reenact Sartre’s play No Exit!
Hell is other people seated comfortably in the Aramis car! And then they
reach the height of cruelty and ingratitude: here’s technological prowess
that has given engineers hundreds of sleepless nights for ten years, that
makes them quake with fright because it may not work, and the customers
take it for granted! Obviously it’s automated and there are nonmaterial
couplings. Big deal! They have so much confidence in the RATP’s techno-
logical proficiency that they don’t even notice Aramis’ new sophistication.

“Nobody is enthusiastic in this business, that’s for sure. Not the

supply or the demand, not the Communists or the right wing, not the
Ile-de-France Region or the City of Paris.”
“And yet they're signing on the dotted line.”

[DOCUMENT]

Protocol of agreement concerning the realization of the

Center for Technological Experimentation and the approval
of the Aramis transportation system.
Preamble:
The study of the Aramis transportation system by the Ma-
tra company has been receiving support for several years

Lise THE 1984 DECISION

from the Transportation Ministry, the Region, andthe RATP,
which is responsible for the program’ s delegated contract-
ing authority.
The development phases of this program have been prudent
and progressive.
Studies and construction of components and simulation
trials have been pursued vigorously and have made it possi-
ble to confirm the principal characteristics and perfor-
mance capacities of the system, along with their mode of re-
alization.
Continued development now implies that trials leading to
approval of the system should be carried out on site.
This is the object of the present protocol, which in-
volves the program of realization of the Center for Techno-
logical Experimentation (CET), qualifying trials that will
define production costs; the protocol also spells out the
modalities of the project’s financing.

... Article 5. Time frames and results: the time frames

indicated inmonths inthe present protocol have as their
starting point the month To of notification of the RATP-
Matra agreement.
The execution of the program must respect the following
deadlines:
Tag+27: first balance sheet covering functional and tech-
nical performances and commitment of the Matra engineering
division on system costs, accurate within 10 percent. This
commitment is to be understood with reference to public
agreements covering engineering and architecture.
Taking the first balance sheet into account, the parties
to this agreement will study the appropriateness of launch-
ing industrialization studies for the system so as to allow
Matra to commit itself as to the definitive costs.

Signed in Paris, July 16, 1984

Minister of Transportation [Tle-de-France Region
C. Fiterman M. Giraud

THE 1984 DECISION 188

 Régie Autonome des Transports
Parisiens S.A. Matra
C. Quin J.-L. Lagardére

“Amazing! Here it is before our very eyes: the solemn signature

of a compromise embodied in a contract. The project of a protocol for
the Aramis project was drawn up when the World’s Fair project was
going full-speed ahead. The target date, Ty) + 27, made it possible to
test the system in 1986, in time for the production stage and for the
opening of the 1989 World’s Fair. Well, look at this: it’s still there in
the version signed in June 1984, after the World’s Fair was abandoned—
in June 1983. But see how vague it is? “The parties will study the
appropriateness of launching studies.”
“How could Matra have accepted something so unattractive?”
“They tried to get more. I’ve gotten hold of drafts of much
tougher contracts. This is the first project I’ve worked on, by the way,
where I’ve gotten confidential documents in the mail . . . So Matra
proposed a version that tied in the construction of the CET with the
construction of the line. But the Budget Office was against it. Matra
didn't insist. After twenty-seven months, the State was supposed to
commit itself to financing the line.
“The twenty-seventh month remains in the protocol like a vestige
of the whole misunderstanding we’ve been studying for the last year.
Number one, it’s a vestige of the World’s Fair that Chirac didn’t want.
But look—it’s also a vestige of Matra’s strategy: Out of the question
to build the CET without a line as a reward, yet there's no longer any
question of making a firm commitment to Aramis. Number two, it’s a
vestige for the Region and for the public authorities, who tantalize the
industrialist with the possibility of a line, yet don’t commit themselves
either. Finally, it’s a vestige for the RATP and for the research services
that hope to have at least some transportation system endorsed by the
end of the twenty-seven months, but without any guarantee as to
whether it will be pure research or applied.
“It’s a textbook case. No one could decide whether to do Aramis

ee
190 _ THE 1984 DECISION
or to undo it, but everybody managed to decide to do the CET, ‘to see
what would come of it,’ and they agreed to meet two years later. To
be or not to be—that is the question that the famous clause of the
twenty-seventh month makes it possible to avoid answering before
twenty-seven months are up! Everybody agrees not to make any deci-
sions. Complete unanimity not to find out whether the set of things
being agreed on is an empty set or not!”
“And, of course,” I said indignantly, “you're going to stand around
with your arms crossed, counting the blows?! Suave mare magno .. .
and the whole nine yards. But don’t you see that they're all getting
carried away? That they’re just postponing the problems to the twenty-
seventh month as if they’d said a month of Sundays? “Give me a call
and we'll go out for a bite to eat,’ that’s what that means. Nothing is
more absurd than this protocol. It refers twice to production and the
commercial line after the CET, and it provides no way, none whatsoever,
to produce the line. ‘Maybe afterward, if we have the money, we'll look
into studying the possibility of beginning to examine whether or not
we might undertake studies in view of possible production. And Matra,
a private industrial firm, tight with its money, comes on board, aiming
at production by forced march, with no guarantees! And the Region,
which has to transport passengers, puts up the financing without a
squawk! And the Budget Office goes along! And the Transportation
Minister agrees! It’s completely irrational! If your sociology isn't capable
of passing judgment on this absurdity, of condemning it, then it’s your
sociology that has to be condemned, no matter how ‘refined’ it may
be.”
“We aren't here to judge the actors. The actors are always right,
whether they're multiplying viewpoints or cutting down on them. If
we use the adjectives ‘irrational’ and ‘absurd,’ it’s because we haven't
made our own frames of reference supple enough. We're spell-breakers,
not spell-casters. I’ve told you before—we do white magic, not black.”
“There’s a word for your type of abdication: it’s quietism! And
there’s a word for your sort of total empiricism—youre a positivist!
There’s even a word for the virtue involved here: it’s cowardice!”
Obviously, I had lost all sense of proportion. The good rapport

THE 1984 DECISION L184

 ee
between us had evaporated with Norbert’s stubborn insistence on
clinging to a relativist sociology that made him, as I saw it, relinquish
the prey for a shadow.

[DOCUMENT]

Speech by Charles Fiterman, Transportation Minister:

THUS THE CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTATION OF THE
ARAMIS SYSTEM IS ABOUT TO SEE THE LIGHT OF DAY.
THIS IS ALL THE MORE GRATIFYING IN THAT THE PROJECT, WHICH
TOOK ITS FIRST STEPS FOURTEEN YEARS AGO, GOT SOMEWHAT—LET US
SAY—SLOWED DOWN ALONG THE WAY, AND THAT IT WAS ADVISABLE TO
MAKE A DECISION WITHOUT FURTHER DELAY BY BRINGING TOGETHER
THE NECESSARY PARTNERS.
EVERYONE HERE KNOWS THAT I HAVE WORKED STEADILY TOWARD
THIS GOAL FOR THREE YEARS. AND THAT IS WHY, BEFORE ANYTHING
ELSE, ON BEHALF OF THE ADMINISTRATION, I WOULD LIKE TO THANK
EVERYONE WHO HAS CONTRIBUTED TO PREPARING THE WAY FOR THE
STAGE THAT WE ARE ABOUT TO REACH TODAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THIS SYSTEM AND ITS FULL-SCALE TRIAL. FIRST, THE MATRA COM-
PANY, WHICH TOOK THE INITIATIVE FOR THIS PROJECT AND UNDER-
TOOK THE FIRST TECHNOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS IN THE EARLY
1970S, AND WHICH TODAY PUTS ITS IMPRESSIVE TECHNOLOGICAL
COMPETENCE INTO THE “HOPPER” OF THIS PROTOCOL, ALONG WITH A
FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION; NEXT, THE RATP, WHICH HAD THE CON-
TRACTING AUTHORITY IN THE NAME OF THE STATE, STARTING ABOUT
1974, FOR A PROGRAM OF EXPERIMENTATION AND REFINEMENT OF THE
ARAMIS SYSTEM; ESPECIALLY IN RECENT YEARS, THE RATP HAS
SHOWN A VIGOROUS DETERMINATION TO MOVE THE PROGRAM AHEAD,
BRINGING A FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION ALONG WITH ITS OWN EXPER-
TISE.
AND FINALLY, THE ILE-DE-FRANCE REGION AND ITS PRESIDENT,
M. GIRAUD, SINCE THE ARAMIS SYSTEM’ S CENTER FOR EXPERIMENTA-
TION IS TO BE LOCATED IN THE ILE-DE-FRANCE, SOUTH OF PARIS,
BETWEEN BALARD PLACE AND THE BOULEVARD VICTOR, AND SINCE THE
REGION WAS WILLING TO AGREE TO INCLUDE THE CONSTRUCTION OF
THIS CENTER IN THE CONTRACT OF THE PLAN WORKED OUT BETWEEN

jie THE 1984 DECISION

THE STATE AND THE REGION, AND TO MAKE ITS OWN SUBSTANTIAL FI-
NANCIAL CONTRIBUTION.
THE FACT THAT SUCH DIVERSE PARTNERS, REPRESENTED HERE TO-
DAY, HAVE COME TOGETHER TO SIGN THIS PROTOCOL ATTESTS, I BE-
LIEVE, TO ITS IMPORTANCE AND TO ITS INTEREST.
FOR MY PART, I WOULD SIMPLY LIKE TO POINT OUT BRIEFLY THE
REASONS THAT HAVE LED THE GOVERNMENT, TO THE EXTENT THAT IT
IS INVOLVED, TO LEND ITS FULL SUPPORT TO THIS PROGRAM...
THE FIRST OF THESE REASONS HAS TO DO WITH OUR POLICIES ON UR-
BAN TRANSPORTATION . . . WE WANT TO SEE PROGRESS IN WHAT WE
HAVE CALLED THE RIGHT TO TRANSPORTATION [underlined by the
minister]J—THAT IS, THE POSSIBILITY FOR EVERYONE TO HAVE AC-
CESS TO A PUBLIC-TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM AT REASONABLE COST
TO THE INDIVIDUAL AS WELL AS TO THE LARGER COMMUNITY... IF
WE TAKE INTO ACCOUNT BOTH THE BUDGET AND THE FUNDS EARMARKED
FOR MAJOR PROJECTS, THESE LAST FEW YEARS HAVE BEEN MARKED
OVERALL BY AN INCREASE OF MORE THAN 70 PERCENT IN PUBLIC
FUNDS DEVOTED TQ URBAN TRANSPORTATION...
THE ARAMIS SYSTEM IN FACT OFFERS NEW POSSIBILITIES FOR
TRAVELING ON DEMAND THROUGHOUT A NETWORK, WITHOUT CHANGING
TRAINS, SO IT BRINGS IMPORTANT ASSETS TO PUBLIC TRANSPORTA-
TION AS COMPARED TO PRIVATE CARS FOR URBAN TRANSIT.
LET ME ADD THAT THE ARAMIS SYSTEM, ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF
AUTOMATION, RELIES ON STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGIES WHICH
ARE THEMSELVES OF GREAT INTEREST AND WHOSE DEVELOPMENT FITS
PERFECTLY INTO THE RESEARCH-AND-DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM WE
HAVE SET UP WITH THE MINISTER OF RESEARCH AND INDUSTRY...
WORKING THIS WAY TO EXTEND THE GAMUT OF OUR TRANSPORTA-—
TION SYSTEMS IS ALSO A WAY OF INCREASING EXPORT OPPORTUNI-
TIES FOR OUR INDUSTRIES .. . TO THIS END, OUR TRANSPORTATION
ENTERPRISES MUST HAVE ACCESS TO A SOLID INTERNAL MARKET, AND
AT THE SAME TIME WE MUST MAINTAIN A CONTINUING EFFORT IN RE-
SEARCH, INNOVATION, AND DIVERSIFICATION THAT WILL ALLOW US
TO KEEP OUR PLACE IN THE FOREFRONT.
HERE ARE SEVERAL GOOD REASONS, THEN, TO SUPPORT THE
ARAMIS PROJECT. ALL WE HAVE TO DO NOW IS HOPE THAT THE EXPERI-
MENT WILL BE FULLY CONCLUSIVE. THERE ARE GOOD REASONS TO
THINK IT WILL BE, FOR THOSE OF US FAMILIAR WITH THE HIGH QUAL-—

THE 1984 DECISION 138

 ITY OF THE INDIVIDUALS AND COMPANIES THAT ARE “HATCHING”
THIS PROJECT. IT IS TRUE, OF COURSE, THAT EVERY HUMAN EN-
DEAVOR INCLUDES AN ELEMENT OF RISK. WE ARE FULLY AWARE OF
THIS RISK, AND WE ACCEPT IT, KNOWING THAT TO RISK NOTHING IS
TO GAIN NOTHING-SO LONG AS WE PROCEED IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE
RISK IS CAREFULLY CALCULATED AND ACCOMPANIED BY ATTENTIVE
EFFORT.
SO GO TO IT-YOU HAVE MY VERY BEST WISHES FOR YOUR SUCCESS!

“It’s written in capital letters so he can read it out loud. It still

doesn't count as enthusiasm,” Norbert continued without giving an
inch. It ‘got somewhat—let us say—slowed down along the way’; it
‘attests, I believe, to its importance’; “there are good reasons to think so’;
‘to risk nothing is to gain nothing, so long as the risk is calculated.” He
can tell that there are glitches somewhere. But what’s most poignant is
the fact that, four days later, the Communist ministers left the admini-
stration.* Fiterman, proud of his balance sheet, is leaving us. Bye bye,
Fiterman. Aramis has to go on without him.”
“And then without Matra, and without the RATP, and without
the Region, and without the City of Paris, and without the Budget
Office.”
“Nothing gets done with the Budget Office; everyone agrees on
that. If there were nobody but the Budget people, we'd still be traveling
by ox-cart.”

The interpretations offered by the relativist actors are performatives.

They prove themselves by transforming the world in conformity with
their perspective on the world. By stabilizing their interpretation, the actors

* After supporting the Mitterand administration for three years, the Communist
Party decided to break its alliance with the Socialists, whom the Communists accused
of not living up to their revolutionary ideals . . . Following party instructions, the
four Communist ministers resigned, albeit somewhat reluctantly, so as not to com-
promise the party in a “culture of government.”

as THE 1984 DECISION

 end up creating a world-for-others that strongly resembles an absolute world
with fixed reference points. When the office of the radical Paris mayor
decided, around 1880, to construct the Paris metro at last, it was producing
a highly unfavorable interpretation of the great railroad companies:
“They're wild capitalists, human beasts; it’s out of the question to turn them
loose in Paris and allow them to interconnect their stations.” But the inter-
pretation of elected officials is a fickle thing. What one election does,
another can undo. How can the major companies be forever discouraged
from invading Paris? Bingo: by writing the unfavorable interpretation into
law; by signing a protocol. But a protocol can be denounced. A nonag-
gression pact can turn back into a scrap of paper. Elected officials then
find a much better solution: they cast their unfavorable interpretation in
bronze, iron, cement, steel. How to do things with words? By turning them
into performatives. So they dig the tunnels of their new metro, giving them
dimensions such that the smallest of the capitalist wagons will be unable
to penetrate them,* even if by chance the radical mayoralty should lose
future elections. The big bad wolf can blow down the first little pig’s house
of straw, and by blowing a little harder he can knock down the second
little pig’s house of wood, but he'll blow in vain on the third little pig’s
house of brick. No matter how relativist the engineers in the pay of the big
companies may be, they find themselves facing thousands of tons of stone
which impose on them a “relatively absolute” interpretation. The best proof
of this bizarre mix of relativism and absolutism is provided some seventy
years later when the nationalized SNCF and the national RATP with which
it is fraternally united want to interconnect at last. Having become a nice
little pig, the SNCF had a lot of trouble getting rid of the thousands of tons
of stone piled up by the third little pig between itself and its ancestor, the
big bad wolf.t What required just a few strokes of the pen in 1890
required ten years of work starting in 1970. The radicals’ unfavorable

*On this episode, see Maurice Daumas, ed., Analyse historique de l’évolution des
transports en commun dans Ia région parisienne, 1855—1930 (Paris: Editions du CNRS,
1977). They had even thought of changing the width of the tracks, a still more radical
proposal to which the military authorities in charge of national defense objected in
the name of the country’s higher interest: munitions cars had to be able to pass from
one network to the other.
+The traces of this relativism can still be seen in every labor strike at the Gare
du Nord, and they can still be heard every time the subway trains pass from the SNCF
version of electric power to the RATP version.

| | THE 1984 DECISION 195

 opinion of the capitalists had “performed” reality in a more durable matter
than the flighty history of France required.
In July 1984 the minister has not yet reached the stone house, but
he thinks he’s gotten past the paper one. The “good reasons” to support
Aramis strike him as solid. And they must be solid indeed, since they have
scarcely changed since Bardet’s and Petit’s time. Even if the Communist
minister raises the level of debate still higher, right up to the “right to
transportation,” a new human right, it’s still a question of competing with
private cars thanks to “on-demand service” and the absence of “trans-
fers”—whereas the line projected for the Petite Ceinture has been trans-
formed into an omnibus with three or four forks! It’s still a question of
developing research at a propitious moment—even though the goal of the
CET is an industrial goal of qualification and homologation presupposing
that the research as such has already been completed. Finally, it’s a
question of helping companies to export by offering them an internal
market—even though no commitment at all has been made regarding the
industrial orders that will follow the CET. Each of these good reasons to
sign on to Aramis at last, three and a half years after the project was started
up once again, cuts through doubts that appear in the solemn discourse,
even if the powers that be “are fully aware” of those doubts and “accept”
them. From relative absolutism to absolute relativism, there is no more than
a nuance, a partition of paper, wood, or stone. Let’s hurry to inscribe in
the nature of things the interpretation we have produced of the nature of
things. Time is short. Especially if the Communists are in a shaky position
and are going to withdraw a few days later into the refuge of their
working-class fortress. Let’s sign fast, or all is lost. Let’s at least get ourselves
the shelter of a sheet of paper. It’s better than nothing. A few days more,

nnn nee
and it really would have been all over for Aramis.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Gontran, technical adviser to the cabinet, is once again explaining how

people at the ministry felt when the agreement was signed:
“Nobody took responsibility for stopping . . .
“The problem, in France, is that the operating agencies combine the com-
mercial function with the R&D function. They're both judge and interested party,
and they lack the means for radical criticism of a project.”

pies THE 1984 DECISION

 “But at the time of the final decision in 1984, what was the motivation
exactly?"
“Two things got mixed up together. | think there was a contusion of plans.
“There were never any major concerns about making a Javel-Bercy connec-
tion—that is, a mini-VAL. People told themselves, ‘There’s a guard-rail’; it was
reassuring. ‘VVe're innovating with an innovative gimmick that hasn't been
proven, but if something goes wrong we can always land on our feet with a
mini-VAL.’

"This brings us back to Matra's industrial logic, which could always make
the most of an inferior version . . .
“Matra wanted a mini-VAL line after the CET, which was also the goal of
the Transportation Ministry, but because of their priorities they never managed
to make the project concrete.
“In relation to a rational process of more or less logical sequential develop-
ment, the various stages kept getting mixed up. They moved faster to stop the
operation than to start it; a lot faster, for no reason.” [no. 42]

“He’s the one who’s talking about irrational processes and illogical
behavior,” I said furiously, “not me. He’s the one who’s accusing the
operating agency of being both judge and interested party, and that’s a
serious charge. Everybody who signs the protocol to build Aramis hopes
to do something other than Aramis. That’s really not normal, is it? They
spend 150 million francs in order to wait, simply because no one has
the guts to say they shouldn’t spend the money! The whole thing is
cobbled together in defiance of common sense. Why should we be the
only ones who don't have the right to pass judgment?”
“Go on, pass judgment if you feel like it,” Norbert replied. “Go
right ahead, lay the blame! Pick out a head to roll for the vengeful
populace. Denounce the profiteers, the ignoramuses, the incompe-
tents.”
“I’m not necessarily looking for a guilty party,” I said more
prudently, incapable as I was of selecting a head to chop off right in
the middle of the bicentennial of the French Revolution.
“So what are you looking for? Are you going to accuse the social
system? Capitalism? Napoleonic France? Sinful man, while you’re at it?

THE 1984 DECISION L187

 An accusation that’s so watered down it blames the whole wide world
is even more futile than one that picks a scapegoat.”
“But youre still not going to claim, are you,” I went on in a more
conciliatory tone, “that the protocol signed is the best possible com-
promise? Next to you, Pangloss would come off as a pessimist. In any
case, didn't you commit yourself to finding a guilty party, a cause for
the death of Aramis?”
“If Aramis is dead, which remains to be proved; if it ever lived,
which also remains to be proved; and if it was viable, which has not
yet been demonstrated . . . We don’t have a cause. On the other hand,
we have circumstances by the bucketload. Installation in Paris; choice
of the Petite Ceinture; support from the RATP; abandonment by Matra,
which had other things on its plate after 1985; separation of the mobile
unit, which was being perfected, from the system, which was being
deferred...”
“But those aren’t explanations. They could all turn out in Aramis’
favor.”
“Precisely. They're symmetrical. Failure and success are explained
in the same terms. Every one of Aramis’ peculiarities would have
disappeared if the system were working today. They strike you as
scandalous and irrational only because the system fell on its face. If you
were looking at VAL or the Airbus, you’d have exactly the same
shambles.” *
As I felt myself seething with rage once again in the face of these
“scientific” explanations capable of explaining away both hot and cold
simultaneously, and because | didn’t want to cause the tension to rise
any higher, I dropped the subject.
“You're indignant,” continued Norbert, with a coolness that struck
me as feigned, “because you want to blame someone; you blame me
for indifference because I blame no one. But no rule has been violated
in this Aramis story. No one has behaved badly. No one would have
known how to behave better. You wouldn’t have known how to do any

*See the documents about VAL’s political and administrative history collected
in Arthur Notebart, Le Livre blanc du métro (Lille: Communauté Urbaine de Lille,
1983).

piss THE 1984 DECISION

better. Everything happens in defiance of common sense, but there is
no common sense for innovations, since they happen, they begin, they
invent common sense, the right direction, the correct procedure.”
“Still, a mistake must have been made, either in 1987, in stopping,
or in 1984, in starting up.”

There are two major sociologies: one is classical, the other relativist
(or rather, relationist).
Only the second allows us to follow the realization or the derealiza-
tion of technological projects. Classical sociology knows more than the
“actors”; it sees right through them to the social structure or the destiny of
which they are the patients. It can judge their behavior because it has fixed
reference frames with respect to which the patients behave in a pathologi-
cal fashion. It has its ether. There are norms, and thus there are deviations
with respect to the norm; there are reasons, and thus there is irrationality;
there is logic, thus there is illogicality; there is common sense, and thus
perverted senses; there are norms, and thus there are abnormality and
anomie. Classical sociology can comment on what the patients say because
it possesses metalanguage, while they have only language. “Forgive them,
Father, for they know not what they do.” For classical sociology, the actors
are informants. Classical sociology explains what has happened, blames,
denounces, rectifies. It offers lessons. Its judgments are above the fray; they
are scientific; an abyss separates them from the interested interpretation of
the patients obliged to perform the reality that the sociologists analyze.
Classical sociology knows what constitutes society, knows the rules and
laws of the social context within which the patients cannot help but be
inserted. For classical sociology, there are classes, socioprofessional cate-
gories, fields, roles, cultures, structures, interests, consensuses, and goals.
Classical sociology is at home in social physics, and it chooses an ontology
that allows it to define once and for all the nature of the power relations
and interests pursued by the strategy of social groups. Finally, aware of the
countless contradictions entailed by its own existence situated at once
above the fray and in the middle of it, at once inside society and outside
it, classical sociology multiplies its methodological precautions, its herme-
neutic circles, its retroactions, its marks of modesty. Classical sociology is

THE 1984 DECISION [190

 epistemological; it talks and talks and goes on talking. Obliged to reassure
itself continually as to its own scientiticity, it can be recognized by its jargon.
For classical sociology, the world is an asylum of fools and traitors, of
pretenders, guilty consciences, and half-educated types. In this asylum, the
sociologist is the director, the only one who has the right to go outside.
You can study anything with classical sociology—anything except the
sciences and the technologies, anything except projects. They go too fast.
They become too soft or too hard. For sociology, they are like an extended
Michelson-Morley experiment. It is impossible to detect the ether in relation
to which they displace themselves. To study them, you have to move from
classical sociology to relativist sociology, and see in the former only a
particular case, an approximation, a valuable one to be sure, but only
when nothing more is moving, when projects have become objects, insti-
tutions. Relativist sociology has no fixed reference frames, and conse-
quently no metalanguage. It expects the actors to understand what they are
and what it is. It does not know what society is composed of, and that is
why it goes off to learn from others, from those who are constructing society.
It adds its own interpretations to those of the actors whose fate it shares,
often less felicitously than they. It seeks, too, to perform reality in order to
keep its own version of the facts stabilized a little longer, and it confronts,
fraternally, the contrary opinion of those it is studying. It has no strings to
its bow but theirs, and it does not allow itself to throw “science” onto the
scale in order to unbalance the equality between itself and its brothers with
whom it is conversing. Without any knowledge other than what it gets from
them, it is free at least from the crushing responsibility of being more
scientific than the actors. No guilty conscience, no epistemology encumber
it, and thus no jargon. For relativist sociology, indeed, everything is grace.

They’re all gathered around the hors d’oeuvres. I’m becoming irre-
sistible, they say. I move on; they move on to the act. They sign the
acts. The die is cast. The checks are signed. The word is given. For
fifteen years they’ve been meeting about me, for fifteen years they’ve
been speaking about me in a vacuum. Have they finally decided to
make me? Now they’re reassuring each other about my feasibility.
They’re all afraid, I sense that, but seeing themselves all together
around me makes them feel braver. I am lying in the middle of the large
circle they are making around me, these ministers, cabinet heads, mu-

200 THE 1984 DECISION

nicipal officials, public employees, and engineers large and small. At
the center of this big circle, I am the deep well into which they are
tossing their wishes, their hopes, and their curses. Blessed, cursed.
Loved, hated. Indifferent, passionate. Plural, singular, masculine, femi-
nine, neutral. I am waiting for them all to grant me being. What is a
self? The intersection of all the sets of acts carried out in its name. But
is that intersection full or empty? I exist if they agree, I die if they
quarrel. But if they agree on a misunderstanding, how could I manage
to exist? How can I keep the Communists in the government? How
can I keep the drivers’ unions under control? How can I diminish the
threat of wholesale automation in Paris while being the first wholly
automated metro in Paris? How can I hold onto the region and its
enormous, irritable, impatient crowds who have to be transported
throughout the southern suburbs of Paris and who see me merely as a
metro like any other? How can I hold on to Matra, who loves only my
older brother, VAL, and who loves me only as another VAL? How, in
spite of everything, can I hold on to the tuned-in engineers of the world
of transportation who love me because I’m crazy, bold, and beautiful,
but only on the condition that I transport no one, and especially on the
condition that I do not resemble VAL, which is already passé, old hat.
Some love me assembled and rigid like a metro; others love me scat-
tered, dispersed, experimental like a research project. How can I keep
about me, in agreement about me, those who think that I am an
infeasible system, that I am stillborn, that I am an idea from the past,
an idea from the Sixties, that I am, consubstantially, a failure, but that
from my erratic behavior one may draw interesting results, perhaps at
least a variable-reluctance motor, guidance software? ... As if I were
a motor, a casing, a program! A heap of separate parts! As if I could
exist without being assembled. I’m quite willing to satisfy any one of
them; Id like to satisfy them all. But they'll have to come to agreement
about me. How can I become a being, an object, a thing—finally a self,
yes, a full set, saturated with being—without them, without their agree-
ment, without their coming to terms (since I myself am made from
them, flesh of their flesh, a rib extracted from theirs), without their
acknowledgment that I am transports, displacements of human beings?
How can I interest them all in me when they all love me differently? I
can give them only what they have given me. I can hold them assembled
together only if they keep me assembled. The “I” that humans receive
at birth—that is precisely what has to be created for me. I am in a
prebirth state. I do not yet have a body. The dismemberment humans
encounter in the tomb is my condition even before the cradle. Reverse

THE 1984 DECISION pat

 conception, which exists in fact only in Erewhon. The breath of life to
which I aspire in order to make of my scattered members and my
whitened bones a being that is not of reason—my soul—awaits your
agreement, O you hors-d’oeuvres-eaters, who all agree today to defer
my genesis until later. Indifferent to what you love. Rubicon-crossers
who set up camp in the middle of the ford. Human beings contemptu-
ous of things and thus contemptuous of yourselves.

/aex_ THE 1984 DECISION

 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE: eae
WILL IT KEEP ITS PROMISES? —_

“I don't get it, Norbert, I don’t see what you're doing,” I con-
fessed, feeling both angry and disappointed. “We know that the key to
the puzzle lies in the phase between 1981 and 1984. We're finding
splendid guilty parties: the three-and-a-half-year delay, the fact that the
project was maintained unchanged even though the World’s Fair had
been abandoned, the complete ambiguity of the decisions, the screening
role played by the technocrats, the postponement of all the problems
to the CET stage, the signing of the protocol by a government minister
who stepped down three days later, and—-poof—you wave your wand
and pronounce everyone innocent; you decree that there’s no basis for
bringing suit; you send off all the accused parties with kind words, you
tell them they're great; you claim they wouldn't have done anything
differently if the project had been, in the last analysis, a complete
success.”
(Silence on the part of my beloved professor.)
“In my opinion, youre simply too chicken to blame people who
have ways to get even. If you want to know what I think, your
‘hyperrefined sociology’ is a pretty flimsy affair.”
“Except, in spite of everything, it isn’t a political project,” Nor-
bert replied, more uncomfortable than I expected. “It’s a technological
project. And after all, it’s a fact that we haven’t yet seen any crucial
defects on the side of the people involved, or in the way things were
organized, in the decisionmaking process—in the social arena, as you’d
 put it. If Aramis existed, you wouldn't find anything to criticize. There
still isn’t any proof, at this point, that the thing couldn’t work. I have
no choice but to find the people innocent. I have absolutely no evidence
to the contrary.”
“But what’s left for us to look at, then? The guilty party isn’t at
the end, it isn’t at the beginning, it isn’t at Orly, it isn’t before 1981,
it isn't after 1981. Where is it? Or isn’t there a guilty party at all?”
“Well, yes, there has to be; a mistake was made, since Aramis
doesn’t exist today, yet it did start up again in 1984. There was at least
one decision too many; youre right about that. Either the decision to
terminate it in 1987, or else the decision to start it up again in 1984.”
“So what’s left for us to look for? That’s what I’m asking you.”
“There’s Phase 3B, there’s the CET, there’s the technology; and
since the technology really takes off during this phase, we have to go
that route. Follow the actors: that is the Law and the Prophets.”
“But you've been holding technology blameless trom the begin-
ning, a priori; you've been saying that we have to assume it was feasible
and well conceived! That I don’t have the right to say that this bloody
mess was defective from birth, deformed, monstrous—that it’s the very
prototype of a false innovation. You’ve made me read page after page
on the subject.”
“No, that was about technology that was separated, nonhuman,
inert, autonomous. I’m not budging an inch on that. You can't blame
technology. But there must be something else in the technological
aspects. It’s like in The Mystery of the Yellow Room. If the guilty party can’t
be found anywhere else, it has to be there.”
“But where is “there’?”
“You're driving me crazy . . . | don’t know yet. I’m looking. If I
knew, I wouldn’t go to the trouble of doing all these interviews. We
have to go into the technical details, that’s all I know; they’re responsible
for holding this whole shambles together. We've got a good grasp of
the politics of the interphase, but a whole lot of technological work
was going on for a while there. They spent six or seven months
reconstituting their teams, and then let them go again soon afterward.
We'd better back up a little.”

20s ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 Te
“It’s the ‘stop-and-go’ disease, Norbert—that much we know.”
“Yes, but they're reformulating the project, so we're going to find
out whether the technology is capable of coping with the politics. The
Aramis we knew prior to 1981 has to be redesigned to cope with the
World’s Fair.”
“But I’ve studied the technological documentation, as I was told,
and I’ve summarized the interviews you sent me to. The engineers were
very pleased with that phase; everything went very well. So the problem
isn't there. The hidden staircase, as you put it, can't be in this phase.”
“Tt has to be, or else everything happens in the CET stage.”

[SUMMARY OF A GROUP INTERVIEW]

On the boulevard Victor, in the now-abandoned offices that had belonged

to the RATP team, the engineers in charge of the project summarize the
development of Phase 3B.
“Matra had to work out quite a few new things during that phase. If Aramis
can only take curves greater than ten meters, then it's hard to fit it in between
the World's Fair pavilions or in lightly populated urban areas—or heavily
populated ones. If Aramis is hard to implement, then the flexibility argument
disappears.
“Since highly tlexible implementation is the main argument in Aramis’ favor
in the eyes of the municipal authorities, especially because of Montpellier, it’s
essential to keep the curve radius as tight as possible. So Matra has to come
up with a curve radius of ten meters.
“During this period, the old Orly site was reopened. They constructed a
curve with a ten-meter radius to see if the vehicle could take it without slipping
and without pulling the contact shoes away from the power source. At the price
of shifting the location of the shoes and widening the guide-rails from 1,400
to 1,440 millimeters, Aramis became capable of taking curves with a ten-meter
radius.
“The other major problem was that of availability. If Aramis cars are to be
in circulation, they have to be able to run ten hours a day without breaking
down. Now the only way to achieve greater availability is to double or triple
the rolling stock. But each vehicle has only ten seats. So any improvement in
reliability will be paid for by only ten passengers.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 2081

 “So we had to increase the absolute reliability of the equipment. Now this
is only marginally possible—everything always breaks down, even when
military technology is used, even in aeronautics, where Matra was on pretty
familiar ground. So in every car all the equipment had to be duplicated. But
that was impossible because of the cost.
“So the size of the cars had to be increased; that way the costs of automation
would be divided up among more than fen people. However, you can’t
lengthen the vehicle or widen it without losing the ten-meter curve radius that
we'd just taken so much trouble to get.
"So Matra had to find a solution that would keep the radius and improve
availability without increasing costs. They came up with paired cars, two
vehicles physically attached together—a solution imported from VAL. Each pair
of cars now holds ten passengers and the probability that the identical equip-
ment on the two singletons will break down decreases. At the price of a
physical connection between pairs of cars, the reliability, the price, and the
tlexibility are maintained.” [no. 7; see Photos 11-13]

Mechanisms cope with the contradictions of humans.

Pairs of cars transcribe, or take upon themselves, or accept, or
transfer, or take the place of, the technological impasse (chips are fallible,
alas), the economic limitations (the vehicles must not cost as much as
satellites}, the contradictions of the system (the mobile units cannot simulta-
neously grow longer and turn readily). The connecting bar that attaches
the singletons two by two shoulders the responsibility of simultaneously
holding together the mobile units and the contradictions of the engineers’
erratic demands, exactly the way the nonmaterial couplings that still con-
nect the pairs of cars shoulder the responsibility of resolving the contradic-
tory dreams of those same engineers—behaving as if they were automo-
biles, churning up a massive flow of cars guided like trains. But since the
two dreams coexist, the result is material coupling between cars in each
pair, and computerized coupling between pairs!
Although charged by humanists with the sin of being “simply”
efficient, “purely” functional, “strictly” material, “totally” devoid of goals,
mechanisms nevertheless absorb our compromises, our desires, our spirit,
and our morality—and silence them. They are the scapegoats of a new

| 208 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 religion of Silence, as complex and pious as our religion of Soeech. What
exegesis will have to be invented to provide commentary on the Silence of
machines? What secular history will ever be able to narrate the transcrip-
tion of words into the silence of automatons?
Beyond our infinite respect for the deciphering of Scripture, we need
to have infinite respect for the deciphering of inscriptions. To propose the
description of a technological mechanism is to extract from it precisely the
script that the engineers had transcribed in the mechanisms and the automa-
tisms of humans or nonhumans.®* It is to retrace the path of incarnation in
the other direction. It is to rewrite in words and arguments what has
become, what might have become, thanks to the intermediary of mecha-
nisms, a mute function. The physical link between cars, the calculated link
between pairs of cars, and the little shock absorbers that authorize shocks:
here is the morality of things.

“Hmm,” I said skeptically, “we're doing theology now, are we?

Considering where we've got to, actually, we may as well start lighting
candles; we're just drifting. Anyway, from day one you've been explain-
ing that we have to hold onto the humans and the nonhumans. I don’t
see what’s new in Phase 3B.”
“But it’s the Achilles’ heel of the whole Aramis project! We hadn't
yet grappled with the technology. It was still only a project, and projects
are words, plans, signs, that sort of thing, whereas now were going
right to the object, and were still dealing with the social arena, the
social bond, attachments and values, but now they've been altered,
transformed. The question now is to find out what quantity of the social
element Aramis can absorb, transform, displace, by getting more com-
plicated, by folding itself up tighter. If it can hold its whole contradic-
tory environment together, then it will exist.”

*Madeleine Akrich, “The De-Scription of Technical Objects,” in Wiebe Bijker

and John Law, eds., Shaping Technology / Building Society: Studies in Sociological Change
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 205-224.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE a7

 a
[SUMMARY OF A GROUP INTERVIEW]

The same speakers:

“It the Aramis cars feel each other out by way of ultrasound detectors, they
run the risk of bumping into each other or staying too far apart, because
ultrasound echoes are scattered in tunnels and on curves. We'd have to
separate the trains and slow down the cars when they merge and demerge.
But that would disrupt the rhythm and reduce the speed, and Aramis’ advan-
tages, its train configuration, would disappear. So Matra has to find something
else to maintain the performance levels.
"All guided-transportation systems, trains and metros, are based on the
principle of fixed sectors. The track is divided up into sections and no vehicle
is authorized fo enter one section before the vehicle ahead of it has left—that
is, before the red light of each section has turned green. Trains and subways
are equipped with a simple injunction: never cross a sector's red light, whether
the light is interoreted by a human being or by the motor directly.
“But it the train is going ten kilometers an hour, it can brake faster than when
it's doing sixty, so it can follow the train ahead more closely without increasing
the danger. However, the sector doesn’t authorize this, because it remains
unaware of this margin for negotiation. It maintains a constant distance be-
tween trains, no matter what their speed.
"It’s like a cop who takes away all the flexibility from trains and subways
in exchange for a considerable margin of security.* A procedure like this isn’t
appropriate for Aramis, since the car has to be able to connect up with the
cars that precede it and form a train with nonmaterial couplings. So it has to
penetrate the sector ahead by feeling its way. But if it’s authorized to go into
the satety sector, then its means of recognition have to be absolutely tailsate.
Otherwise, if it's too forceful, it'll crash into the other cars, or, if it’s too timid,
it'll stay so far away that it'll slow down the tlow of the vehicles behind.
“Matra comes up with a radical solution, one already considered for VAL
but then abandoned because of its complexity. It involves doing without the
sacrosanct fixed sectors, in exchange for increased intelligence on the part of
the cars. The Aramis vehicle is endowed with the means to negotiate its own
speed and sate distance on its own, no longer by means of fixed sectors

*Even SACEM—a model for assisted driving, recently installed on Line A of

the RER, which makes it possible to bring trains closer together than the human
drivers present in the cabin would dare to do—reduces the intervals only by dividing
up the fixed sectors into smaller units. It does not do away with fixed sectors.

[208 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

installed on the ground, but by means of reference points inscribed on the track
that allow it to calculate its own speed and that of the cars ahead and to
decide, in view of its own program of action, whether it will authorize itsel'—or |
torbid itselt—to move closer to a colleague. This is the adjustable mobile sector
(CMD}, Aramis’ major innovation: it transfers the notion of sector from the
ground to the mobile unit and makes it flexible instead of rigid. As each vehicle
moves forward it projects its own danger zones, both ahead and behind—for-
bidden zones whose dimensions vary according to the speed of the vehicle
and the speed of the adjacent cars.
“But then how can safety be maintained? When the cars are far enough
apart, the CMD is enough to discipline them. When they approach zones otf
convergence or divergence, the CMD will be supplemented by a way of
teeling blindly ahead; ultrasound detection will be abandoned as too unreli-
able, and will be replaced by a system of detection by means of hypertrequen-
cies, which are much less sensitive to interference from tunnels or time. Ultra-
sound echoes will be used only for short distances, tens of centimeters, when
the cars are moving together in a train.” [no. 7]

A technical project always gets more complicated because the engi-

neers want to reinscribe in it what threatens to interrupt its course.
The scriptor, or the engineer who had delegated the driver's job to
a closet in VAL, was nevertheless as mistrusttul of the closet as of the driver;
both are fallible. That is why he had maintained the principle of fixed
sectors on the track. The program of action—"“Keep your distance, don’t
run into each other,” which the people responsible for automobiles have
so much trouble inscribing in the conditioned reflexes of drivers—was
transcribed by the scriptor into a different one: “Don’t enter sector n before
sector N +1 is free.” And this program was itself retranslated for human
drivers into yet another one: “If relay switch in up position, then power
supply to motor on; if relay switch in down position, then power supply
off.” And this one was also transcribed into another, an electrical diagram
or software program.
But the cascade of such translations, while maintaining safety, aban-
dons flexibility, and thus ceases to authorize Aramis. Either the principle of
the flexibly configured train has to be scrapped, or else flexibility has to
be reinscribed, but with no loss of security. Here in a nutshell is all the

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 208

 engineering, all the ingenuity, all the ingeniousness of engineers, those
unsung writers. For they never consider people or things; they consider only
competences that can be reshuffled more or less freely. The capability of
maintaining order, for example, was once transferred by the inventors of
railroads to the ground, which had been marked off at regular intervals
into fixed sectors. Why not redistribute this capability? Let’s leave to the
ground, to the track, the task of simply noting where we are. Let's displace
onto the mobile unit the task of negotiating braking distance. Let’s thus
reincorporate into the confines of the vehicle a part of its environment. Let’s
thereby offer the system a blend of flexibility and safety that is unknown to
automobile drivers and that no labor union would agree to give to the
agents of the RATP, since the briefest moment of inattention would lead to
catastrophe.
The CMD is the most beautiful invention in the world. It reinscribes
in the car what until now has formed the environment of the mobile unit
circulating in fixed sectors. Aramis is growing more complicated, the script
is folded and refolded; but the characterization is deepening, the character
is taking on depth, subtlety, and body, since it is becoming both flexible
and sure of itself! Technology is sociology extended by other means.

“But you've been saying that all along.”

“T hadn’t understood myself. By other means: there’s the heart of
the matter—by other means. You have to respect otherness, the others,
and mediation, the means. Here’s the key to the enigma. The CMD
isn’t social, it isn’t political; it’s calculations. But it isn’t technological,
either. It isn’t an object. This Phase 3B is important. It’s the first time
they've redone Aramis, quickly, from top to bottom, instead of simply
implementing it and improving it bit by bit. So it was doable! Aramis
could exist. All it had to do was absorb all the rest of the contradictions.
All it had to do was remain an agency of translation, of reinscription,
a whirlwind, a soul.”
My mentor’s behavior worried me a little. He insisted on our
doing “lab work” on the most ordinary machines. “We have to find the
mistake,” he would mutter. “A crime has been committed against
Aramis, and we now know where to locate it: in the reinscription, the

fray Aes at te cer stage

folding.” Carried away with this logic, he routinely thanked the auto-
matic ticket machines at highway toll booths. He queried automatic
tellers at banks about communication problems. He had long conver-
sations with electric staplers. He noted the degree of politeness, lazi-
ness, violence, or nastiness of all the automatic door openers he came
across, going so far as to tip them, which usually left them quite
indifferent. He couldn't buckle up a seat belt without looking into its
stiffness, flexibility, or looseness, undoing the springs in order to see
where that morality of webbing and clasps could be coming from. One
day he undertook a complete interview with a “sleeping policeman,”
a speed bump, on the pretext that this peace officer was more faithful,
more serious, more intrinsically moral than his own nephew, though
the latter was a precinct captain. Brushing my worries aside, he claimed
that his own director used to converse frequently with coquilles Saint-
Jacques in the Saint-Brieuc bay. “So you see?”* He demanded that I
respect my alarm clock on the pretext that the moral contract I had
signed with myself—and that I tried to forget as soon as I sank into
my dreams——was faithfully preserved by the mechanism and punctually
recalled in the form of the alarm bell. He wanted me to get my electric
food processor to admit what it took me for—an idiot, I discovered,
in dismantling the thing, since it was impossible to make the blade go
round without having carefully closed the cover; this alone, through the
intermediary of three little sensors, authorized the motor to start. At
the hotel where we stayed in Lille, he even went so far as to get the
porter to acknowledge the moral of the French hotel-key story. Why
are those keys so heavy? Because they remind clients that they have to
comply with the program known as “Bring your keys back to the desk,
please,” a program that tourists, as careless as they are undisciplined,
keep on forgetting, according to the bellhop, but that they are reminded
of by the weight of the key in a pocket. He wanted the bellhop to share
his admiration for this moral law finally ballasted with lead. I was
mortified.

*M. Callon, “Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of

the Scallops and the Fishermen of St. Brieux Bay,” in J. Law, ed., Power, Action and
Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Methuen, 1986), pp. 196-229.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pau

 “We've found the hidden staircase,” sighed Norbert without no-
ticing my embarrassment. “This is how the guilty party got in. It has

EEE
to be this way. Either Aramis transforms itself to hold on to its
environment, and it gains in existence, or else its environment gets
away from it, it no longer copes, no longer reabsorbs what’s out there,
and it loses in existence.”

[SUMMARY OF A GROUP INTERVIEW]

The same speakers:

"So we've maintained a curve radius of less than ten meters, we've shifted
trom single cars to pairs, we've invented the CMD: to all this, Phase 3B adds
several other transformations involving noise pollution and the air gap of the
variable-reluctance motor that had to be fiddled with a bit.
“But the most important choice for the fate of Aramis is the shift fo micro-
processors in response fo the need for increased intelligence in the mobile unit.
The entire set of calculations can no longer be hardwired, as was traditionally
the case in rail systems; there are too many of them. It would take kilometers
of wire, and it would take forever to check all the connections. The engineers
have to resign themselves to programming—sottwiring—the set of functions,
and to achieving safety by veritying previously encoded calculations. Rather
than being intrinsic, security now becomes probabilistic. It is less certain, since
the programming language is what now ensures protection rather than the relay
or transistor board circuits.”

Every technology may be a project, an object, or an exchanger.

We have been mistaken. Up to now, we have believed in the exist-
ence of objects. But there are no objects, except when things go wrong
and they die or rust. Holding on to the adjustable mobile sector is feasible
provided that one doesn’t try to maintain safety conditions. However, it is
impossible not to maintain safety conditions, since the entire legal system
of the world of transportation depends on it. Should the CMD be aban-
doned? Should safety be abandoned? No, let’s burden the new microproc-
essors with the weight of our dilemma. Let’s entrust our calculations to them!
Let’s reinscribe in them the entire set of action programs that we can no

jaa ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 longer take care of by legal, social, or traditional means. The microproc-
essors become the center of the new Aramis, the principal object of the
future Center for Technological Experimentation. They hold everything. Five
years ago they didn’t exist; now they are making Aramis possible at last.
Where is this being, the microprocessor, to be situated? On the side
of human beings? No, since humans have delegated, transcribed, in-
scribed their qualities into nonhumans. On the side of nonhumans, then?
Not there either. If the object were lying among nonhumans alone, it would
immediately become a bag of parts, a heap of pins, a pile of silicon, an
old-fashioned object. Thus, the object, the real thing, the thing that acts,
exists only provided that it holds humans and nonhumans together, continu-
ously. Slightly out of phase, it resides neither in the social element (it is
made up of chips and hinges, shock absorbers and pairs of subway cars)
nor in technologies (it is made up of passions, transported people, money,
Communist ministers, and software). On the one hand, it can be said to
hold people together, but on the other hand it is people who hold it together.
Give me the state of things, and I'll tell you what people can do—this
is how technologism talks. Give me the state of human beings, and 1’ll tell
you how they will form things—this is the watchword of sociology. But both
of these maxims are inapplicable! For the thing we are looking for is not
a human thing, nor is it an inhuman thing. It offers, rather, a continuous
passage, a commerce, an interchange, between what humans inscribe in
it and what it prescribes to humans. It translates the one into the other. This
thing is the nonhuman version of people, it is the human version of things,
twice displaced. What should it be called? Neither object nor subject. An
instituted object, quasi-object, quasi-subject, a thing that possesses body
and soul indissolubly. The soul of machines constitutes the social element.
The body of the social element is constituted by machines. *
A soul? A body? Naked men? Isolated automatisms? Improbable. Of
course, there are versions and interpretations—social, sociologizing, sub-
jective, spiritual—of the objects so instituted; people are said to exist and
to live in society and to speak. Of course, there are technological, tech-
nicist, objectivizing, material interpretations of these same objects: they are
said to consist of raw, inanimate material and to dominate, or to be

*Bruno Latour, “Ethnography of a ‘High-Tech’ Case: About Aramis,” in

P. Lemonnier, ed., Technological Choices: Transformation in Material Cultures since the
Neolithic (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 372-398.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pasa

 a
dominated by, people. But there is never any question of the quasi-object,
which bears so little resemblance to people and so little to machines. We
have been mistaken. What we had called the “technological object” is
what lies on the garbage heap, in the scrap pile, abandoned by people
and by other projects.
The only object we have met in this story is the Aramis car in Matra’s
foyer, unless we count the CET site, which has become a haven for graffiti
artists and the homeless [see Photo 2 and Photo 20].

(DOCUMENT: REPORT ON THE END OF PHASE 3B, AUGUST 2, 1983]

Conclusion: the work undertaken in phase 3B indicates

that the critical problems have been satisfactorily re-
solved and that full construction of the center for techno-
logical experimentation can be undertaken.

“One more phase declared innocent!” I exclaimed. “You see? It’s

gone as smoothly as clockwork. All we have left is the CET, Phase 4;
that’s our last hope.”
“If they've managed to maintain the object in this state of trouble,
of turbulence, negotiation, exchange, reinscription, in the CET phase,
then theyre bound to succeed; they're going to turn Aramis into an
animate body. Aramis is going to live for real,” Norbert cried out, quite
forgetting the sad end to this story, although he had known it all along.
“So we tackle the last phase?”
“Yes, of course! Let’s head for the boulevard Victor.”
“I’m finally going to see something solid instead of reading docu-
ments and technical notes. I’m finally going to do my job as an
engineer.”
“You'd better count on being disappointed. There are still a lot of
documents to examine at the CET” [see Photos 9 to 18].
“But the CET is much more complex than anything we've studied
up to now. How are we going to find our way around?”

pata ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 a
“The actors have the same problem we do,” Norbert replied,
unruffled. “They, too, have to find their way around. So they must have
invented a solution. If it were really complex, they’d flounder.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

A Matra technician in charge of planning:

“The classitication plan that makes it possible to code each document is
itself a twenty-eightpage document, and since its importance for management
is enormous, every new updating is initialed by everybody responsible for the
project."
“It’s a reflexive document.“
“Reflexive, | don't know; in any case it provides a cell in its grid—code
number 184,100—designed to guarantee the numbering and the manage
ment of the documentation. From the CET (no. 100,000}, a continuous path
lets us go forward or backward—tor example, to the platinum plating (no.
124,112) of the ultrasound sensors (no. 124,000) on the automated devices
(no. 120,000}. You see, with this numbering system, we don't get lost; it’s
manageable, its workable, and it actually has worked very well” [see Figure 9].

It is in the detours that we recognize a technological act; this has

been true since the dawn of time.
And it is in the number of detours that we recognize a project's
degree of complexity. A monkey wants to get a banana that is hanging
trom a branch. The monkey is readily identified as a creature of desire. If
he stops staring at the fruit and explores all the sticks lying around his cage,
he’s called a first-order technician, since he has suspended the first program
in order to use a second one. If no stick is long enough, but if he takes the
time to attach two pieces of wood together, transforming a short stick into
a long one, he is said to be a second-order technician, because the detour
itself has been suspended by a third. If the chimp were as well organized
as Matra, he would code his flow chart as in Figure 10.
Technologists seemingly follow infinitely more complicated programs
than those tested in cages, laboratories, or classes by their psychologist or
primatologist colleagues. However, these programs cannot be much more

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE Lats

 110,000

.a
., | |PCC supervision | Station Onboard
120,000 121,000 122,000 123,000 124,000

network
124,100

124,200

100,000 124,300
Integration
ECA

of workshop
material
|

integration 7]
124,10

of trials 124,110 Ultrasound receptors DCD

Group
project 124,111 Emitter—receptor
124,112 Platinum plating
Product

Figure 9.

complicated, otherwise the ones technologists study would become hope-

lessly embroiled, just as technologists themselves would. Once the ultra-
sound sensor has been set up according to instruction 124,110, what
comes next? It is impossible for humans as well as for monkeys, for engi-
neers as well as for ordinary mortals, to answer that question without other
technologies for management, visualization, coding, and recording that
make it possible to pass the rest of the task on to one’s neighbor. No labor
without division of labor, and no division of labor without management and
coding, without files and flow charts. Our bureaucracy—so widely
scorned—is our second brain, as indispensable as the first. The engineer

pais ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 100 Get the banana Main program
| 110. Find a stick Subprogram 1
= 111. Make a stick Subprogram 2
Figure 10.

in charge of task 124,110 has just a few subprograms to run through

before she reaches her goal. Aramis, for her, consists in a circumscribed
task whose ins and outs disappear above and below. It turns out to be
ensconced inside a black box, but a black box with plugs, since the next
one “up”—124,100—can take the sensor as a whole, and install it in the
antenna—and the next one “down”—121,111—can also take the sensor
as a whole, as a landscape, as a horizon, within which it installs its own
box.
The circumscribing, the coding, and the visualization of the division
of tasks allows a piling-up of Russian dolls that increases the complication
of the whole, yet the technological object, in the eyes of a given observer,
never increases in complication. Wherever the observer is located, she will
never see anything more challenging than that flow chart whose content
will sometimes be Aramis as a whole—no. 100,000—and sometimes the
platinum plating on the casing of the ultrasound sensor—no. 124,112. The
entire technological wizardry lies in the impenetrable partitions and in the
pegs that make it possible to hook one’s task to a neighbor's. The paradox
of a technological object with millions of instructions is that it is, from the
standpoint of the division of labor, a fractal object that is equally simple at
every point, and that the whole looks nevertheless like a Leviathan that
infinitely surpasses human measure.

I was only half reassured by the arguments Norbert was dredging

up out of administrative sociology, for if we are to believe our inform-
ants, the whole CET had drifted a good bit.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE p27

 a
[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Fréque, project head, is speaking at Matra headquarters:

“The problem with Aramis is that the railway system is sate, but heavy and
hard for Aramis’ light cars to use. We really needed something like automo-
biles, but automobiles aren't reliable stock; they're nothing like railroads in that
respect—nothing like VAL, even—and VAL still used a lot of elements from the
standard subway. Obviously aeronautics and space materials are reliable and
lightweight, but they're extremely expensive!
"So you see the problem? Ve had to invent everything.
"Everything had to be done, or done over. Since everything had to be
redone—making automobile equipment reliable, lowering the cost of the Mi-
rage Ill pumps [you see how tar we went®), lightening the components of the
subway—we were in a state of complete uncertainty, at the beginning, as to
costs.
“The components didn’t exist, and that made it very hard fo price them.
Builders laughed in our faces when we went to ask them for estimates on the
price of new materials, in small quantities, to be delivered, possibly, in 1992-
93!" [no. 6]
M. Lattitte, RATP engineer in charge of automation, standing in front of the
Aramis prototype that was hung in the maintenance workshop after the project
was halted:
‘Aramis was a hybrid. That's what Fréque always said: ‘Take automobile
quality material and make it as solid as railway and as sophisticated as
aviation.’
“Besides, you have to reckon with technological development that is difter-
ential, uneven.
“The motor worked out pretty well. The mechanical side went all right; so
did the hydraulic side. Electricity—there we know our way around. But elec-
tronics, especially microprocessors—that was another story . . .
“It was going off in all directions. We really had the impression that they
weren't in control of their programmers. Each one had his own budget, went
as far as he could; but there was a whole team of young guys, very smart but
not very disciplined, most of them working as subcontractors. The sense of
teamwork was lost.
“The alarm bells kept going off, butlet's put it this way—they sounded off
internally.”

-21e ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 M. Parlat:
“They said to our faces, ‘Stop screwing around.”
M. Laftitte:
“Stop ringing the bells, you mean."
M. Parlat:
"Right! [Laughter] That's it, stop ringing the bells!" [no. 3]

The work of folding in technological mechanisms can go from com-

plication to complexity.
This is because technological detours go from zero to infinity accord-
ing to whether the translation goes through intermediaries or through
mediators. The VAL user takes VAL without even thinking about it. As soon
as he has incorporated this slight detour into his accounting and his habits,
he is almost incapable of recalling whether or not he has “taken” the metro
or not—a few minuscule details, a few trivial incidents, a face, a poster
will perhaps allow him to tell the difference. “Taking VAL” is a subprogram
that has become nothing but an intermediary between an actor and his
goal. It is, literally, a means. From the observer’s viewpoint, it will scarcely
be possible to detect any break in continuity between the detour and the
return to the main task. The part—the subprogram—is inferior to the
whole. *
Aramis’ project head hasn’t reached this point yet. Fortunately, some
of the intermediaries occupy the precise place expected of them in the
planning, without interfering with neighboring tasks or slowing them down.
For complication is just the opposite of complexity: a complicated task is
one made up of many steps, each one of which is simple; a complex task,
as the name indicates, is one that simultaneously embraces a large number
of variables, none of which can be identified separately. A computer—at
least when it is working—is complicated, but it is never complex.t An
ordinary conversation is often complex, but it may well not be complicated.
In Paris, the subtask “Make concrete and deliver it to the boulevard Victor
on time to pour the slab for the building” shouldn’t pose any particular

*See Bruno Latour, “On Technical Mediation,” Common Knowledge 3, no. 2 (Fall
1994): 29-64.
"Tracy Kidder, The Soul of a New Machine (London: Allen Lane, 1981).

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pate

 problem. This task, for the project head, is what taking VAL is, for the
average user. Entire lines of the flow chart consist of such intermediaries—
piled up, folded in, folded over, implicating each other, black boxes
stacked up one upon another. The building lines (no. 150,000) or the
electricity network (130,000), or even the track (140,000) offer no sur-
prises. No imps are about to pop out of these black boxes. Or at least it
is easy to make them go back in. Even if calamities threaten to emerge,
Pandora’s box can be closed up again quickly: the concrete arrives on
time, the track is ready at the right time, and the electricity lights up at the
expected frequency—there is nothing mysterious in this fidelity to allies, for
they have been disciplined, shaped, over a century or two; they have
become reliable technologies, disciplined resources.
But unfortunately for the project head, Aramis requires allies that are
not so disciplined—chips that skitter about in corners, programmers who
are as immature as their technologies. We move, then, from the lovely flow
chart to the schema of translation, from black boxes to gray boxes, from
division of labor to undivided chaos. The main program is interrupted. And
as the worst can always be counted on, the whole stack of subprograms
can revolt one after the other. Instead of finally bringing Aramis into
existence, on the boulevard Victor, the project's participants found them-
selves in the research situation they thought they had left behind.
Pandora’s box cracks open and calamities emerge one after another.
ls program B a means? or C? or D? Nobody knows. Does program B—or
C or D—count at all, or has it become a definitive obstacle? Nobody
knows. Each one has become a mediator that now has to be reckoned
with, for it transforms the goals and redefines the hierarchy between main
and subordinate, goal and means. What was complicated has become
complex. Between 0 and 1, the observer must become as patient as Cantor
and count numbers to infinity. The part has become superior to the whole.
Every engineer grappling with new projects has experienced this math-
ematico-ontological drama, and many, like Cantor, have been scarred
by it.

Stabilized state Instability

Complicated Complex
Intermediaries Mediators

220 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 a
Fabrication Research
Means Ends or means
Counts as 0 or 1 Counts as 0 or infinity
Part inferior to the whole Part equal to, inferior to, or superior to

Flow chart Labyrinth

the whole

We were now advancing with infinite care, for without warning

any subprogram of the CET might become a trap door into a dungeon
where no one would ever find us. While the engineers were plunging
into the mud of the 1984-1987 construction site, we ourselves were
plunging deeper and deeper, throughout 1988, looking for the subpro-
gram where Aramis had been lost. I did not yet know that my mentor
was going to get lost along the way before I did.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

“There are a lot of people crammed in here,” said M. Laffitte, unfolding the
program of the Aramis sysiem compulers.
‘And those six computers were just the ones each car carried on board. Just
look at the book of functional descriptions: 167 pages!
“This volume is the part that's easiest to digest. It's the best synthesis; it’s
what makes it possible to draw up the specifications. It's obviously very
complex.
‘As for us, we didn't have an overall view of the thing. We were only
contractors. Normally we're the contracting authority and we know what's
going on in detail, but in this case, with Aramis, we didn't.
“Knowledge was somewhat opaque.
“Even Matra didn’t have a very clear picture. Matra subcontracted a lot of
work to software outtits.
“In the end, | think everybody was treading water. Besides, software is
abstract; nobody knows how to debug it very well. Wires, cables, relays,
intrinsic security—all that, we're familiar with. VVe've been perfecting proce-
dures for checking circuits for a hundred years; it’s a matter of materials. But
software? It's not concrete. We were all pretty much groping in the dark.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pant

 “What | think is that the Matra engineers were treading water so they
wouldn't go under." [no. 16]

Thanks to computers, we now know that there are only differences

of degree between matter and texts.
We knew perfectly well that a black box is never really obscure but
that it is always covered over with signs. We knew that the engineers had
to organize their tasks and learn to manage the division of their labor by
means of millions of dossiers, contracts, and plans, so that things wouldn’t
all be done in a slapdash manner. Nothing has a bigger appetite for paper
than a technology of steel and motor oil. We were well aware that they
had to draw, calculate, anticipate the shape of each piece on plans and
blueprints; we knew that every machine is first of all a text, a drawing, a
calculation, and an argument. No machine without a design department;
no huge machine without a huge design department.* We were well aware
that mechanisms are saturated with instructions for using them, with tech-
nical notices and maintenance diagrams that make it possible to read them
like a book. Every machine is scarified, as it were, by a library of traces
and schemas. We were well aware that thousands of sightings, “looks,”
sensors, feelers, signals, alarm bells make it possible to transcribe by sight
on a control panel what the mechanism seals up. No machine without its
control panel.
But we still thought, in spite of everything, that the agents mobilized
by machines eluded forms and programs. We thought there was a frontier
beyond which one really moved into matter, that inert and cold stuff,
functional and soulless, which earned the admiration of materialists and
the scorn of the humanists. But no, calculators continue to accumulate layers
of forms and diagrams, adding them to other forms and other masks, half
spirit and half matter, half imprint and half text, without our ever crossing
the famous barrier between sign and thing, between spirit and matter.
Thanks to microprocessors, we know that “processes” proliferate constantly
at all levels, from the infinitely large—organizations—to the infinitely
small—electrons. In fact, ever since a literary happy few started talking

*See P. J. Booker, A History of Engineering Drawing (London: Northgate, 1979),

and the fascinating testimonies offered in E. Robbins, ed., Why Architects Draw (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994).

-2a2 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 about “textual machines” in connection with novels, it has been perfectly
natural for machines to become texts written by novelists who are as brilliant
as they are anonymous. Programs are written, chips are engraved like
etchings or photographed like plans. Yet they do what they say? Yes, of
course, for all of them—texts and things—act. They are programs of action
whose scriptor may delegate their realization to electrons, or signs, or
habits, or neurons. But then is there no longer any difference between
humans and nonhumans? No, but there is no difference between the spirit
of machines and their matter, either; they are souls through and through,
and the gain makes up for the loss. The disorder that is wiped away on
one side by describing the tasks meticulously in neat logical trees turns up
again on the other side, among the programmers, who are having as much
fun as a barrel of monkeys, shooting themselves in the foot, dividing up
tasks according to procedures that can’t be described, for their part, in
neat logical trees.

If we were going to have to add the proliferation of chips and

computer program lines to the multiplication of flow charts and the
shambles of the muddy construction site on the boulevard Victor, I
really could no longer see how we were going to get rid of all these
hordes so as to do their sociology and pronounce anything like a clear
judgment on that chaos.
“That’s precisely the problem, the key to the puzzle. Were they
able to keep body and soul together? That’s really the issue. If so, Aramis

OO ee
lives. But if body and soul, the social and the technological, are
separated, then it will die,” said Norbert. I was not reassured.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Alexandre, head project engineer under Fréque, is speaking at Matra

headquarters:
“When we started up the CET, everything was new. As far as all the
standard areas went, such as the tracks or the rolling stock, we stuck to the
contractual timetable quite closely; we weren't off by more than a few weeks
or months.

sais atte cer since RE

 ‘As for the automation, | agree with Laffitte: we got a little behind, and we
noticed it right away.
‘As early as the second meeting with the RATP, we had lost ground. We
underestimated the complexity of the automation involved.
“Besides, it was ditticult to tind teams at To; we had trouble sticking to the
plan.
“The shitt to digital technology made things more complicated. With VAL,
too, there was some ot that, but less. VAL has intrinsic security: all breakdowns
are analyzed, and as soon as there's a breakdown, VAL defaults into security
mode. With VAL, there’s a speed program inscribed on the track. VAL reads it,
but doesn't know what it’s reading.
“With Aramis it was much more complex.
“With the CMD, the functional needs are different. The cars are localized
on the track. They've committed to memory the invariants of the line* and at
the end of the line they get assignments, or else by way of the UGT, the
trattic-control unit, they're fold, ‘You're the head of the train,’ so they take all
that info account, they know it, and they make a decision; plus they may also
incorporate satety constraints.
“On Aramis, there are permissive and nonpermissive zones. If the passenger
panics in a permissive zone, the train stops and the door is released. In a
nonpermissive zone, a tunnel for example, the train first goes back to a station.
"This is ditterent trom VAL, because the Aramis car can be precisely located,
whereas with VAL, we simply know that it’s in such-and-such a sector, but where
exactly we can't say.
“That's what's so clever about the CMD. The vehicle calculates the position
of the one ahead: it calculates its own anticollision distance. If it hasn’t been
told to join up with a train, it stops.
“It it has been told to join up with a train, it has the right to approach and
to bump lightly into the car ahead—that's what the famous shock absorbers
are for. It's a physical constraint—it’s not a right the car gets. There's no way,
with the refresh time allowed, to get a linkup without a bump, but it’s a very
small jolt at three meters per second.
"The shock absorber was invented because they couldn't get total anticol
lision. It's inevitable; you can't even demonstrate with calculations that it could
be avoided! And anyway, the passenger can put up with it; the only alternative

*For example: “A curve, slow down to 20 kilometers per hour; a straight line,
accelerate to 30; a merge zone, watch out.”

pana ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 is to slow down the linkups, or to spread them over hundreds of meters. In short,
we were obliged fo come to terms with these little bumps [see Photo 19].
"So, in fact, we had to hire young engineers and call on software compa-
nies. We didn’t have the manpower in house fo do SACEM and Aramis both.
“SACEM is another story. Okay, the principle is simple. You've got a
tunctional string coded in sixteen bits without security coding, plus another string
in which the information is coded. There's no redundancy; we don’t double up
on computers, we just redo all the calculations in parallel, and if the two
calculations don't agree, the security system requires the functional system to
shut down. The security system has priority.* This is the house option; it’s open
to discussion. In our view, relying on three computers and a majority vote
doesn't provide any more security than coding. But that's a problem ot religion;
I'm not competent to judge. If they’d told me to make it redundant, | would
have opened my umbrella and said, ‘Why not?” [no. 25]

Technological mechanisms are not anthropomorphs any more than

humans are technomorphs.
Humans and nonhumans take on form by redistributing the compe-
tences and performances of the multitude of actors that they hold on to and
that hold on to them. The form of Aramis’ shock absorbers is a compromise
between what Aramis can know—the speed and position of mobile units—
and what humans can stand without discomfort—shocks of less than three
meters per second. Let us note that here humans are being treated as
objects that do or do not resist shocks, while nonhumans are granted
knowledge, rights, a vote, and even refreshments. The shock absorber
absorbs a certain definition of what can be done by the humans and
nonhumans that it bumps and that it is charged to link gently together.
Anthropomorphism purports to establish a list of the capabilities that
detine humans and that it can then project through metaphors onto other
beings—whales, gorillas, robots, a Macintosh, an Aramis, chips, or bugs.
The word anthropomorphism always implies that such a projection remains

*The functional system sends orders for movement. The security system checks
to see if these orders are correct by comparing them to the orders it has in its memory.
This amounts to doing the calculations twice—the first time openly, the second time
in coded form——-and comparing the results. If there is the slightest difference between
the two strings of calculations, the functional order is not carried out.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE a8

 inappropriate, as if it were clear to everyone that the actants on which
feelings are projected were actually acting in terms of different compe-
tences. If we say that whales are “touching,” that a gorilla is “macho,” that
robots are “intelligent,” that Macintosh computers are “user friendly,” that
Aramis has “the right” to bump, that chips have “a majority vote,” and that
bugs are “bastards,” we are still supposing that “in reality,” of course, all
this fauna remains brute and completely devoid of human feelings. Now
how could one describe what they truly are, independently of any “projec-
, tion”? By using another list taken from a different repertory that is projected
surreptitiously onto the actants. For example, technomorphisms: the whale
is an “automaton,” a simple “animal-machine”; the robot, too, is merely a
simple machine. Man himself, after all, far from having feelings to project,
is only a biochemical automaton.
We give the impression, then, not that there are two lists, one of
human capabilities and one of mechanical capabilities, but that legitimate
reductionism has taken the place of inappropriate anthropomorphism. Un-
derneath projections of feelings, in this view, there is matter. Some even
go so far as to claim that projections should be forbidden, and that only
designations should be allowed. No more metaphors. Figurative meanings
go into the wastebasket; let’s keep only proper meanings.
But what can be said of the following projection: “The chips are
bugged”? Here is a zoomorphism—bugs—projected onto a technology. *
Or this one: “The gorilla is obeying a simple stimulus-response”? Here a
technobiomorphism—the creation of neurologists—is reprojected onto an
animal. Or this one: “Chips are only electron trajectories”? Here we have
a phusimorphism projected onto a technology. But what can we say about
the following sentence: “Aramis can bump if it wants to; it’s not a right that
it is given”? Is this an anthropomorphism? Do rights come from human
feelings? From nature—phusimorphism? From gods—theomorphism? And
what do you know, here we are in the middle of a philosophical quarrel.
The engineers are right in the middle of it when they hesitate between their
vehicle’s “you can” and “you must,” and when they decide that human
security “has priority” over “the functional,” in calculations and decisions.
What? Could they be moralists, theologians, jurists, these poor engineers
who are said to be pigheaded calculators (a zoomorphism and a techno-

*In French, computer chips are designated by a different zoomorphism, puces

(“fleas”).

226 _ ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 morphism}? Let us say that, in their workshop as everywhere else, form is
in question, that there is never any projection onto real behavior, that the
capabilities to be distributed form an open and potentially infinite list, and
that it is better to speak of (x)-morphism instead of becoming indignant
when humans are treated as nonhumans or vice versa. The human form is
as unknown to us as the nonhuman.

“Youre going to make some friends among the human-rights

crowd, Norbert, not to mention the technologists . . . And if we don't
know what form humans take, or things either, how are you going to
come up with your final diagnosis? And we've just about run through
all the suspect phases. The CET is shaky, but all CETs are shaky, as |
understand it; that’s what they're set up for, as centers for technological
experimentation.”
“It all boils down to knowing whether Aramis, as they say, keeps
its promises or not. If it keeps them, it continues to exchange properties
and competences, and it comes into existence. If it’s shaky, that doesn’t
matter, so long as they continue to exchange forms and in that way
give body to their dreams.”
We attacked the last phase once again in order to find out how
well Aramis had kept its promises. “There’s the beast all laid out,” we
thought as we unfolded the huge sheets of the volumes of technological
specifications, page after page.
“They've never showed this,” Norbert said, whistling in admira-
tion. “It’s Victor Frankenstein’s workshop, it’s the making of the creature
itself! And look how Shelley was wrong again. Crowds, more crowds.
And in her novel she describes only one téte-a-téte between Victor and
his disgusting anthropoid! A technology isn’t one single character; it’s
a city, it’s a collective, it’s countless. All of Germany and Switzerland
together would have been needed to keep Victor’s awkwardly stitched-
together creature in existence. Look at all these people! And this is just
an attempt at a prototype. It’s only the sketch of the head of a line. It’s
missing the arms, the trunk, and the feet [Figure 11].”
I was less intrigued than Norbert by this plunge into the CET’s

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE paar

 Plattorm 1
Substation

Station po [|| PCC workshop

Convergent
Contractor's building

Exterior track: 996 meters |

Interior track: 604 meters
Radius of small loop: 10 meters

Figure 11.

technological documentation, because it was finally beginning to resem-

ble what I had learned in school.
“And look,” he added, “no matter what page we unfold, it’s as
complicated, as populated as the others, no matter what the scale. Up
here it’s the boulevard Victor. And down below, it’s the inside of a single
pair of cars. Each time, it’s a squeeze. Six complete computers con-
nected by a communications loop where as many things are circulating
as on the loop up there, on scale one. A single pair of cars is as
complicated as the system as a whole. And now each packet of bits on
the internal circuit is a pair to be identified, with which to encode, to
locate. Here’s the title we ought to use in our report: Crowds Press onto
the Boulevard Victor-Frankenstein!”
I understood the problems now, but I also saw why the engineers
were in their element.
“And even so,” I explained gleefully, “we're not taking into
account the flow matrices, with 600 pairs of cars for 14,000 passengers,
that the real system would have had if it had existed. The whole CET
is only one little pair—nothing at all in comparison with the entire
Petite Ceinture system” [Figure 12].
“What crowds, what crowds!” Norbert exclaimed naively. And
now that they've been taken on, they mustn’t be abandoned. Was Shelley

_ae ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 Onboard control unit (emergency]
> Electronic activator control:
Pe] | a steering mechanism, a wheel, a brake,

| Le
two doors

Onboard
control unit

Transmission | Safety
Functional

Figure 12.

completely wrong, then? Did she lie about the way the monster was
made, as well as about Victor's crime? There’s the hidden staircase,” my
mentor added.
“If I've understood correctly, Matra chose to organize four levels,
four ranks, four classes.”
“You see, what did I tell you? Doesn’t Matra have its sociology,
its political philosophy, its Weltanschauung?”
“If you insist,” and I explained to him what I had understood.
“Level I: the pairs of cars, which not only serve to move passen-
gers about by replacing people’s physical strength by a motor, but on
which automatons also embark. These automatons are the UGEs (on-
board control units), which replace the driver.
“Level II: the track, which serves not only to transmit a powerful
electric current—high tension to make the variable-reluctance motors
work—but also a weak current, which makes it possible to create a
platform for communicating with the UGE.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE [229

 “Level III: the fixed equipment, each unit taking care of a sector
and a station. This equipment serves as intermediary between the
mobile units and the command post, and has to sort things out locally
in order to solve most problems without making everything go back
to the top, which would go crazy if that happened.”
“They're missi dominici.”
“If you insist on your political metaphors. Level IV: finally the
head, the central command post, which sees, understands, feels, de-
cides, acts, orders, and manages the entire flow, but which would crash
if all the information from each mobile unit were to come back to the
center. Here's what we've got,” I said, unfolding a new plate [Figure 13].
“Terrific!” Norbert said. “There are human beings only at the two
ends: in the pairs of cars, there are passengers carried away with
enthusiasm; in the Central Command Post (PCC), there are operators
who steer and drive. Between the two, in the mobile units, on the
tracks, along the sectors, everything is done by nonhumans—but by
tens of millions of them. And these nonhumans have names and capa-
bilities; they're human parts. Now don’t tell me that’s not a fine piece
of anthropomorphism!”
“What’s funny is that the PCC can’t be a dictatorship, and here
the political metaphor holds up, because as I understand it, there’s no
way for a human being both to control 660 pairs of cars and to steer
them by remote control. It would be like driving 660 cars at a time
without an accident. In any event, even if the PCC were made up of
Formula One drivers like Alain Prost, you can’t transmit enough
information in both directions fast enough to react at 50 kilometers an
hour and at a distance of 10 centimeters. You need a minimum of
democracy—that is, delegation of tasks: the mobile units have to fend
for themselves, in part.”
“Ah! You see! So this time we're doing politics again for real—
politics in things. I’m playing the dictator, you're playing the democrat,”
said Norbert, whose choice did not surprise me.
And we replayed the software in order to test Aramis’ viability.

aso ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

1.EQUIPMENT
ONBOARD=oo
| Upstream
Direction of movement

TH Po HR"
gir of cars (n] Pair of cars (n-1] high-frequency

~ —_— — a csonicAntennae communicating short-distance

with information mat link

ne
2. TRACK
EQUIPMENT Track

Pf Sector boundaries

ee
[Sector contol |
3, EQUIPMENT Other control units
BY SECTOR Sector control Station contro! | jos ups ream
Telesurveillance
of trains and control units;
cable transmission;
remote control

r= Sound system PCC Telesurveillance;

Video stationary equipment
A. EQUIPMENT Consoles
AT CENTRAL Computers
COMMAND POST

Figure 13.

[DOCUMENT]

Organization of the “automatisms” substation:

3.2.1. The Onboard Equipment
—An outboard control unit (UGE) provides for the func-—
tions of safety, driving, and supervision within each car.

ME: “I go too fast—-you can’t send me enough information fast

enough. You have to let me have an autonomous personality. I have to
drive myself.”
HIM: “Well then, take care of things yourself, if you're so smart.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pase

 But since youre not human, I'd be surprised if you were capable of
doing much.”

A pair of cars has two redundant UGES, one per car.

ME: “If one of them breaks down, the other one takes over. I am
a pair of nonhumans. Pilot and copilot. I’m not asking you for very
much, that’s the condition for being autonomous.”
HIM: “Okay, but two nonhumans don’t yet make one human.”

—An electronic interface between the UGE and the subsys-—

tems to be controlled inthe car (doors, brakes, traction,
steering) called an ECA [électronique de commande des actu-
ateurs (electronic activator control)].

ME: “No one will open the doors; it’s too dangerous—someone
nonhuman has to open them. No one will put on the brakes—someone
nonhuman has to put them on and make sure they’re working in synch
with the car’s speed, so they won't take hold too violently. No one will
check to make sure the motor follows suit and idles—someone non-
human will have to check it. No one will be there to say whether or
not the onboard steering is on the correct side—someone nonhuman
will have to say it. And all those someones—me, them, him, it,
someone—have to calculate fast and have to be checked themselves by
the UGE, which is the onboard conscience.”
HIM: “Conscience! You're not afraid of a thing! Computo ergo sum.”
ME: “Yes, but that ought to please you, Norbert, for I’m becoming
someone.”
HIM: “Watch out! It’s us, it’s | who make you become someone.”
ME: “It comes down to the same thing. In the end, I am someone,
| since I am the origin of my own actions. You let me be the origin,

aaa ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

granted; but then it’s no longer you, it’s me. The ties are cut, the
delegation is irreversible.”
HIM: “We'll see how long you hold up on your own . . . and how
many Matra engineers youll need to set you up as the origin of your
own actions.”

—Three antennae controlling the various ground contacts:

one digital-emission antenna; one phonic-emission antenna;
one general-reception antenna.

HIM: “He's arguing over the senses I’m supposed to endow him
with! Shelley didn’t anticipate this in her novel. She gave him eyes and
ears, arms and hands—that’s all; she didn’t have much imagination. She
didn’t have any antennae, or ground platforms, or activators, or vari-
able-reluctance motors. And what about consciousness? Victor bestows
it on his monster with a single gesture, without meeting any resistance,
without realizing that consciousness is gradual, that it can come in bits
and pieces, as redundancy, self-diagnosis, feedback. There’s nothing to
be gotten from literature, clearly,” said Norbert.
As a good engineer, that’s what I had thought all along, but I’d
kept it to myself.
ME: “I don't want to be a monad set up with enough refinements
to carry out my program with no communication with the outside
world. I don’t want to be either programmed or solipsistic. I would
become delocalized. I would no longer know if I were head of the train
or the caboose; I wouldn't know what the others were doing, or even
who I was. If I were a ballistic missile during a nuclear war, every effort
would be made to isolate me and to create within me the environment
of total war that would suffice to guide me. But I am not—I must not
be—an engine of death.”

—The phonic wheels, mounted on the front wheels, andthe

sensors of the “traction” subsystem, mounted on the rear

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE es

 wheels, supply information about the distance traversed
and, through processing, about absolute speed and accelera-
tion.

ME: “I’m struggling against myself. That’s because I’m subject to

the principle of relativity. I don’t know where | am, or even if I’m
moving. I have to be given the means to register my displacement, to
keep a trace of it. I need absolute reference points.”

The phonic wheels of each right front wheel are saidto be

security wheels (they contain coded information).

ME: “If I begin to exist autonomously, I have to be suspicious of

myself; the phonic wheel might slip, or get stuck, and then it would
send false information which, once processed, would make the UGE
imagine that I’m going faster or slower, or that I’m not where I think
I am. All these decisions could lead to catastrophe. So the crucial
information contained in the phonic wheel has to be protected against
betrayal by being encrypted, as in wartime. I protect myself by a double
service of intelligence and counterintelligence.”
HIM: “And all this so you won't have to obey my orders.”
ME: “You've missed the whole point, Norbert. You can’t give me
enough orders, not fast enough, not in time. You have to let me handle
things on my own.”
HIM: “And just how are you going to do that, now that you've
gotten so smart?”

This information is a safety measure owing to the physi-

cal encoding of the cogged track of the phonic wheel andofa
supplementary sensor, C3. Every appearance of the timer sig-
nal, C2, is associated with binary information supplied by
C2; the sequence of these bits has to correspond to a code.

[aaa ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 Encoding makes it possible to detect any reading defect (an
unseen parasitic cog); this leads to an exit fromthe code,
thus to an alarm. Encoding makes it possible to get a secure
reading of the direction of travel, supplied by the direc-
tion of reading of the coded sequences. [p. 40]

HIM: “I understand why science fiction writers take the easy way
out,” exclaimed Norbert, somewhat exasperated, finally, that I had
become so independent and that some of the technological details he
didn’t get came easily to me. “They provide their own fantastic beings,
dei ex machinarum, whereas we see the gods, the little gods, come out
of the machinations. It’s a whole lot harder.”

An average onboard car-to-car hyperfrequency link (from

Oto 30 meters) allows the transmission of digital informa-
tion from one pair of cars to the next (anticollision mes-—
sages, alarms, governance instructions for coordinated
travel).

ME: “Hey, listen, now I need relations with others. I want to be

able to govern them, or to be governed by them. In spite of their good
will and their three antennae, the control units set up on the edge of
the tracks aren’t capable of transmitting enough information fast enough
for us mobile units to handle things at high speeds. So we have to set
up direct relationships between ourselves; we have to be able to tell
each other things like, “You're going too fast, youre going to run into
me, I’m your boss, you have to go at my speed, watch out, I’m braking,
careful, I’m in alert status, pay attention.”
HIM: “But there'll be nothing left for me to do. Youre stripping
me even of the job of setting up interpersonal relationships. What about
the master-slave dialectic? You're going to take that over, too, I suppose?”
I didn’t know what that was, but I didn’t care, because little by

ais arin cer since REM

 little I was becoming the Aramis mobile unit. I understood how it
worked and, like it, I was taking on confidence and personality. I no
longer wanted to be a lowly student constantly lorded over by his
mentor-master. Norbert had been living on my labor for a year, and |
no longer needed his gratitude. I was the one, now, who was dictating
my own technological choices. I had fought hard to win the right to
recognize myself as autonomous. I was no longer afraid.

A short-distance car-to-car ultrasound link (from0to5

meters) Carries out a direct measurement of relative dis-
tance between pairs of cars and also allows the recapture of
information that facilitates coordinated travel.

ME: “In spite of their good will and their antennae, my hyperfre-
quency links aren't capable of transmitting enough information about
the small accelerations of the cars when we have to link up without
bumping into each other too hard. The car that follows has to be
suspicious of the one that precedes. Cars thus have to be endowed with
a means for measuring the distance from one to the next, directly and
locally. Instead of saying slowly, ‘I am so-and-so, I am moving at
such-and-such a speed, my acceleration is delta such-and-such,’ the car
tells itself in the third person singular, ‘So-and-so is at such-and-such a
distance from me.’ It says this by cries, echoes, and reception of the
echo.”
HIM: “As always,” Norbert murmured, more and more annoyed
by my new self-confidence, “as soon as you have autonomy, as soon as
you have consciousness, you get chitchat. This Aramis car is a real
magpie.”

—An interphone mechanism provides for bilateral liaisons

between users and operators of the PCC (interphone mode) and
allows messages to be broadcast in cars (Ssonorization mode).

-aas_ ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 HIM: “Okay, that’s enough. I’m taking back control over all your
idiocies in the direct mode, manually, by voice and by sight. The fun’s
over. The passengers and operators have to be able to connect.”
ME: “That’s the bilateral component.”
HIM: “But as chief operator I also have to be able to address
messages to the passengers, even when they aren't asking for anything
and are just sitting there without a care in the world.”
ME: “No problem—that’s the directional component. I can cer-
tainly let you have that,” I said in a conciliatory tone.

3.2.2. Track Equipment

This consists essentially of a transmission module of the
type used in the metro systems in Paris and Lille, placed in
the axis of the track and including the various transmission
loops necessary for the ground-to-car connections:
—a continuous-—broadcast loop serving as support for con-
tinuous ground-to-car communication and programmed inter-
sections that serve to localize cars in space;
—a continuous reception loop serving as support for con-
tinuous car-to-ground information.

HIM: “At least they aren’t demanding independence, autonomy,

consciousness, autocontrol, or pronoun forms. They transmit, period,”
Norbert noted with satisfaction.

3.2.2. Fixed Equipment...

3.2.3.1.1. The UGT (traffic—-control unit):
The track is divided into transmission sectors witha
maximum length of one kilometer. Each sector is controlled
by a UGT that has five main functions:
—it controls the anticollision function between pairs of
cars inthe sector and between adjacent sectors;
—it ensures the retransmission of telemeasurements and
remote-control instructions exchanged between the PCC and ©

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 287

 the cars located inthe sector, as well as transmitting
phonic communications;
—it regulates the separations, mergers, and linkups of
the pairs of cars;
—it maintains surveillance of the cars present on the sec-
tor, in order to supply the PCC with information it can use
immediately to carry out its “vehicle tracking”;
—it supplies alarm signals to the PCC plate, inorder to
cut off the high-tension power supply.

ME: “ You have to delegate them something else, otherwise they'll

drown you in information.”
HIM: “No, no, that’s out of the question. I’m only delegating the
designation of the head of the line to them. I’m taking everything else
back.”
ME: © Youll never make it. There'll be too much information.”

3.2.4 The Central Command Post

The PCC includes the various elements necessary for the
supervision of the Aramis system and of the passengers using
the system.
It consists of:
—~a computer system. ..;
—workstations that bring together the means available to
the PCC operators;
—consoles supplied with functional keyboards and color
video screens that allow the operators to survey and modify
the technological status of the system’s components;
—consoles allowing video surveillance of the stations
and ensuring the various phonic liaisons with the passen-
gers ...;
—control panels, if visualization on the consoles turns
out to be insufficient; these provide operators with a syn-
thetic view of the system state (position of the trains in

238 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 the network) and of the state of the energy-distributing
equipment;
—telephone stations putting the operators in contact
with the various operational poles (workshops, stations),
and, through direct lines, with police headquarters, fire
stations, andthe emergency telephone system.

HIM: “Well, here at least I’m on my own turf. A panopticon,

buttons, calls, alarms, control panels, a command post. It consoles me
for having given you so many rights. Now it’s a real general-headquar-
ters command post. It’s not going to be a question of playing the smart

ee
guy.”
ME: “You don’t realize it, but youre going to break down every
four seconds. Don't forget that you have 660 pairs of cars to manage.
And at the slightest warning I go into security mode and block
everything. You were talking about crowds. Imagine what you'll get if
we add up all the relationships among all these beings.”
HIM: “It’s not possible,” Norbert exclaimed, terrified by a com-
plication that delighted me as it had probably delighted the Matra
engineers. “You can’t manage crowds like that. You're sure that this is
the price of autonomous existence?”
“Of course; it suffices to make the mobile units more and more
intelligent. You'll see—they’ll end up managing all those multitudes.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Lattite, RATP engineer in charge of automation:

“| always forget to mention it, because it strikes me as self-evident, but each
car possesses a representation of the entire track. \t has the invariants—its own
number first of all; it knows who it is, and this is cabled; it’s been given the
maximum speed limits for each section; it knows the profiles of all the stations.
“| forget to say it, but this is the base. This is how it knows where it is.
‘Okay, these are the invariants; this stutf is entered into memory once and
for all.
"So, next it reads the information module that’s on the track. There are two

‘ ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE pase.

 . 2m. 20 cm. 2m. 20 cm.

SO cm. 60 cm. /O cm.

Figure 14.

‘It's like reading a bar code?”

So it gives
a recalibration that's
regular but relative, every

2m. 20 cm. ™ ‘

Right
, And pete the bar code,
ir you like, gives a code, an

+ absolute measure,

modules, reference points every 2.20 meters, pertectly regular so as to keep

checking the phonic wheel. Then there’s the supplementary module, consisting
of irregular intersections that convey information.

"You might call it that, yes; the track is a bar code [see Figure 14].
“The vehicle learns by itself, from the track, to locate itselt. Nothing is done
by remote control. Matra never wanted to use remote control—for example, to
have the localization sent by the UGT or the PCC. Remote control is much too
dangerous. The car has to know where it is on its own.
"So it knows its own identity, it knows its position, and from this it deduces
its own speed and acceleration. At intersections the situation is more compli-
cated, because the platform is interrupted. So there are a lot ot little problems
to be resolved.
“It a car is lost, it’s no longer reliable and here it can become dangerous.
Sure, obviously, the car can tolerate a mistake, because if the constraints are
too radical, you stop all the time and nothing works.
“It transmits this flood of information to the UGT that oversees all the cars in
its sector. The UGT sends back all the information to all the cars, and each car

ps0 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 INZ
WANT Sector-control unit
Figure 15.

retains only what concerns itself, and what intorms it about its predecessor.
That's all: it lets the rest go by.
"There is a security measure here, a major one. Each pair of cars says, ‘|
have to be interrogated every two seconds. If at the end of three seconds the
UGT has not interrogated me, | stop.’ So very quickly you reach the limits of
the UGT's capacity, which has a very limited output in any event and which
nevertheless extends over a kilometer with potentially dozens of pairs of cars.
So the pairs have to work things out on their own [Figure 15].
"Vehicle N knows that Z is ahead because the UGT has told it. This is the
main job of the UGT—to tell N that Z is its target and that N has to hook up
with it. Okay, N also knows that | is behind, but it doesn’t calculate that; there
is an ordered relationship, it’s up to | to work it out in relation to N as N does
in relation to Z. It calculates and works things out. Next N itself makes the
calculation about the linkup with its target."
“But why not also delegate to the vehicle the job of choosing its own target?
VVouldn't that be more practicale”
“No, that's impossible because of the track. Think about it. There are
branchings. How can one vehicle know whether the one on the other track is
ahead of it or behind? It knows the abscissa, the x's, but not the ordinate,
the y's.
“The viewpoint of the ground, of the observer on the ground—ot the UGT,
it you like—is the only one from which the notion of target can be decided.
So this is the idea: all the information is sent through ground-to-car transmission,
but the only relevant information is the assignment of a role: ‘Hey you, you're
the target; not you.’
“And then the cars themselves send each other all the necessary information
through the direct carto-car hyperfrequency link. This one is refreshed much

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 241

 ¥y Ordinate

C2
Viewpoint of mobile unit

“Vv V4
ZL mays
WAL VW
y LS Abscissa
Viewpoint of sector - control unit

Figure 106.

more offen—every 20 milliseconds—so it allows much greater finesse. But as

tor whether a given car is to be a target or not, it’s the UGT that assigns the
role, that makes the decision [Figure 16].
“Doing this already entails quite a few problems, because the time needed
tor realtime calculations with all these accelerations is not easy to manage,
and in addition everything has to be coded, encrypted, to avoid errors; it’s as
it everything were being done twice, once openly and once in cryptic form,
and then you had to compare the two.
“If they match, you say, ‘Okay, the order can be carried out.’ If they don’t
match, you send an alarm; you suspend the action and you check the calcu-
lations.
“In addition, there’s a timer that ensures that the information is updated, to
make absolutely sure that the information is current and hasn't been lying around
for several milliseconds. But all that takes time, space, personnel.
“Matra decided to do all that in 16 bits* to gain speed. At tirst they started
off with 48 bits, but it was too slow. But with 16 bits, they can’t possibly have
security.” [no. 16, p. 9]

*The length of elementary messages. The shorter the message, the quicker the
calculation; but since, to gain security, the information has to be encrypted in parallel
form, half the bits are needed. If the message is longer, in order to allow security,
the whole set of calculations is slower.

-a2_ ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 “You think we're going to have to go into the bits?” Norbert asked
me, sounding more and more worried.
“Follow the actors, my dear man, follow the actors. Those are
your methods, right?”
“But the farther we go, the more crowded it is. Every part of the
system is as complicated as the system as a whole. Every plate we unfold
is itself made up of plates to be unfolded!”
“Pure Borges, my dear mentor. Why let it upset you? You love
literature, after all—and you love folds.”
“I’m not upset,” he said stiffly. “I simply have the feeling we're
getting bogged down.”
“The only question is whether the details are strategic or not. And
these particular ones are important; they’re at the heart of Aramis’
autonomy, the adjustable mobile unit. If it can do that, it’s an autono-
mous being, a real automobilist. It can exist.”
“A heteromobilist, still; we're the ones who give it its laws.”
“No, it becomes autonomous for real; we've given it its laws for
all time.”
“But it’s like us,” Norbert snapped back furiously. “If we were
characters in novels, we wouldn't escape our author.”
“We would, too, just like Aramis. That’s what we used to say when
we were kids: “You gave it away, you can’t have it back.’ Look, you
taught me yourself, the creature certainly escapes Victor’s control, and
the Frankenstein character escapes Shelley to the point where the
monster that was created is called by the name of the monster who
created it.”
“But that’s just the point,” said Norbert irritated by my new
mastery of the project. “We know now that Shelley wrote nothing but
lies. None of them can escape on their own. They need a following,
company, a crowd. Even Adam can't go on alone. Even to sin, he still
needs grace.”
Theology allowed Norbert to hide the fact that he had lost his
grip and could no longer write any “sociological commentary,” as he
pompously called it, on what we were discovering.
The next plate administered the coup de grace [Figure 17].

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 283

 Phonic wheel Coded equidistant crossings

( ) XXX) °LZ
VWHEEL | 0 GROUND
Control
TRACK Hyper unit frequency
Abscissa measure, x recepior
Speed calculation, v

X, V, no. of cars HF messages

anticollision messages
Elaboration of from other cars GROUND
MESSAGES Recognition of targets
Abscissa speed target, X1, V1, X2, V2
Selection HF GROUND
Xi, Vi
TO OTHER
CARS Calculation of relative distance: AX = Xi-X
Functional . Determination of threshold: AV = f{AX, Vi)
instructions:
© Service stop
° Merger curve Threshold speed: Vi + AV = V
50 Comparison of real speed to <0
threshold speed
V - V threshold

command
i! (0K)
Alarm

FU = t(V}

Figure 17. Anticollision safety-control principle (Document LB66/AR/E400

18/86/SA/NT, Figure 4.4.2).

The anticollision system is based on the principle of the

CMD (adjustable mobile zone), which means that the free zone
(the minimum security zone separating two sets of succes-
Sive vehicles) is mobileto the extent that it follows
closely the displacements of the vehicles (as opposed to de-
tection by fixed sector) and adjustable to the extent that
its length varies as a function of the vehicles’ speed.

jaa ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 “It’s just like in an automobile,” I had to explain patiently to
Norbert. “You can follow the car ahead more closely if youre going
more slowly; when youre stopped, you can almost touch it. With
Aramis, the advantage is to be able to bump a bit, even in motion,
thanks to the shock absorbers.”

This anticollision principle leads to ensuring, at the

level of the vehicles, the following operations:
—absolute and instantaneous measure of the abscissa and
the speed;

“It’s like reading the speedometer in a car, 20 kilometers/hour,

40 kilometers/hour.”

—communication of the coordinates (abscissa/speed) of

the target vehicle;
—calculation of the relative distance separating the ve-
hicle from its target;
—elaboration of a security speed threshold not to be ex-
ceeded, a function of the relative distance andthe absolute
speed of the target;

“If youre 100 meters away and going 50 kilometers/hour, it’s

more dangerous than if you're 100 meters away and going 10 kilome-
ters/hour.”

—irreversible emergency braking command if the speed

threshold is exceeded.

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE Laas

 “Here deceleration has to be factored in. The faster you go and
the closer you are, the faster you have to slam on the brakes, but you
have to make sure the guy behind you knows you're slamming on the
brakes. You have to warn him—it’s like the red brake-lights.

To achieve this,
—every vehicle always knows the number of the pair of cars
ahead (target vehicle) ;
—every pair of cars measures its own abscissa in relation
to the origin of the sector by counting the cogs of the
phonic security wheel mounted on every right front wheel.
This measure is periodically recalibrated through detec-
tion of the recalibration intersections, which are evenly
spaced every 2.2 meters;
—every pair of cars calculates its own speed on the basis
of the count of the number of cogs inthe phonic security
wheel;
—every pair of cars transmits to the ground (UGT) andto
the rear (through the average distance car-to-car hyperfre-
quency liaison) its own position, its speed, its number, and
its alarms, if any, inthe formof a coded message;
—the UGT rebroadcasts the information received to all the
pair of cars;
—each pair of cars calculates the relative distance
(Ax) separating it fromthe preceding pair through the
difference between its own abscissa and the abscissa of
the target (transmitted by the UGT or the hyperfrequency
liaison);
—each pair of cars calculates a threshold speed corre-
sponding toa safety zone in case of emergency braking;
—each pair of cars compares its own real measured speed to
the threshold speed. If the former is higher, the pair or-
ders an irreversible emergency braking action.” [p. 35]

[ae ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

 “And if I give you all that,” asked Norbert feverishly, “you're
autonomous?”
“In any case, I am an automobile without a human driver. Obvi-
ously I’m not all alone. I have the rails, six onboard computers, three
antennae, an encoding service, a decoding service, ten dozen inspec-
tors.”
“But then youre moving? Youre alive?”
“Let’s say that I’m opening one eye. I’m stammering. At the
slightest alert, I shut down everything and become inert again. | fall
into security mode.”
“And the other one, Shelley, with her monster that goes off on
its own to visit Germany and Switzerland without even unhooking its
intravenous tubes! And that learns to read English by studying Milton’s
Paradise Lost through a crack in the floorboards!”
“Yes, I didn’t want to say anything, Norbert, but that was a little
hard to swallow.”
“Are you still as sure as ever that the CET engineers are going
to do away with all those multitudes? If we declare this phase innocent
as well—and this time, youre the one who'll do it—we have nothing
left to turn to.”
“I hope so. In any case, they've done a good job. They’re the ones
who've written Paradise Lost. And not in verse.”
“In what?”
“In program lines.”
“We're going to lose our hides here,” said Norbert, alarmed by
the unanticipated turn I had given to the investigation. “You work on
the technological specifications. I have to write the report.”

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE 287

 I[DOCUMENT]

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I didn’t see Norbert for the next two weeks.

Norbert told me that he’d dreamed he’d found Victor Frankenstein

on an Alpine glacier, just when the Creature had finished its horrible
story. And he had interceded on its behalf!
N.H.: “‘You’re deceiving us, Victor, and you’ve been deceiving us
for a long time. You bewail your crimes, but you do this in order to
hide another, bigger crime. Your sin is not that you have fashioned the
monster. You created it for its beauty, for its greatness, and you were
right. Your crime does not come from the hubris of which you accuse
yourself; it is not that you played the demiurge, that you wanted to
repeat Prometheus’ exploit. Your crime is that you abandoned your
creation. Were you not the first person it saw when it opened its eyes?
Did it not stammer out your name? Did it not hold out those deformed
limbs toward you?’ It was born good, like you, handsome like you, wise
like you, since you were its creator. Why flee? Why leave it alone, ill
adapted to a world that rejected it? That is when it became wicked!
And even now, you turn your eyes away from it. You are horrified by
it, even though it is yourself twice over, you in your beauty and you in
your cowardice, you in your marvelous creation, and you again in your

jas ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

shameful flight. No, your sin is not that you took yourself to be God,
for God never abandons his creatures, no matter how sinful. He follows
them, sacrifices Himself for them, throws Himself at their feet, sends
them His only son; He saves them. Continual, continuous creation.
Salvific incarnation. Your inexpiable sin is not that you continued to
play God. You shouldn’t have begun in such pride, only to finish with
such pusillanimity. You shouldn’t have begun by loving, only to end up
hating so much. Look at the poor thing—horrible, yes, of course it is.
But what is sinful Adam in the eyes of his Creator? A much worse
monster. If you have to expiate something, at least have the courage of
your own crime; don’t hide behind the pitiful excuses of the sorcerer’s
apprentice. Your creature didn’t escape you, for you and you alone
chased it out of your laboratory. Oh, the accursed one who mistakes
the curse! The forked one who turns away hatred and who continues
to deceive at the very heart of his repentance! Through your fault,
technologies lie accused, abandoned as they are by their creators, by
all the Victor Frankensteins who take themselves to be God on Monday
and ignore their creations the rest of the week. And he preaches mod-
esty! ‘May his pitiful history,’ he moaned, ‘at least serve as a lesson to
all would-be demiurges!’ But you’re drawing the wrong lesson. It is not
our creative power that we need to curtail; it is our love that we need
to extend, even to our lesser brothers who did not ask us for life. We
acquainted them with existence. We need to acquaint them with love.
And what else is it asking you for, the monster that is imploring you to
make him a companion in his own image, if not for love?’
“Victor, who had been shielding himself from the sight of the crea-
ture, lowered his hands and looked at me. Then, slowly, he turned and
looked at the monster lying in the snow. The glacial cold was sus-
pended. The two beings, their eyes full of tears, were now looking at
me.
“Ves, I said, ‘it must be done.’
“Victor made a halting gesture of reconciliation and approached the
monster who had lowered its head; he stretched out his hands and his
lips as for a kiss. At that moment, he drew back in horror and, scream-
ing, fled once again.
“I remained alone on the sea of Ice with the creature. It was my
turn to approach it. It offered me its horrible, pitiful countenance.”

ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE ae

 Norbert woke up terrified.
The next morning, he arranged to take sick leave. As for me, left
to my own devices, I plunged into the CET codes, swimming along
after the Matra programmers and taking as much pleasure in the task
as they had.

250 ARAMIS AT THE CET STAGE

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO [AWAY] gy

When I went into the laboratory director's lavishly appointed

office, I knew right away that something was wrong. Norbert H. was
not available, I was told. But given the reputation of the team and the
rapidly approaching deadline, even though my status as a simple intern
made the request unusual, still, the recent discoveries of my professor,
and with all the interview notes it would be easy, and Norbert thought
very highly of me . . . In short, I was going to have to draft the report

Oe
myself, in a week's time.
“And since youre an engineer,” the director told me, “I'd like
you to make a special point of finding out whether or not it’s techno-
logically feasible.”
I had to dig back through the files on my own, and go back over
the transcripts of all fifty interviews. I found out that my professor’s
archives were not nearly as well organized as the RATP’s.

(DOCUMENT: RATP, “RAPPORT GENERAL SUR LE DEROULEMENT DE L’OPERATION,”

JANUARY 1988, P. 53: CONCLUSION OF THE LAST OFFICIAL DOCUMENT WRITTEN
AT THE END OF PHASE 4, AFTER THE ARAMIS PROJECT WAS TERMINATED]

The results of the CET Aramis-boulevard Victor operation

are the following:
—The team has mastered microprocessor-based automation
techniques as applied to automated transportation systems.
 This is the case for the Matra company, which is currently
using amajor portion of the Aramis team for the operation of
Line D of the Lyon metro.*
—The vehicles, in particular the P3, P4, and P5 proto-
types, are nearly ready to go into production. On the whole,
they can be termed a success, pending a few still-needed im-
provements.
—The use of Aramis’ variable-reluctance motor, approved
by the RATP, represents an important innovation as amode of
propulsion.
—-The studies and the production of the adjustable mobile
sector carried out during the Aramis operation will be fol-
lowed by the refinement of comparable technologies for the
Lyon metro.
—-The studies of ultrasonic and hyperfrequency transmis-—
Sions may give rise to future developments of interest to
the world of transportation.

In its separate pieces, Aramis is feasible and the engineers are

happy with it, I told myself. The motor, the car, the mobile sector, the
connections—all these work well and can be used again elsewhere.
Thus, Phase 4 is positive: Aramis is viable, and the dealt has been
upheld. Only one thing left to do—namely, bring together all these
viable elements and get Aramis into production by creating the line of
which the CET on the boulevard Victor is the head. Norbert was on
the wrong track from the very start. Aramis is a fully developed
technological invention abandoned by the politicians just when every-
thing was ready for the manufacturing stage. It’s a story of the Concorde
variety——technologically perfect, but in need of a massive political push
to survive.

*The traditional subway in the city of Lyon has recently been supplemented by
a new line that is much like the automated VAL.
‘Still in the contractual sense (the French term used here, marché, can mean
“market,” “deal,” and “contract”).

[sz ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY}

 eee
[THE SAME DOCUMENT, CONTINUED]

IV.2.2.1. Functional Observations*

IV.2.2.1.1. General Framework
The verifications of the functional and technological
status of the equipment at the time the experiment was termi-
nated took place from Monday, November 23, 1987, to Tuesday,
December 1, 1987, inclusive (8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m. weekdays) . Of
these seven consecutive working days, two were neutralized
soas to allow Matra Transport to get the Pl vehicle to func-
tion as anticipated; despite this additional delay andthe
initial postponement of the starting date for thetrials
from November 2 to November 23, the Pl pair of cars was un-
able to participate inthetrials...
The verifications to be carried out by the repre-
sentatives of the RATP were defined by Matra Transport,
which prepared documents for this purpose describing the an-
ticipated trials within the framework of the codicil. There
are fifteen of these “statements.” Each one in fact corre-
sponds to a reduction of the PVRI-the minutes of acceptance
trials for proving compliance with the specifications set
[cahier d’essais de proces-verbaux de recette individu-
elle]. The PVRI, having become statements by reduction,
were thus insufficient to “qualify” the functions or the
Subsystem...
IV.2.2.1.3. Results
The verification log intended to record the conditions of
the trial is atranscript of notes taken on that occasion. It
describes in chronological order the unanticipated inci-
dents that occurred during the verifications...
Without claiming to deduce from these figures anything
other than trends, let us note that the average time between
incidents was approximately ten minutes.

*In the framework of a contract, the contracting authority [maitre d’ouvrage] is

required to provide legal verification that the commitments made by the contractor
[maitre d’oeuvre] have been carried out. Receipt and homologation are two steps in the
process of legislating the technological capabilities of a transportation system. Verifica-
tion is accomplished by contradictory procedures that have to be approved by both
parties.

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY) asa

 This figure, inthe context of the initial objectives of
the contract (300 hours for the complete equipment), indi-
cates the efforts that would have still been required to
reach those objectives.
IV.2.2.2. Endurance Trials
Adjustable mobile sector, three pairs of cars. Number of
hours anticipated: 200. Number of hours in CMD: 15 minutes.
Number of incidents: 3.
Function of linkup, merger, demerger: with two pairs of
cars. Anticipated length: 4 hours. Duration of the trial:
3 hours 15 minutes. Number of hours during which pairs of
cars were in linkup, merger, or demerger status: 43 minutes.
Number of incidents: 29. Number of successful linkups com-
pared to number of attempts: 6/13.
The very high number of incidents shows that the system
was far fromperfected... [p. 46]
1. The cost of the pairs of cars is roughly 30 percent
higher than the target figure, whereas there was an allow-
ance of 20 percent.
2. The cost of onboard automation was significantly un-
derestimated at first (+70 percent); it now represents more
than 28 percent of the cost of the rolling stock.
3. The cost of fixed automation is in line with the target
figures. [p. 52]

I don’t get it. They've been telling us all this time that Aramis is
feasible, yet three pairs of cars can’t hold the road together for more
than fifteen minutes, and even so they stop three times, and the security
systems aren't in place! And it was going to take 600 of them to outfit
the Petite Ceinture! It’s the story of the guy who wants to go to the
moon, who climbs up a stepladder and is sure he’s on the right track,
because “all that’s left to do is extrapolate.” When there’s enough food
for three, there’s still not enough for 600, barring a loaves-and-fishes
miracle. But if the extrapolation from two to 600 is impossible, then

aes ARAMIS |S READY TO GO (AWAY)

 a
it’s not like the Concorde. And there are the skyrocketing prices! Still,
the conclusion of the contradictory report is positive. Ah, now I
understand why it’s called a “contradictory report” . . .

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Trouvé, an important technological director at the RATP. “It's easy enough

to show that it's feasible with three cars, but it’s a completely ditferent matter
to say whether or not it can be produced and implemented. We started with
a good automation system, with the two-pair train; and it more or less worked
with three.
“We told ourselves, ‘It's almost there,’ yes, but when we got rolling, it was
without safety measures, and when we added those we were in the manual
mode, not automatic . . . It’s not the same thing.
“The first phase may be misleading. Matra relied on it a lot, moreover—'lt
was almost ready.’ | had to fight to keep the codicil from declaring that it was
homologated.
“In fact, the codicil was a disaster. Matra wanted to turn over the key; we
insisted on winding things up properly. | have to say that Matra also made it
a point of honor to go further; they stopped on December 11 instead of
November 30.
“But finally, they didn't bring off the demonstration. | personally insisted on
seeing three pairs of cars running together. They would have yelled, ‘Hooray
tor us!’ They did their best; they didn’t make it.
“But with two pairs, they achieved a good level of reliability. They trans-
ported Chirac and Balladur, without stressing the satety issue."
“But in your judgment, was it technologically viable?”
“There was the complete technical review of 1982-83; we had concluded
that it was viable. | continue to think that it is, but in a time frame that | have
trouble extrapolating—and anyway, it’s a luxury system, it’s the Concorde of
public transportation . . .
‘Let's say there were no factors precluding the existence of Aramis; that was
the opinion of the technology committee. We couldn't see the end of the tunnel,
but we had no reason fo think that it wasn’t there.
“The problem is that even if they'd gotten an extension, Matra’s directors
wouldn't have gone on; they'd lost interest in the problem. Builders have a

ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY} 285

 a
shortterm vision. ‘As long as there are no plans for the line, I’m not going to
invest in Aramis’—that's what they were telling themselves.” [no. 5]

He continues to think that it’s feasible, even if he’s less than

enthusiastic, so maybe I was right. But even if Aramis has been perfected
technologically, it’s too expensive, and in any event the manufacturer
in charge of producing it didn’t give a damn. A peculiar Concorde.
What does it mean exactly, something that’s doable and that isn’t done,
that nobody wants to do, that nobody can do, that nobody knows how
to do, that nobody can afford?

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Alexandre, Matra’s head of the CET, speaking at Matra headquarters:

“From July to November, we'd made so much progress, we would have
gotten there; | don't know how long it would have taken, or what we would
have needed. The software was extremely complex, but at the hardware level
we didn’t have many reliability problems. We would have carried out the
contract in the long run.”
“So, in your heart of hearts. . .2”
“We would have gotten there, but it would have cost more than two million
francs.”
‘So it's a little like the Concorde, hyperstate-oMthe-art, feasible but not
costeffective?”
"Yes and no. We could have pulled it off if we'd been more determined.
We should have looked for outlets that were less solvent but more political.
We should have started in Montpellier, for example; we should have experi-
mented commercially and moved later on to using multicar trains and link-ups.
We should have taken a more gradual approach.
“But the CET goals were too rigid.
“The mechanism for maintenance support was a luxury:* Of course the
sottware could do the diagnosis, but it's another matter to go trom there to

*Autodiagnosis would have led to a reduction of the enormous maintenance

tasks involved in Aramis, once the system was built.

/2ss_ ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 having each car say, ‘Here's the problem, here's where I’m in trouble.’ We
didn't say so fo the RATP, but we thought that was useless.” [p. 11]
“You would have gone further if you'd been able to renegotiate the con-
tract?”
"You have to see that there was this organizational abscess, | mean this
organizational aspect. We could have held onto each function without degrad-
ing it, but by taking the bottom of the line every time to absorb, for example,
Montpellier’s 50 cars and only later moving to the Petite Ceinture’s 600. For
example, if we'd been able to move to 200-millisecond updating and leave
it at that, we could have had less sophisticated software, and that would have
allowed us fo do Aramis; we'd have been downgrading, relaxing the con-
straints.
“Well, | could never get Parlat [his opposite number at the RATP] to agree
to that. ‘We'll refer to the contract when you see us really go off the deep end;
you're holding up a guard-rail, but while things are going along normally you
forget that and we manage things with a certain amount of flexibility.’
“But the RATP guys had the impression that we were constantly backsliding
in relation to the objectives.” [no. 25]
Matra’s M. Fréque:
“Let me show you something that will help you understand” [see Figure 1 8].
“Ot course it’s a bit exaggerated, but actually things often go like that. Why
do something simple when you can do something complicated?
“The RATP was always asking for something slightly extravagant. You start
with some simple doodad, easy as pie, and you end up overspecifying; you
get something that says ‘Mommy, Daddy,’ but it obviously costs more.
“Besides, yeah, this is really classic, there was always somebody who'd
say, ‘VVe did that in Lille’; it was team culture. Habits count for something as
well.” [no. 6]

Yet another interpretation! It was almost perfected technologi-

cally, or at least it all could have been if the RATP hadn’t insisted too
rigidly on impossible constraints. Yet then what they would have per-
fected wouldn’t have been Aramis, but something else, an Ara-x! The
operating agency says it’s feasible but claims the manufacturer has
abandoned the baby. The manufacturer says a different Aramis was

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO {AWAY] 287

 1. What M. Brun needs; what he 2. M. Faucon : “With a triple cut,
chooses. it would be better for the ECA.”

®
Eg
___ |} ©

| —“@__
o
3. M. Cheval : "Did you choose a model | 4. M. Tappe : “What if we were to make
that’s sate and easily dismantled?” a switch ourselves? Preferably with

©
vacuum cuts and back pedaling?”

TS
5. M. Lefrére : “Isn't there anything 6. M. Genoux : “Isn't there anything
less expensive?" simpler?"
“It's too late!”
“I'm not saying it’s impossible;
we'll have to see."

7.M. Moscovici : “Did you make sure 8. RATP : “Is it RATP-approved? Is it

it can withstand 2 hours at 1,000° C equipped with a red status-indication
while making 10° cuts under 150 Ae” diode and a test outlet, to facilitate
the agent's work?"

Indicator

Plate

9. M. Taloin : “Did you check to see Test outlet

what the System team thinks?"

10. M. Pére : “We did that in Lille.” 11. M. Mimesis : “So go ahead and

—e e— put in a static relay at 3 GTO.”

Figure 18. The story of the Aramis switch.

-ase ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY}

 a
feasible but claims the operating agency was asking the impossible. I’m
really starting to wonder whether Norbert wasn’t right. It’s not so easy
to decide whether Aramis is technologically feasible or not.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Messrs. Gueguen and Parlat, of the RATP. who participated directly in the
project and in the drafting of the end-oF-contract contradictory report:
M. Parlat:
“The technicians weren't able to stand up to the politicians. The current line
is that ‘technologically it’s a success’—but that’s not the way we see it.”
“So the CET wasn't usefulé”
“Oh yes, the CET had to be done, it was indispensable; with studies, on
paper, you never go far enough. You say, ‘We'll get there,’ you think problems
always get solved, you think engineers can always muddle through, but with
the CET we really had our backs fo the wall.”
“You know that you're being accused of rigidity, of being unwilling to
simplity Aramis, of insisting on respecting the contract too rigorously and of
having scuttled the project for that reason?“
M,. Gueguen:
“But that’s not being rigid—we didn’t want a mini-VAL! If you give up
nonmaterial couplings, it’s not Aramis any longer. There weren't any develop-
ment problems with the mini-VAL; it exists. Among ourselves we were calling it
an ARAMIS-VS, for ‘very simplified!”
“Yes, but if it wasn't technologically feasible, of course you had to simplify.”
“It's more complicated than that. The people in charge should have said
‘stop’ if it was infeasible; we knew there were problems, but they shouldn't
have come around telling us it was technologically perfect, when Matra hadn't
pertected it.
“In Entre les lignes | read something interesting [see the second document
in the Prologue]: ‘It's a technological success, but there’s no application for it
and it's not our tault. It we kept going we'd be ready.’ How do you expect us
to believe that?
“Obviously, we can be accused of not having tried to call attention to the
problem; but we did try, and our concerns weren't taken into account. . .
“You have to understand why they all say, ‘It's a technological success,’

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY) Lae

 because if someone says, ‘After fifteen years, we have nothing,’ how can you
expect them to accept it? They're going to wonder, ‘Where did the money go?’
“So they say that all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.
“Over here, we say what we think; we'll see what management does. If a
politician says, ‘It's okay, it’s all going very well,’ you know it’s cheating, but
fo say that they stopped because there wasn't a line is a form of cheating. |
don’t understand how technicians can go along with that. Obviously there’s
also the cost. They say, ‘It’s too expensive,’ ‘It works, but it costs too much,’ but
nevertheless it's technologically state-oMhe-art. It doesn't work as well as that.
“You can’t even say that it’s for later, for the future, because if Aramis had
to be started up again, now, everything would have to be done over.
“No, the adjustable train—we don’t know how to do that, short of a
technological revolution. And to meet the specifications, we have no idea what
it would have cost, or how long it would have taken, just to get fo five pairs
of cars, and from there to 600...
‘At the same time, it’s too bad to have gotten so far and then say, ‘We're
shutting it all down.’ But if it’s so unreliable, why had it gone so fare And if it’s
perfected, why not go on? | personally wouldn't like to be in Alexandre’s place
[his opposite number at Matra]. He was saved by the bell. He must have seen
the technological ditticulties the same way we did. He must be annoyed that
it ground to a halt the way it did, but at the same time he must be happy that
he didn’t have to meet the specs—yes, he must be really relieved.
“For our part, we did the contradictory report; we told the truth. We weren't
about fo go ask Matra, ‘And what do we put here?’ That's for management
to worry about.” [no. 10]

Saved by the bell! That’s not what poor Aramis would say. Finished
off, on the contrary, by a fratricidal struggle between the two teams,
the contracting authority and the contractor, with one accusing the
other of downgrading Aramis’ principles, and the other retorting that
it was being required to pursue impossible objectives whereas every-
thing would be viable if the constraints were relaxed. And the struggle
doesn't even show whether the thing is technologically feasible! It’s an
insoluble problem. I have a feeling I’m going to be in hot water with
Norbert’s director.

250 ARAMIS IS READY TO GO {AWAY}

 enn ne nnn
(DOCUMENT: LETTER ADDRESSED TO THE TRANSPORTATION MINISTRY BY M. DESCLEES,
PRESIDENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE—THE BODY RESPONSIBLE FOR KEEPING
SYSTEMATIC TRACK OF ARAMIS ON BEHALF OF THE MINISTRY]

Dear Director,
You asked me to find out what the Aramis development com-
mittee thinks about the modification of the experimental
program.
The committee met at my request on September 30, and Iam
sending you a report that conveys the views of its members.
Let me add that the program is being terminated at a point
when there seems to be no serious obstacle to perfecting the
system, yet at a point when not all the innovations can be
fully demonstrated. This is surely regrettable. Neverthe-
less, the personal conviction of the committee members is
that this system could be brought to a level of technologi-
cal realization close to what was anticipated in the proto-
cols and in the RATP contract. However, the committee raised
further questions about the conditions for operating a com-
plex system of the PRT type; but only commercial trials
would permit a definitive judgment...
The majority of the committee members remain convinced
that amarket for Aramis exists, that halting its develop-
ment 1S not justified fromthis standpoint, andthat it
would be opportune to undertake an a posteriori evaluation
that would make it possible, in particular, to draw up a con-
tract and to see whether it would be appropriate to modify
certain functional specifications with respect to those of
the contract.
Very truly yours,
Desclées, Director of INRETS

Ah, but this changes everything. The engineers on the development

committee who studied Aramis from the beginning agree: Aramis as a
mobile unit has been perfected technologically, the contract was nearly
fulfilled, only the operational side is left with a few unsolved problems.

ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY) [ze

 ee
Well then, that’s reassuring. I started worrying too soon. The engineers
closest to the project have doubts about its technological feasibility, for
psychological reasons perhaps, but the experts who are farthest re-
moved remain quite satisfied.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Desclées, author of the foregoing letter:

“My only worry was that the political decision [to quit] should not damage
what had been gained scientifically, and that they should say, ‘It’s not because
it didn't work that we're stopping.’ That was my concern. . .
“| didn't want Matra to be held responsible; | didn’t want it to be said that
they had to stop because Matra hadn’‘t met its obligations, you understande
“| didn't want to cast any further discredit on the technology, anything that
could have given the Budget Office more grist for its mill [fo criticize other
innovations in public transportation]."
‘So it's out of solidarity for those who were defending technological inno-
vations? It's tied to the tact that Fiterman leaned rather heavily on the Budget
Office?”
“Things like that are never forgotten; hence the orderly retreat.” [no. 11]

But this changes everything once more! The Budget Office again!
How am I expected to decide whether Aramis is technologically feasible
or not when they're arranging, consciously and deliberately, to protect
Matra in order to preserve the future of huge, costly, technological
projects? The question of technological feasibility is muddled for mud-
dling’s sake. What? Could there be a conspiracy to protect the engi-
neers? Are they behaving like schoolboys who've done something foolish
and don’t want the Budget Office to catch them?
Ouch! I have a feeling I’m getting confused again—-starting to do
bad sociology, to use a borrowed phrase. I’m going back to blaming and
denouncing. It’s also because Norbert is letting me work all by myself.
Instead of running after monsters to kiss, he ought to be doing the
technology audit himself. . .

-asa_ ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 I'll have to see what the press file says. With all those journalists
who swarm around juicy subjects, there must be some interesting
revelations about Aramis’ feasibility.

ae ee ee ee eee ee ea
(DOCUMENT: ARTICLE BY ALAIN FAUJAS, LE MONDE, OCTOBER 26, 1987]

By November, the definitive results will be in, but they

will not keep the project from being abandoned. Responding
to pressure from Matra, M. Jacques Chirac, mayor of Paris,
had proposed to install it between the Gare de Lyon and the
Gare da’ Austerlitz. But on this minor branch line, Aramis
would not have shown its full capabilities. The regional of-
ficials seem to prefer the classic metro inside Paris
proper. As for the RATP, it considers Aramis a technological
success anda commercial failure. In its view, Aramis has
too little carrying capacity, is too sophisticated, and
costs too much for its intended use-that is, transporting a
maximum number of passengers. At atime when the RATP is
tightening its belt, it prefers to reserve its investments
for things like progressive automation of its existing
lines. Matra has chosen not to comment on the probable aban-
donment of the program. The CEO of Matra Transport, a sub-
Sidiary of Matra, says only, witha touch of bitterness, “We
couldn’t do it all by ourselves.”
Yet Aramis will not have been tested in vain. It has ledto
better mastery of automation and improvement of the wholly
electronic guidance system that will go into operation on
the newest line of the Lyon metro and that will pilot the sec-
ond-generation VAL, Matra’s other metro, the one that has
been a success in Lille, Chicago, Jacksonville, and Tou-
louse and that will win out soon perhaps in Strasbourg and
Bordeaux.

Well, it’s a good thing there are journalists! The press dossier is
unanimous. I’ve found more than a hundred articles saying the same

ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY} 263 |

 thing, give or take a nuance or two. Aramis has been perfected tech-
nologically, but it isn’t profitable; the RATP has changed its mind or
has run out of money and is no longer willing, or no longer able, to
finance the line; Matra has done a good job; and in any event there are
technological benefits for VAL. So here I am at last with a good, stable,
new version: Aramis has been perfected, but only in little reusable bits,
in separate pieces that are of use to its older brother VAL, always VAL.

eee ee eee rere errr eee ee ee

[DOCUMENT: MATRA, CONFIDENTIAL INTERNAL MEMO, JULY 2, 1987]

The attached text, developed by the RATP with our ap-

proval, constitutes what we have agreed for nowto tell jour-
nalists if we are questioned:
The refinement andtest runs of the Aramis system at the
experimental center on the boulevard Victor are going into
their terminal phase.
Aramis is making its first runs with electronic couplings
onthe track; this is the last stage before the multicar
train without the traditional mechanical coupling used by
trains and classic metros.
The conclusion of these test runs is expected in November
1987.
It will then be up to the four partners—the State, the Ile-
de-France Region, the RATP, and Matra Transport—to decide
whether or not it 1s appropriate to go ahead with test runs
aimed at full refinement of the system (manufacturing stud-
ies and endurance trials).
The prospects for applications of the systemare, inthe
short run, economically less favorable than they were in
1984, when the development contract was signed.
But as of now the development of Aramis has led to in-
creased knowledge and expertise inthe realm of automation;
this has turned out to be very useful inthe refinement of
the system of automated guidance that is derived fromthe
SACEM system used on Line A of the RER and that will be ap-
plied in Lyon as well as for the second-generation VAL.

asa ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 But this memo has the very same structure, a few minor variations
notwithstanding, as all the newspaper articles I plowed through! What?
No independent investigations, no fresh opinions, no research, no
criticism? They all say the same thing: what the principal actors have
put in their mouths! What doormats, these scientific journalists! Always
ready to popularize, never to investigate.
If I ever decide to change careers, I’m going to be a journalist,
but I’m going to do investigative journalism, and if I come across a
story like Aramis, it won't be my master’s voice you'll hear. I'll be the
Bob Woodward of technological projects. And to hell with “refined”
sociology. |
It’s obviously a conspiracy! Norbert is completely off base with
his idea that Aramis is for once a project without any notable scandal.
There certainly is a scandal to denounce! But from another standpoint,
he was right after all: there’s no way to decide about the technological
feasibility——everything is muddled for muddling’s sake. But why, oh,
why did I get myself into this mess instead of just going ahead to do
technology?

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. létoile, engineer at the Lille Research Institute, a branch of INRETS, where

VAL was developed:
"Was it feasible? Listen, it all depends. As for the guidance system and
linkups that existed nowhere else—ihere | think the CET pushed the demonstra-
tion as far as it could.
“| very much regret that the project wasn't extended for another year. It’s too
bad they pulled back—in the face of what? Twenty million francs? Thirty million,
to do a complete demonstration? At the level they'd reached, they‘d proved its
feasibility.
“When you went to the site on the boulevard Victor, you'd see the pairs of
cars and you really had the impression that they were coupled mechanically.
Okay, obviously, there were only two of them, but three, five, it was feasible.
"l remain profoundly convinced that they were getting there. But it’s true, the
demonstration was lacking; the appetite was whetted but not satistied. To me,

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY) aes

 a
that's too bad. Obviously, to go trom this point fo 600 pairs of cars south of
Paris—the CET didn’t deal with that.”
‘So for you the CET didn’t reveal any serious impediments?“
“No, from the point of view of INRETS, | don’t see any insurmountable
detects; but then | don't know whether Matra had problems, or if they just ran
out of time.” [no. 26, p. 5]

No, no, clearly it’s not a conspiracy. All the engineers have an
unshakable faith in Aramis’ feasibility. Obviously they aren’t committing
themselves as to the costs, or the time frame, or the operational viability
. . . These are good examples of real engineers. Their faith is indestruc-
tible. Nothing induces them to doubt. Their certainty is perhaps a
problem, however. What is a transportation system in which only the
mobile unit works, and not the overall operation? And can the mobile
unit be said to work if two of them can run together for a few minutes
before bumping into each other? That’s the motive of the crime,
Norbert would say.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

Iwo engineers from the Ile-de-France Region, Grinevald and Lévy, respon-
sible for transportation:
Grinevald:
“The ideal tor them [fhe engineers who developed the project] is a system
with no passengers. The trouble is, there are passengers; you can’t avoid
thinking about them. What are they going to do?
‘And |'m putting myself in the best possible situation, imagining that all the
technological problems have been resolved. [In fact, he thinks this is impossible;
see end of Chapter 3.] But that still isn’t enough to make a usable system.
"Obviously you can make a system called Aramis that works; what I'm
talking about is a system that really brings Aramis to lite.
“Lets go into details: even with two or three branches, as you have on the
Petite Ceinture, you need a range of missions, plus a high frequency, plus a
fine-tuned adjustment of supply and demand. Now all this imposes contradic-
tory constraints.”

jae ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY)

 Lévy:
"It's clockwork; the smallest grain of sand brings everything to a halt.”
Grinevald:
"Yes. If we keep Aramis, it only becomes feasible only if it stops being
Aramis.
"Of course, if it’s a big VAL, then it’s not a problem.
"Look at the users; they're already lost in the RER, * where there aren't a lot
of destinations to choose from. And Aramis doesn’t pull up along the entire
platform. You add the waiting lines and elderly people—it just 5 percent of the
people are lost, you have chaos. And the interval between trains is 45 seconds!
"We were told, ‘We're going to deal with that through the experimental
method, by trial and error.’ And in the end, we're lett with a single branching!
“Up to now, I've been talking only about the public, about the interface
between the public and the system. Beyond that, there has to be an adjustment
of supply to demand. There’s a flow matrix to be satisfied that has never before
had to be resolved under such complex conditions.
"In addition, Aramis takes only seated passengers, which means giving up
all flexibility; there’s no butter for adjusting supply and demand. Besides that,
there are families, groups that won't want to be separated! . . . And besides
that, the demand has to be regulated constantly, because it evolves, and there
are no statistics refined enough to deal with it.
“You have to be able to accommodate groups of screaming Belgians, or
a veteran's reunion.
"Do you have fo anticipate a permanent excess capacity? VWhen you add
the user, the system, plus adjustment of the supply, the problem is insoluble . . .
“But there are people at the RATP who believed it was going to work. They
don’t know how to make the RER work, with its three missions, and they think
they can make a thing like this run. ‘We'll manage,’ they'd say. ‘We'll tind a
way, we'll figure it out, with advances in computer science’. . ."
“So for you, there is no mystery, because it’s technologically infeasible?”
"The problem, let me tell you, is that Aramis is a false invention, a false
innovation. The PRT has been an infeasible idea in terms of operational viability
trom day one." [no. 33]

*As every foreign tourist trying to catch a plan at Roissy or Orly must have
discovered, the signs identifying the trains are mysterious: they are not names of
destinations, but esoteric codes like YETI, BAYA, AZUR.

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY) 267

 They sound awfully sure of themselves, those two. Aramis is
intellectually inconceivable. It’s a contradiction in terms. They're sure
that it doesn’t work, just by looking at operational issues, yet they put

Oe ee
themselves in the best-case scenario. What everyone else perceives as
the biggest problem of all is one that doesn’t faze them at all: the 600
mobile units rolling along without a hitch.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Etienne, from Matra:

“But was it perfected? Could you have gone from a few minutes’ running
time to the months anticipated in the contracté”
“By November 1987, we had finished integrating all the most complex
functions. VWWe needed a year, a year and a half, to make everything reliable—
to go trom minutes to months, as you say.
“Everything had to be debugged; there is no reason to think that we wouldn't
have brought it off. We would have produced the contractual Aramis, and
even the nominal Aramis. No doubt about it on our end, no doubt at the RATP.
no doubt in the Institute. But it would have been especially costly tor Matra,
since that phase wasn't well tinanced; the debugging hadn't really been
anticipated. No, it was feasible at the upper economic limit of what had been
anticipated five years earlier.”
‘ls it comparable to the Concorde?”
“lt exasperates me fo see it compared to the Concorde. The problem is the
market; if they'd built 500 Concordes instead of 20, it would have worked.
Since everything is new, whether it’s the TGV, the Concorde, or Aramis, it
becomes economical only if there’s a huge outlet for it. It’s a question of
voluntarism, the determination to continue working on Aramis did not entail a
determination to continue with the line.” [no. 21]

Ow! Even over the Concorde there are controversies. Now it’s a
question of continuity in the political will. Everything new has to be
imposed by will. It’s worst of all when will is subject to eclipses, volontas
interrupta, as my mentor would surely say. They push the Concorde

aes ARAMIS IS READY TO GO {AWAY}

 I
prototype, which is efficient and perfected, but not the 500 Concordes
that would, as a bonus, make the first one profitable.
Parenthetically, M. Etienne doesn’t agree with his collaborators.
They say that they’d have pulled it off if they could have simplified.
They don't claim they would have fulfilled the contract.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

In the Transportation Ministry office that deals with new research projects,
M. Hector is speaking. He oversaw the Aramis operation even though Aramis
was not viewed as a research project:
“| remember, | was there at the very beginning of Aramis. | had both of the
project heads in front of me, Cohen and Fréque, with two fallback projects;
one was the head of Aramis, the other head of VAL.
“Maybe the problems with VAL were overcome because the system was
simpler, more realistic—enough so to convince Lille and the urban community.
We never found that with Aramis, because we never had the technical proot
that it would work. The increased cost has to be justified, for cities, for financial
backers, by technological performance."
“How do you analyze the technological feasibility of the project? Did the
problem of intrinsic security that Cohen was so insistent about play a role?”
"No. | think the system simply didn't succeed in overcoming the technologi-
cal ditticulties well enough, fast enough, fo attract financial backing easily.”
“But you're aware that your interpretation is not the usual one? The consensus
is that it’s technologically feasible but that there's no market.”
"Yes, |'m aware of that, but it must still be said that the technicians were
unable to deal with the problems in time; it's absurd to say that it's technologi-
cally perfected when the CET program wasn’t carried out successtully.
“| have to say that there’s something a little phony about all of us; not you,
because you're not in the field, but the rest of us. If we hear someone say, ‘It’s
a failure,’ we say, ‘Oh no, it’s all been very useful, there have been advances,
it helped with VAL.’ There have been advances, | don't doubt that. But | can’t
say that the system as a whole has been a technological success that advanced
us foward the intended goal.
“Well, you have to know what you want. If you wanted a system, and they
get a few crumbs out of some of its components, you can’t call ita success, in
any case not a technological success.

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY] 269

 a “Either they didn’t put enough energy into it+—but | don’t think that was the
problem—or, quite simply, when the program doesn’t work well technologi-
cally, it becomes harder and harder to find money. No, no, when they tell you
that ‘it's technologically perfected, but there’s no market,’ it doesn’t wash. If
they'd really solved the problems, really resolved the technological ditticulties,
then they would have found financing. At least they would have found it more
easily; they would have at least fulfilled the contract.
"The heart of the problem, as | see it, is that Matra was looking for
improvements to VAL and never did believe in Aramis.” [no. 31]

So it’s technologically infeasible after all. I'm back to my original

interpretation. Aramis is not viable: not only is it operationally unviable,
but the mobile unit itself is impossible to build. As for the secondary
benefits, they're a justification after the fact, a rationalization, for saying
that the whole thing hasn’t been a waste. Norbert is completely
mistaken. We have to go back to doing “classic” sociology, as he calls
it; we've got nothing but scandals, irrationality, coverup operations, and
ex post facto rationalizations.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. larédo, then with the Research Ministry, a specialist in science policy

and evaluation of research programs:
“It's a problem of science policy, of project management, if you like. We
tried to use the CET to do far too many things at once, things that weren't all
on the same level.
“| do understand what you're asking, but as for the question of technological
teasibility, you really have to be organized to be able to answer it. Otherwise,
you don’t know, and here’s where the CET failed: we can’t answer that
question.
“The CET was also supposed to be the head of a line in a network, all at
the same time; that was the fatal flaw.
“The Center for Technological Experimentation is a botched compromise
between experimental development and building the head of a line. The
mechanics of the transition to the CET stage condemned the project to fail. No,

270 ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 that's putting it too strongly; let's say that it ran the risk of leading the project
to failure if the most optimistic possible results weren’t achieved right away.
"The experimental development, in Ficheur’s mind, was aimed at identifying
the technological snags; everything else was secondary.
‘It's easy fo see how it was different trom Orly. Orly was the prototype with
laboratory methods; the CET is still the prototype, but with assemblyline meth-
ods. Aramis wasn't yet in production.
“The CET should have tested all the technological solutions. Half of the
budget was spent on bullshit.
“The CET was conceived with a clear idea, clear to Ficheur, ot adding a
stage that was usually skipped: the stage of experimental development with
industrial techniques. That stage can't be skipped without a lot of money, and
not in a period of financial crisis.
“Michel Ficheur, who was with the MST {which had developed VAL}, and
Cohen, who was taking care of aeronautics at the Research Ministry, had clear
ideas on that subject. Roughly speaking, you have five phases* that really
need to be kept separate. First, there’s basic research, the development con-
cept; broadly speaking, that’s the BardetPetit epoch. Then you have Phase 2;
this is Orly, you use laboratory techniques and you verify that it’s not a complete
load of hogwash. But after that you have a Phase 3, and this was new, this
was experimental development, not with laboratory techniques, now, but with
industrial techniques. In the European Community they call that the pilot project.
You identity the technological snags, that’s all. It the thing doesn't work, you
go back to Phase 2 or even to Phase |. Then, yes, you go on to the
industrialdevelopment phase, and you get ready tor homologation with a
superprecise and superrigorous set of specifications. And then you go to
Phase 5, the demonstration phase. In the case of VAL, this was the first segment;
you get it up and running for several months and then you go on to do a series.
Well, what happened with Aramis? [He draws a sketch—see Figure 19.]
“So according to your schema the CET, instead of covering Phase 3, covers
three phases at once?
"Yes, and even four, because there are moments, in the software, in the
operation, when you get the impression that some people were going back to
Phase |, to basic research, and at the same time others were settling the

*The phases and their numbers do not correspond to the RATP numbers used
up to this point; the latter are assigned only in terms of budget categories corre-
sponding to contract signatures.

ARAMIS |S READY TO GO [AWAY] ar

 oS Phase 1: Concept development

Phase 2: case
OC) The CET
Prototype with Sf»
laboratory means
0)
does
phases all
at once

Sy, ty Phase 5:
Phase 3: Prototype Demonstration atter
with industrial means; homologation
bugs identified; Phase 4:
development of test model Industrial development
Figure 19.

question of the soap the maintenance statf was supposed to use to wash the
windows. You begin fo see the tension? You can't keep tour phases going at
the same time.
“And on the other hand, the RATP was dealing with the problem in Phase
A or 5 as if it were a new metro train, while some Matra engineers were going
back to first principles!
“Instead ot making the technological alternatives comprehensible and com-
parable, the CET locked Aramis in.
“For Ficheur, the CET was a validation, not a homologation.
“But there was too much that wasn’t clear, and anyway the RATP doesn’t
have a handle on that stage. The State doesn’t either, by the way; it isn't able
to say, ‘You're going to develop and validate.’ The ambiguity is there trom the
start. They weren't even able to identify the critical paths on which to focus their
study: for example, the operating conditions were derived from those of VAL,
so it was logical to put off thinking about them until later; they weren't on the
critical path. They existed elsewhere and had been resolved elsewhere.
“Maintenance, on the other hand, ought to have been a problem for the
CET, but it was never dealt with. It was in the original idea; it’s on the critical
path.
“The whole issue of stations and their design was not a problem they dealt
with; they should have postponed it till later.
“Matra was always pushing to combine the phases. That's normal; it’s up

272 ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 to the State, to public authorities, to keep them separate. For Matra, it's an
incredible deal: the company gets paid tor development, with subsystems that

a
interest it; homologation serves to make the whole thing credible. So much for
the Matra side.
“On the RATP side, you have the opposite problem. They ought to distinguish
among phases, but they don't have the expertise. The RATP feeds on genera-
tions of metros that they improve incrementally; so for them, homologation is
very much like incremental development. In any case, it’s not in the culture of
engineers.
“IF people had the courage to say, ‘It's risky, it's seductive, we don’t know
how to make it work yet, so we'd better take it easy, move ahead step by step,’
that would allow projects to evolve in a very different way.
‘At the RATP, the engineers don't know how fo do it—it's that simple. At
Matra, the engineers do know how, but commercial logic led them to suppress
or repress their knowledge. So as soon as the RATP takes on the project, and
it's impossible tor them not to take it on, they apply their logic of homologation.
“They should have taken a difterent approach. They should have done it in
the provinces. It they'd chosen Montpellier, I'm convinced that Aramis would
exist today.” [no. 35]

All right, fine, so now it’s a problem of project management. They

weren't properly organized to answer the question of technological
feasibility. If the CET had been better conceived, they could have
answered my questions. But I don't have 150 million francs to do it
over, personally, plus three years and two hundred employees. I’m just
one guy, and only an intern at that! You have to pay a staggering price
to answer a question that’s really pretty simple. And they keep referring
me to Montpellier, which I know nothing about.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Coquelet, an official with the Ile-de-France Region:

“Overall, it's a failure as a transportation system but not as research—con-
trary to what you're saying. Lacking more precise intormation, | think there were
repercussions, tor SACEM not very convincing ones, for the second-generation

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY) 273

 a
VAL. You'll see, we're going fo find pieces of Aramis in Matra’s rockets. There
were cultural repercussions as well: the more or less unanimous acceptance,
except by the unions, of automatic piloting, and acceptance by the SNCF of
the SACEM guidance system.
“No, | think you really have to qualify the notion of total failure.
"You should ask M. Fourcade about the reaction of the regional repre
sentatives. | myself brought the regional transportation commission to see VAL
and Aramis in the winter of 1986. The visit was divided into two stages. First,
we saw the vehicle and tried it out; at that point it was under manual control.
The impact was very positive.
“Then we took them to the hangar, where there was a suspended module;
we looked at the interior, the physical components. They shrieked in horror: ‘It's
a Formula One, it’s monstrous, it’s hypertragile.’ They began to divide up the
price to see how many Rolls Royces they could buy for the money. Here, the
reaction was unanimously negative.” [no. 34]

Aramis, poor Aramis—now elected officials are sticking their

noses in as if they really counted, poor blokes. People are telling
themselves now that you didn’t die in vain, because pieces of you will
turn up in Matra’s rockets! What’s worse, now youre reduced to
cultural repercussions; thanks to you, specialists in the classic metro
have gotten used to the idea of automation! You were only a pretext.
A red flag to distract people long enough to stick a few banderillas into
the poor populace and force members of the drivers’ unions to give up
their trade.

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Pierret, elected representative from the city of Paris, in one of the elegant
fake-Renaissance offices in the Hétel de Ville:
“You have the impression that Aramis failed because in the end it didn’t
correspond to the city’s needs?"
“No, it corresponded to a real need, a need that turns up at all levels—on
the Francilienne beltway, on the peripheral boulevards. We have a radial Paris.
On the Petite Ceinture, we needed to do something.

-a74_ ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 "We aren't technicians ourselves, but Aramis seemed well-adapted in terms
of volume and adaptability to the site; plus it had branches to allow pinpoint
service. No, we saw the project in a very favorable light."
‘Later, it deteriorated?”
“Yes, in any event we weren't kept informed; | couldn't tell you why it didn’t
work out; there wasn't enough information about the difficulties.
“There was also—how can | put if?—a phenomenon of irritation after the
fact.
“I'm not trying to say what really happened, just how things felt to people
at the time.
"We saw the RATP build a little station, a little catwalk, a little offshoot, very
well-conceived mechanisms, signal systems, lighting systems, everything very
tine-tuned. It sort of gave the impression of kids having the time of their lives.
“The mayor of Paris went out there [see Photo 15]. lt seemed absurd to
work on the smallest details of the platforms or the signal system when one had
the impression the thing wasn't working. To my knowledge (again, I’m not trying
to give you some sort of absolute truth here}, the stumbling block, the real no-no,
was when the RATP had to face up to the following question: ‘We have to
build a bridge to connect Bercy and Tolbiac.* What do we need to anticipate
tor this bridge? Will we have to put Aramis on it?’ ‘Uh, well, no, Aramis isn’t
going so well, don't take it into account for the bridge.’
“That's how we found out it wasn’t working; aside trom that, there were
leaks, rumors...”
“So, for you, whether it's research or not doesn’t bother you as long as
you re told what to expect.”
“No, it doesn’t bother me. They haven't got it to work? That's normal, but
yes, they should tell us. The probabilities need to be revised periodically, and
we need time to study the alternatives.
“You understand, we're led to expect great things: it’s the wonder of the
century, it’s France seizing the initiative once again, it's Matra, the glory of our
industry, et cetera, et cetera. And then we hear no more about it, nothing more
is said—suddenly, nothing. It's a mysterious thing, we're dealing with high-
brows; it’s government in the most disturbing sense of the word.
“You really need to do exactly the opposite. You need to explain to people

*Two Paris stations located on opposite sides of the Seine. The new bridge is
still supposed to include a modern, lightweight, short-distance transportation system.

ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO [{[AWAY) 278

 on an ongoing basis how things are evolving, if you want society to be more
sympathetic.
“But here, with Aramis, no; it was a panacea, and then all at once it was
a very bad thing. We don’t know whether it’s because it was a technological
failure, or because the officials didn’t want it, or because it was foo expensive.
"| have to say that on our part—here I’m speaking on behalf of the elected
otticials involved—there’s a certain resignation in the face of supreme beings;
we're dealing with the realm of the gods. It’s a subject on which people don't
ask any questions, with the idea that it has cost a great deal of money and
that it's too bad...”
“But even so, as you see it, did the officials’ negative reaction play a role?”
"No, not once: as | see it, it’s like the aerotrain. When it became obvious
that it didn’t work technologically, then the reaction of people like me, elected
otticials, was that the experts should have noticed much sooner that the project
should have been cut. . .”
“But elected officials were offen said to have been reticent about Aramis?”
"| didn't have a negative impression. Some of my colleagues had a some:
what anxious feeling, as if they'd been abandoned to the mercy of a robot.
But it’s like VAL—I've done a lot of skiing, the cabins didn't bother me.
"No, on the whole, we found it rather attractive. The elected officials weren't
against it, and that was already a great plus; but they didn’t fight for it. It's a
realm where they can’t fight. In any event, it was taken out of their hands. No,
you can't blame Aramis on the elected officials.” [no. 37]

The elected officials aren’t responsible; they have no technological

information except press clippings (and I know how trustworthy those
are), and they weren't kept informed about anything. But the funniest
part is that here is an official who is perfectly prepared to accept
technological uncertainties as long as he is kept informed. This
M. Pierret has a lot more good sense than many of them; he would
agree with Ficheur. The point of the CET is to explore the technological
snags, not to let “supreme beings” “play with their toys.” M. Pierret
understands the hazards of the research process better than the techni-
cians do. Necessarily: as a politician, he’s well-acquainted with long
shots.

276 ARAMIS IS READY TO GO {AWAY}

 [INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Fréque at Matra:
“Still, there's one bit of fallout that | hope to hold on to: the seats designed
for Aramis. They’re a great success. I’m going to try to convince the RATP to
keep them in the new VAL at Orly!” [no. 41]

Oh Aramis, unhappy Aramis, they're really kicking you while

youre down. A seat! This is what they've made of you, what they’ve
kept of you. Fifteen years of research for a seat! “Half a billion francs.
The most expensive armchair in the history of technology.” Ah, I can
see the headlines of the tabloids now—f only they would pay attention
to Aramis’ love troubles instead of Lady Di’s.

After taking this plunge into the transcripts, I wasn’t much further
along. With the help—precarious as it had been—-of my mentor’s
sociology no longer available, I clung to the methods of detective novels.
Like Hercule Poirot when he’s stuck, I had written out a list of the
most significant interpretations. They didn’t converge at all. Norbert
was right about that. We had found all the phases innocent, yet I was
incapable of eliminating a single one of the possibilities.
1. Aramis has been perfected and will be built soon.
2. Aramis has been perfected but is too expensive for industrial
construction.
3. Aramis had almost been perfected; more money and more time are
all that would have been needed to complete the experimentation.
4. Aramis has been perfected and would not have been so expensive
if there had been the political will to produce it on a large scale.
5. Aramis has been perfected, is very expensive, and has been aban-
doned politically by the ministries involved.
6. Aramis has been perfected and is very expensive, but has been
abandoned politically by the local Parisian elected officials despite
the support of the ministries concerned with technology.

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO cway)

 7. Aramis has been perfected as a mobile unit, but not as an operating
system.
8. Aramis has been perfected as a mobile unit, and could have been
perfected as an operating system, but would have been very expen-
sive and was abandoned politically.
9. Aramis has not been perfected as a mobile unit.
10. Aramis has not been perfected as a mobile unit because the manu-
facturer has abandoned it in favor of its elder brother VAL.
11. Aramis has not been perfected as a mobile unit because the oper-
ating agency set impossible requirements instead of simplifying the
system.
12. Aramis could not be perfected as a mobile unit, even if the operating
agency agreed to simplify, because then it would no longer be
Aramis but a mini- VAL.
13. Aramis simplified, transformed, transported out of the Paris re-
gion—to Montpellier, for example—could have become techno-
logically and politically feasible.
14. Aramis cannot be perfected as a mobile unit because it is infeasible
with more than three cars.
15. Aramis cannot be perfected, but pieces of Aramis have been per-
fected and have repercussions for other activities.
16. No piece of Aramis has been perfected; everything would have to
be started from scratch if the project were taken up again. But there
are cultural repercussions: Paris has grown accustomed to automa-
tion.
17. No piece of Aramis has been perfected. There are no repercussions;
it is a false innovation.
18. All the questions about repercussions and technological feasibility
and profitability could have been answered if the CET had been
well conceived.
19. It is impossible to judge. The question of the technological possi-
bility of Aramis is a black box.
20. The question of the technological possibility of Aramis must not be
raised, so that the Budget Office will not keep coming around
harassing guided-transportation systems.
21. The question of technological feasibility will not be raised.

j27e ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY}

 My list went from the clearest points to the most opaque. From
lightest to darkest. From most open to most secret. And not a single
element was stable. Either Aramis really existed and it had been killed
(the elected officials, the Budget Office, the politicians had killed it;
there really had been murder, blindness, obscurantism), or else, at the
other extreme, Aramis had never existed: it had remained inconceivable
since 1981, and a different crime had been committed by a different
sort of blindness, another obscurantism; for years on end they’d been
drawing funds for nothing—a pure loss. In the first case, I was explain-
ing Aramis’ unjust death in 1987; in the second, I was explaining Aramis’
unjustified reprise in 1984. But there’s the rub: I couldn’t explain them
both at once, and I couldn’t choose one over the other. Norbert was
right: I was like Buridan’s donkey; I was going around in circles,
indignant at having to do my professor’s work, but furious at being
unable—me, an engineer!—to pull it off better than he could.
While I was rereading, for the tenth time, the report on the end
of the CET from October 1987, I finally found the hidden staircase.
“Good Lord, but of course! That’s it!” I exclaimed, just like Hercule
Poirot.

[DOCUMENT: DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTOMATED COMPONENTS OF

THE ARAMIS SYSTEM; MATRA, OCTOBER 15, 1987; ORIGINAL EMPHASIS]

2.1. Basic Principles of the Aramis System

The principle of trains of variable length makes it possi-
ble:
—to adapt the length of the train easily to the demand for
transportation. It is possible to retain a high quality of
service during slack periods by means of short trains used
at intervals that remain brief;
—to exploit a network with multiple origins and destina-
tions without requiring passengers to transfer, as the
trains demerge and merge on both sides of the switching
points; this type of operation makes it possible, in par-
ticular, to retain brief intervals on the various branches

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 of anetwork, to the extent that these intervals can be equal
to the interval on the common trunk line;
—to offer, inthe most sophisticated version of the
Aramis system, direct or semidirect services, by using off-
line stations; certain pairs of cars froma train may inef-
fect short-circuit the station by taking the main track and
avoid intermediate stops.
In addition to the specific features described above, the
chief characteristics of the system are the following:
—the small size and thus the ease of insertion in an urban
Site, the minimum curve radius being 10 meters without pas-
sengers at the terminus, 25 meters with passengers on the
lines;
—the very brief service interval.

The report presented the 1987 Aramis, word for word, as identical
to Petit and Bardet’s 1970 Aramis. I myself had found twenty-one
interpretations, but the technological documents remained mute about
this dispersion. Aramis had not incorporated any of the transformations
of its environment. It had remained purely an object, a pure object.
Remote from the social arena, remote from history; intact. This was
surely it, the hidden staircase Norbert was looking for. Its soul and its
body, as he would say, never merged.
I saw my professor again only on the eve of the debriefing session
that he called “restitution.” While I was stamping my feet in excitement,
he seemed to be at a low point.
“Oh, I'm all washed up,” he told me. “I’m going to change careers.
Technology isn’t for me. Even in dreams I haven’t been able to embrace
Frankenstein’s creature. I’ve pulled away in horror. I’ve been a coward.
I haven't reached any credible conclusion. I’m going to go back to
classical culture. Do theology again. Reread Tacitus, as my Polytechnique
colleague Finkielkraut advises. Habermas is right, after all; there’s no
love, no culture, in technologies. The farther behind you leave them,
the better you think. How about you, what have you found? We do
have to turn in a report. And you're the engineer, after all.”

| 280 ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY)

 “T was! I could have been! I was going to be! And youre the one
who dragged me into this ‘mission impossible.’ And you're asking me
to pass judgment in your place? It’s your job to present the conclusions.”
I showed him the 1987 document.
“But we've read that a hundred times,” he said dejectedly.
“They've been saying the same things for fifteen years, ever since Petit
and Bardet. Nonmaterial couplings, small size, adaptability to the sites,
no transfers, comfort for seated passengers, a network with multiple
origins and destinations. It’s all there. Where does it get us?”
“But that’s just the point—it doesn’t get us anywhere. Look at
the date: October 1987, one month before Aramis’ death. Aramis has
been exactly the same for seventeen years. The basic concept hasn't
undergone any transformation, any negotiation, except for the pair of
cars and the ten seats. It’s held up against all comers. Yet you inter-
viewed quite a few skeptics! Things have happened in the last fifteen
years! And now, look at my list: the interpretations are all over the
map.”
His eyes lit up when he had run down the list.
“You see,” I continued triumphantly. “Nothing changed it. It didn’t
incorporate any skepticism, any random event. It reaches the moment
of death absolutely intact, fresh as the day it was born. Without aging,
without being ‘degraded,’ without being ‘adulterated,’ as they all say.
On the one hand, Aramis; on the other, my little chart.”
“But wait, I don’t understand,” Norbert interrupted, more and
more intrigued. “There’s absolutely no relationship between these two
documents.”
“Exactly. Does Aramis absorb the 600 pairs of cars?”
“No, operational viability comes later, at the end of the road.”
“Do they transport it to Montpellier?” |
“Ah! No, everybody talks about it, but it remains a pure possibil-
ity.”
“Do they increase its height so as to be able to include standing
passengers and restore elasticity to the tratfic flow?”
“Oh, no, that’s at the very end, and it isn’t Aramis any more if
people aren't seated.”

ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO {AWAY ae

 “Are they interested in elected officials, in what they think?”
“No, you can’t expect too much from them. They’re dragged into
it only during the final months, and they aren’t happy.”
“Do they take into account the skeptics at Matra or at the RATP?”
“No, not at all.”
“Well then, there you have it, Norbert! They don’t discuss it. They
don’t know what research is. They think it amounts to throwing money
out the window! While everything is shifting around inside the Aramis
mobile unit, outside everything is carved in stone. They don’t renego-
tiate. The only one who explicitly accepts research as such is an elected
official who has nothing to say!”
“I’m beginning to understand. Yes, yes, there really is love in
technologies. Poor Habermas! For a minute there I almost agreed with
him. That’s where the formal defect was, the sin, the crime—right in
this chart. Your chart. They didn’t make Aramis a research project. They
didn’t love it. You’ve saved me.”
We hugged each other.
“But then we have to understand,” he continued, as excited now
as I, “whether our interlocutors actually do hate research. We have to
go back to the interview transcripts.”

[INTERVIEW EXCERPTS]

M. Piébeau, technical advisor at the Transportation Ministry:

“Were there warning signals during the course of the CET? Did you have
the impression that it wasn't working?“
"Zero. Not a word, not a single red light. Well, all right, the time frames
were slipping; but after all, that’s already pretty normal in industry, so what can
you expect in state-of-the-art research? Everybody thought things were going
quite well.
“Except of course from the operational standpoint. When the report on
operations came out, then people started asking questions. They noticed that
managing 600 pairs of cars was not so simple; just getting them cleaned was
a real problem.
“You talk about ‘state-of-the-art research,’ but, excuse me, the research part

aaa ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY}

was supposed to be finished in 1982. They were heading toward homologa-
tion, production."
"Yes, but it’s the repercussions that count, atter all."
‘Forgive me for insisting on this, but people thought about repercussions
atter the project was halted. There isn't any document that talks about research
or repercussions before the end of 1987.”
"Yes, of course, but there they thought they were building a line, | mean
before. You do have to talk about lines; otherwise, in transportation, there’s no
money for research. People don’t like research—especially the Finance Minis:
try, obviously."
‘Again, | apologize, but this is really the crucial point. What about you,
did you think it was research or production?"
“I'd be tempted to say that, betore, | really believed in the transportation
system, even if | had some doubts about the technology; but afterward, yes, it
was closer fo research, and besides, technologically, in the end, it worked,
even though it hadn't been perfected. But the repercussions are important; it’s
a good thing, too, because there are already enough skeletons like that in the
closets.” [no. 13]
M. Maire, RATP’s technical director responsible for innovations:
“It hasn't been proved in any case that it was impossible. . ."
‘You've been criticized, as you know, for refusing to do a mini-VAL, for
refusing fo simplitye”
“Those people, the ones who say that, underestimate us. We chose Aramis
because it was more complex, more high-tech, even though our relations with
Matra were pretty complicated.
‘Aramis is a system that is meaningless unless it remains pure. Now all the
PRT systems have gotfen weighed down and have lost their poinHo-point
capacity. If it's watered down, it isn’t interesting.
“So, tor example, with nonmaterial coupling, we thought that would be a
usetul side ettect, but it wasn't our goal.
“The setup was tlawed industrially, detective from the start. Matra wanted
useful fallout right away, while we knew that it wouldn't happen right away—it
never does in advanced research."
‘So then it is research?"
“No [impatiently], we were aiming at the main goal, not for the fallout. The
outcome went well; at the administrative council of the RATP everybody reacted
well: ‘It's not a technological failure; there will be useful fallout.’ They empha-
sized the repercussions in order to avoid sounding negative."

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO [AWAY] | 283

a
 “But then why not say it was research?”
[More and more annoyed] “No, really, it isn’t research, having a CET—it’s
more instructive. VWWe could have lined up research projects without doing a
thing. Orly was much less convincing than the full-scale trial. With research,
you Te throwing money out the window, you're going every whichway.
“No, no, I’m a partisan of the full trial. You have to finalize; that forces
people to get specitic about their ideas. It has to work on the site; | really
believe in the value of the concrete realization . . .”
“Excuse me for dwelling on this, but this is the essential point. Finally, in
1988, the overall project is justified by the repercussions, though people don’t
know exactly what these are, which is normal if you're doing basic research;
but when | fell you it’s research you say no, it’s finalized, it’s full scale?”
“But how do you expect to finance a research budget like that? It’s impos-
sible; it’s not aeronautics, or nuclear power. It really does have to be finalized,
reusable; there has to be a line.”
“But in the end, there isn't any line, or any research either.”
"Of course there is! There’s the fallout: it's irrigating the entire world of
transportation, and it’s been highly profitable to Matra—to us, too, in the end.”
[no. 22, pp. 15-20]
M. Gontran, technical advisor in Fiterman’s cabinet:
“But you knew it was state-otthe-art, hyperrefined technologically, that it
looked more like research and that consequently, if you wanted useful fallout,
it was crucial not fo tinalize, not to shut down too quickly?”
“There's the whole problem in the relationship between technicians and
politicians.
“Politicians skim over this sort of detail as soon as the DTT or the RATP says
the thing can work. If the press has got hold of it as well, there’s a real
stampede. It’s the logic of the media.
"Okay, it's true, | didn't oppose it. | made notes. | said, ‘This part and that
one haven't been tested,’ but that sort of doubt is perceived, by politicians, as
typical of researchers having a good time, nitpicking; it's perceived as pertec-
tionism. If it's a question of safety, then yes, that interests them, but the rest, no."
‘A research project can't be sold as a research project? Why does it always
have to be packagede”
“Because it's politically unmanageable. Because of the announcement et
fect, you can't sell a project and ask for five years. The central administration
can't understand the research process. You can't want to go back over things
that have already been achieved. Research requires too much time.

aoa ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY)

 “it's an atmosphere of generalized positivism. Science has an answer for
everything, and a quick one. There are no direct connections between re
searchers and politicians. This is a big problem. The DTT played the role of a
screen. Since it's aware that it can’t manage the project technologically, if
passes if over to the RATP.” [no. 42]

M. Rescher, director of ground transportation in the ministry at the time of

the interview:
“A research-and-development project on this scale, on a very specitic object,
and with uncertain prospects for commercialization—there’s no way it can get
financing. So the idea was to spread out the burden of financing between the
Region and the manufacturers, and for that they had to say they intended to
build a line. It’s clear that for the Region, research isn't its mission; as for the
manufacturers, well, it's normal, they expected useful fallout in terms of produc-
tion.”
“But why didn't the uncertainty about the existence of the line have a
negative impact on the CET? On its missions?”
"You have a point, but we were always told that the line and the three
billion francs to finance it weren‘t guaranteed at all.
“The doubts about the technological aspects never got to me; we were told
that the motor ‘works.’
“You're right about the ambiguity between research and development; there
you're touching on a real problem. But you can’t put 150 million francs into if
if you don't say that it can be integrated with the beginning of a line, with a
real publictransportation system.
‘At the same time, it’s true that it’s not very logical, since in the phasing they
shouldn't have started with the boulevard Victor."
“But then, why not spend much less on the CET, and really test Aramis?”
“Well, because you need to promise a line. Again, without that you don't
have the Region behind you; you probably don’t have Matra.”
“But since, in the end, you don’t have a line at all. . .2”
“Yes, | see the problem; but if it’s too tar ahead of its time, does that motivate
people? Certainly not the Region.
“| think there’s another problem: it’s that we at the DTT weren't informed
about the technological concerns. Government oversight of businesses and
operating agencies is not cutand-dried. The technicians push the project ahead
and they take a certain pride in not letting the problems reach us, but we can’t
put a cop behind every researcher.
“As far as we're concerned, all the doubts arose after the codicil, here,

ARAMIS |S READY TO GO (AWAY) 288

 when we talked about it. The elected officials didn’t want it, the economic
studies were bad, operation was becoming impossible, technologically it was
ditticult—but all that was after the codicil. From 1984 to 1987, as far as |
could tell, there were no obvious problems except some delays, but that's
normal.” [no. 38]
M. Antoine, at the RATP. on the executive floor:
“if | understand correctly, you supported the CET but not Aramis?”
“Yes, you could put it that way. For me, as an engineer, getting the rotary
motor to exceed 30 kilowatts, that’s terrific. If it worked, there'd be no more
reduction gears, no more elasticity—it'd be great. For the time being, we don’t
know how to do it, but maybe someday we will.
‘And electronic coupling is the same story. If we’d done the development,
in the CET, it would be colossal, on the European scale, and we'd have said,
‘Here's the development, now we have to keep going’. . .
“| always told Matra: ‘There's just one thing that interests me, and that's
electronic coupling, if it's cheaper than the mechanical version.’ Aramis would
have made its contribution to the research on lowering materials costs; that's
what | was hoping for trom the CET.
It it had been up to me, | would have preferred to spend 100 million francs
with all the builders working together. | would have said: ‘VWWe've made VAL,
the first generation, now we have to shift over to the second-generation VAL,
which should have the same capabilities but cost 30 percent less.’ That’s what
| would have done in 1984, but they didn’t ask my advice.
“There was some usetul fallout, though—otherwise it wouldn't bear thinking
about.
‘Automated mechanisms ought to evolve according to modular concepts,
like Lego, in the early stages, and then in standardized black boxes. | was
expecting they'd be able to pull a speed-control module out of Aramis, for
example. For the time being, they're bringing a specific solution to every
specific problem.”
“But why not turn the CET into an R&D project, then? The modular approach
is entirely different from trying to build a complete system.”
“Because it’s impossible. The industrial milieu is a battleground. They pick
away at each other, they're like roosters on a pile of manure pulling out each
other's teathers, and pretty soon they won't have any feathers left! . . ."
“| still don’t understand: since it is research, why not say so?”
“Because the CET was tied up with the hope of constructing a line and with

aes _ ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY}

 a prudent approach on the part of the RATP, which was both enthusiastic and
cautious.
"They couldn't sell the project except by saying it was feasible; this was
packaging, to come up with adequate tunding."
“But by doing modular research, they would have spent less, they would
have interested more people, and they wouldn't have left the impression that
they'd failed, they could really say there was useful fallout. VWWhereas now, the
fallout argument gives the impression that it’s, how can | put it, a rationalization.”
[long silence.] "| do see the stumbling block. Yes, it does call into question
the decisionmaking process."
“There wasn't a lot of discussion.”
“It was a very deliberate action on the part of the general director and the
president. | have to say that there was no discussion among the people who
had things to contribute.
“| can't be much clearer than that.
“Skeptics were considered retrograde. It’s hard fo argue in a situation like
that.“[no. 36]

“Well, now we have the key to the puzzle,” I exclaimed enthusi-

astically; “the fallout from advanced basic research always comes after
the failure of the project! The whole thing should have been a research
project. They abandoned technology while thinking that it was going to
be finalized all by itself, that it was autonomous, that they’d see how
things worked out afterward, that it had to be protected from its
environment.”
“Yes. They really succeeded in separating technology from the
social arena! They really believe in the total difference between the two.
To cap it off, they themselves, the engineers and the technologists,
believe what philosophers of technology say about technology! And in
addition, research for them is impossible, unthinkable; its very move-
ment of negotiation, of uncertainty, scandalizes them. They throw
money out the window, but they think research means throwing money
out the window.”
“Not enough negotiation!”

ARAMIS IS READY TO GO (AWAY} 287

 “No, no, not enough love! Love and research—it’s the same
movement. They abandoned Aramis so as not to compromise it; they
committed the only sin that counts—the sin of disincarnation. They're
hardened positivists; they believe the soul and the body are distinct,”
murmured my mentor, completely enraptured.

aes ARAMIS 1S READY TO GO (AWAY]

EPILOGUE: ARAMIS UNLOVED

Quai des Grands-Augustins: all the major players in the Aramis

affair are seated around a large oval table. The project heads from Matra,
the RATP, the Region, the research institutes, and the government
ministries have all been convoked by the clients of the study. Only the
elected officials are missing.
“In detective stories there is always a moment when all the
suspects and their buddies gather in a big circle, quaking, to hear
Inspector Columbo or Hercule Poirot name the perpetrator,” Norbert
began.
“The guilty party is often the one who is the most ill at ease, who
says foolish things and gives himself away. Yet even though our situation
this evening bears some likeness to that one, even though you've been
summoned here, we're not in a detective story, for two reasons.
“First, because today, around this table, the person doing the most
quaking, the one who’s going to say the most foolish things, who’s going
to give himself away, is me. Don’t go looking for any other perpetrator.
“No, I'm not Hercule Poirot—I’m not going to reveal the truth,
unveil the guilty party, or unmask anyone. We get the truth only in
novels, and this isn’t a novel. In real life, reality sets anyone who looks
for it to quaking all over.
“It isn’t easy to restitute what killed Aramis in this company, under
your watchful eyes, knowing that you have often given me information
 about each other in strict confidence. And I must betray no secrets, yet
you are expecting me to uncover the secret.
“Don't worry, I can no longer escape.
“But sociologists are often noted for being good at getting them-
selves off the hook. They practice a scorched-earth policy and then
disappear as soon as the interviews are over; they go off to talk to their
peers, other sociologists; they don’t give a damn about what their
‘informants,’ as they put it, will say; and anyway the informants have
to be forgiven—they don’t know what they're doing.
“But today, it is to you that I am making restitution, and what I
am restituting is what you have told me. What I have to be forgiven
for is everything I know, everything you've said to me. You are the ones
who trained me; you are also my judges. You are the ones before whom
I have to make myself understood, because I have tried to understand
you. You are the ones I do not want to betray, yet you are expecting
me to pass judgment. You are quaking—less than I am, of course, but
still, we are even, because you are the judges of my judgment as I am
of yours.
“The second reason that what we are doing here cannot be equated
with the final chapter of a detective story is that Aramis was not
murdered.
“Aramis is dead, but there was no murder. There is no perpetrator,
no guilty party. There is no particular scandal in the Aramis affair. The
funds expended and the time frame are normal. There has been no
scandal. The Personal Rapid Transit concept is somewhat out of fashion,
but failing to follow fashion is not a crime, and tomorrow people will
no doubt be talking about PRTs again. The Petite Ceinture line needed
to be equipped; it still needs something on its tracks; tomorrow it will
probably be outfitted with something that will look very much like
Aramis, at least in its dimensions. You have all told me the same thing,
one way or another: every part of Aramis was necessary; each one still
corresponds to a need and will most likely resurface later. No, there’s
nothing scandalous here. Everybody, every one of you, believed you
were doing the right thing. There wasn’t a shred of wickedness in this
collective drift of good intentions. Even the Machiavellianism—and

280 EPILOGUE
there was a bit of that—-was not pursued vigorously enough to let us
designate a mastermind or a bad guy. Lined up together, all the
accusations—and there were many, some of them pretty potent—can-
cel each other out. From the standpoint of justice—even from the
standpoint of the immanent justice that has you all sweating a little,
that of the Budget Office—there would be a finding of no cause.
“Yet the good intentions drifted. Aramis died in 1987, Aramis
came back to life in 1984, it didn't take place, it did take place.
“We are gathered this evening around Aramis, around an object
that did not take place but that was not without object. The proof is
that we all loved it. I myself am an outsider in the world of guided
transportation, and I too have been susceptible to the contagion. I don’t
mind telling you all that I really loved it. I shed real tears as I followed
the ups and downs of this being that asked to exist, to whom you
offered existence.
“If Aramis didn’t exist, it would have to be invented. If Aramis
had not tried to exist, it would have had to be invented. If you had not
tried to invent it, you would have failed in your mission. Anyone who
does not feel this every single day, taking the metro or getting into an
automobile or swearing in a traffic jam, is not part of our circle, has

ic
no claim on our attention.
“Yet we were wrong, we made mistakes, we misled one another.
Where is the error? Where is the crime? Maybe the question needs to
be put differently: Where is the sin?
“Aramis has been fragile from the outset—we all know that; not
fragile in just one respect, in one weak link, as with other innovations,
but fragile on all points. It is limited——“hyperrefined,” as you put it.
The demand for it is undefined, the feasibility of the vehicle is uncertain,
its costs are variable, its operating conditions are chancy, its political
support—like all political support—is inconsistent. It innovates in all
respects at once—motor, casing, tracks, chips, site, hyperfrequencies,
doors, signal systems, passenger behavior. And beyond all this, it is
hypersensitive to variations in its environment. A case of shilly-shallying:
the history of Aramis is proof. Not one ministerial portfolio has changed
hands without Aramis’ coughing and catching cold.
 “Yet in spite of its fragility, its sensitivity, how have we treated it?
“Like an uncomplicated development project that could unfold in
successive phases from the drawing boards to a metro system that would
run with 14,000 passengers an hour in the south Paris region every
day, twenty-four hours a day.
“Here is our mistake, one we all made, the only one we made.
You had a hypersensitive project, and you treated it as if you could get
it through under its own steam. But you weren't nuclear power, you
weren't the army; you weren't able to make the ministries, the Budget
Office, or the passengers behave in such a way as to adapt themselves
to Aramis’ subtle variations, to its hesitations and its moods. And you
left Aramis to cope under its own steam when it was actually weak and
fragile. You believed in the autonomy of technology.
“If the Budget Office can kill Aramis, what should you do, if you
really care about it? Impose yourselves on the Budget Office, force it
to accept Aramis. You can’t do that? Then don’t ask Aramis to be capable
of doing it on its own. If elected officials from the south Paris region
can kill Aramis, what should you do? Make them change their minds,
or get other ones elected. You don’t think you have the power? Then
don’t expect that Aramis will. The laws of physics and the three-body
problem make it impossible to calculate the displacements of more than
three pairs of cars? Can you change physics, redo Poincare’s calcula-
tions? No? Then don’t charge Aramis’ pairs of cars with the overwhelm-
ing task of handling, all by themselves, knowledge that even God
Almighty may not have. It’s only in horror stories and epistemological
treatises that omniscient humanoids invade the world on their own and
reshape it to their own needs. In worlds like theirs, don’t ask the
impossible. You want Aramis to be automated, irreversible, real? It will
be, it could be, it could have been. But at the beginning it is still unreal,
reversible, manual, terribly manual. Don’t ask Aramis, don't ask a
project, to do something you, as individuals and corporate bodies, find
yourselves incapable of accomplishing, Either you change the world to
adapt it to the nominal Aramis, or else, yes, you need—you needed—to
change Aramis.

02 EPILOGUE
 “But then you would have needed to acknowledge that this was
a research project.
“Oh, you do love science! You were formed by it in your graduate
schools. As for technologies, you drank in its certainties with your
mother’s milk. But you still don’t love research. Its uncertainties, its
whirlwinds, its mixed character, its setbacks, its negotiations, its com-
promises—you turn all that over to politicians, journalists, union
leaders, sociologists, writers, and literary critics: to me and people like
me. Research, for you, is the tub of the Danaides: it’s discussion leading
nowhere, it’s a dancer in a tutu, it’s democracy. But technological
research is the exact opposite of science, the exact opposite of tech-
nology.
“Ah! If only Aramis could speak! If it were Aramis speaking to
you here instead of me, if it were he who had called you together,
gathered you around himself, he would have plenty to say about those
changes you didn’t ask him for in order, so you said, to respect him,
to keep him pure.”

Yes, he’d say to M. Etienne, who is here today, you modified me

from top to bottom, but to turn me into what? A mini-VAL, a more
compact version of my elder brother VAL. I was willing, I would have
been quite prepared to come into existence in that form; but then you,
M. Maire, who are here today, you hated me, you accused M. Etienne
of degrading me, of adulterating me. I interested you only if I remained
complex, I had to have all my electronic assets, I had to be able to
couple and uncouple electronically. I would have been happy to do
that; perhaps I could have. But you loved me then in separate pieces,
pieces that could be used again elsewhere, to help out your business, I
don’t know where, in the RER, in Lyon, at Orly. You loved me pro-
vided that I did not exist as a whole. And then you, M. Coquelet, you
who represent the Region: if I did not exist as a whole, you wanted to
hear no more about me, you threatened to have nothing more to do
with me—you and your billions of francs and your millions of passen-
gers. Then people grew frantic on my account. They had meetings
about me again. I had to exist as a line so everybody would still love
me, so the Budget Office would support me. I would have been happy

EPILOGUE 203
 to be a line. What more could I ask of the god of guided transportation?
But then what a fuss there was, in your own services! The engineers
threw up their hands. M. Fréque, who is here today, said I was impos-
sible, and you, M. Grinevald, you called me infeasible; you even ac-
cused me, I remember, of being a subsonic Concorde, inoperable, un-
profitable, and passengerless, or, ’m not sure, maybe an attraction for
an amusement park. What? I could have existed, for one of you, but
on the condition that I should exist as a prototype and not transport
anyone! I would have been happy to be something, in the end, anything
at all—but first you have to agree among yourselves. I can’t be every-
thing to everybody. The finest project in the world can’t give more than
it has, and what it has is what you give it.

“That is what Aramis would say, and perhaps he’d be even less
tactful than I. Perhaps he’d forget himself and accuse me in turn of
faintheartedness.”

You’re really too gutless with them, he would cry out suddenly like
a condemned man who challenges his lawyer and addresses himself
indignantly to the court. You’re in cahoots with them. I have no use
for your sweet-talking ecumenicism. Not to blame anyone—that’s too
easy. No, no, he would perhaps say, a terrible doubt has struck fear
into my heart time after time. If they cannot reach agreement on my
behalf, if they refuse to negotiate with one another over what I am
supposed to be, it’s because they want me to stay in limbo forever. For
them, I’m just something to talk about. A pretext-object. One of those
plans that gets passed around for years so long as they don’t really exist.
No, no, you didn’t love me. You loved me as an idea. You loved me as
long as I was vague. The proof is that you didn’t even agree as to
whether I am possible in principle, whether my essence does or does
not imply my existence. Even that would be enough for me. Oh, how
happy I would be to return to limbo if I knew that I was at least
conceivable. I won’t be granted even that much.
You built the CET by mistake, to salve your consciences, to assuage
your guilt; there had been so much talk about me for so long, I really
needed to exist, to move into action. But in reality no one, during those

-ae4 EPILOGUE
years, could hold on to any trace of the reasons for producing me. You
got yourselves all mixed up in your goals and strategies. Of what ends
am I the means? Tell me! You hid from one another in order not to
admit that you didn’t want me. You built the CET the way human
couples produce one child after another when they’re about to divorce,
trying to patch things up. What horrible hypocrisy, entrusting to the
whimperings of the most fragile of beings the responsibility for keeping
together creatures that are much stronger than itself.
Whatever you do (you say) don’t argue! Don’t doubt! Don’t nego-
tiate! Don’t fight! But that’s not how one loves brothers of my sort.
Silence is for me to bear, not you. You humans need to talk, argue, get
mad, that’s your role in this imperfect world. A frightening conspiracy
of silence is what imposed silence on me. I would exist, on the contrary,
if you had spoken, you silent ones. And the funniest thing of all is that
you really thought you’d said enough about me. You really had the
impression that twenty years of discussion, of plans and counterplans,
were enough, that it was time to quit, time to move on at last to the
serious things; you had the impression that I had to be finished. But
that is precisely what finished me off. No, no, you didn’t argue for
seventeen years, since you didn’t redo me, didn’t redesign me from head
to toe. You skirted the issue, you concerned yourselves only with two
mobile units, not with all of me. Does God abandon his creatures when
they are still of unbaked clay? And even if you don’t believe in God,
does nature abandon its lineages in the sketchy state in which fossils
are found? Isn’t Darwin right? Isn’t creation continuous?
It was so I wouldn’t be degraded! he will perhaps shout out with a
sardonic laugh.
They wanted to keep me pure of all compromise! “Be suspicious of
purity, it’s the vitriol of the soul.” They wanted to keep me nominal,
as they put it. Noumenal, rather. Well, too bad for them, since because
of that insistence on purity, what am I? Nothing but a name! And what
a name, by the way! How could they stick me with the name of that
mustachioed swashbuckler?
But no, they didn’t want to complicate their lives. Everything in its
time. Later for the crowd problems; later for the social problems; later
for the operating problems. There'll be plenty of time to find a place
to use this stuff. As if I were rootless! As if I were a thing! As if things
were things! Let’s not lose time on complicated problems, you said!
But didn’t you really lose time, in the long run? They wanted to
concentrate on the components, the motor, the casing, one mobile unit,
then two, then three. But that’s not how we exist, we beings made of

EPILOGUE 298.
 things. That’s not what brought my elder brother VAL into existence.
“Technologically perfected,” you say. But how do you dare treat me
that way, when I don’t exist? How can you say of something that it is
perfected, achieved, finished, technologically impeccable, when it does
not have being! As if existence were additional, as if it were supplemen-
tary, accidental, added from without to beings of reason! As if breath
fell miraculously onto our bodies of clay! Accursed heretics who thus
curse your own bodies full of souls, your own incarnate God, and your
own Darwinian nature in perpetual agitation. But you yourselves
would not exist, at that rate!
We are not little bits added one to another while waiting for a
totality to come from elsewhere. We are not without humanity. We are
not. We are—ah! what are we? Whirlwinds, great loops of retroactions,
troubled crowds, searching, restless, critical, unstable, complex, yes,
vast collectives. They wanted simple, clear, technological solutions. But
we technological objects have nothing technological about us. Are all
you engineers ready to hear me sputter with rage one last time, before
I disappear forever into the void from which I could have been saved?
You hate us; you hate technologies ... A local elected official knows
more about research, about uncertainty, about negotiation, than all you
so-called technicians do. This message is veiled from the scientists and
the literati, and revealed to the meek and the poor! They say they love
me and don’t want to search for me! They say they love technology
and they don’t want to be researchers! They say they love nonhumans
and they don’t love humans! And then there are the others, who say
they love humans and who don’t love us, us machines! Oh, you really
do live in Erewhon, you live among things and you think you remain
among yourselves. Well then, may you perish like the residents of
Erewhon, along with the object of your hatred!

“But no, no, if Aramis had been able to summon you to his side,”
Norbert went on, enraptured, “if Aramis formed the center of a great
unanimous circle, he would not speak in order to point out where you
went astray. He would not speak at all. Because then he would exist!
As Samuel Butler says in the Book of Machines, “Won't it be the glory of
machines that they can do without the great gift of speech? Someone
has said that silence is a virtue that makes us agreeable to our fellows.’
Ah, Aramis, you would finally enjoy that silence. Why would you waste

208 EPILOGUE a
your time speaking? What you aspire to is not bearing the ‘I.’ On the
contrary, your dignity, your virtue, your glory, lie in being a ‘one.’ And
it is this silence, this happy anonymity, this depth, this heaviness, this
humanity, that we have denied you. I am speaking in your place, I am
offering you the awkward detour of a prosopopoeia, but it is precisely
because you are dead forever. ‘It’ wanted to become not the subject of
our discourse, but the object, the tender anonymous object by means
of which we would travel in Paris. Is that so hard to understand? It
wanted the happy fate of VAL, its ‘elder brother,’ as it naively put it.
It wanted to be silence, and thing, and object, and to spread throughout
its great, finally mute body the flow of our displacements. And you, by
not speaking more among yourselves, and I, by speaking so much of
it, have turned it forever into a being of reason, the pitiful hero of
an experimental novel. Neither autonomy nor independence. Thus, it
does not exist, since it is speaking here, since it can speak through my
mouth, instead of being over there on the boulevard Victor, a happy
thing.”
And Norbert sat back down to stunned silence.
“Ahem, ahem, thank you very much, Professor H.,” coughed the
presiding official who had ordered the study. “I must say, it’s a real
novel you ve done for us. I suppose there are reactions, questions. a
Yes, M. Etienne?”
The discussion lasted until I was asked to present, more prosai-
cally, the practical solutions that we had agreed to recommend to the
RATP.

At the end of my internship, in June 1988, I met Norbert for the

last time.
“What are you going to do now?” I asked him.
“I'd really like to publish that story, since everybody tells me it’s
a novel.”
“But it’s unpublishable! What about confidentiality? And besides,
you didn’t find the solution; you weren’t able to prove that if you’d
done the study five years earlier you would have seen the flaw and saved
millions.”

EPILOGUE 287
 “ Obligation to use all appropriate means, not to produce results” —that’s
what the fine print says in all our standard contracts. And we certainly
didn't skimp on the means, I don’t think. Confidentiality isn’t a problem;
I'm not denouncing anyone, I’m not laying any blame, there’s no scandal,
no wrongdoers. It’s a collective drift, there were only good intentions.
And I'd actually like to do a book in which there’s no metalanguage,
no master discourse, where you wouldn't know which is strongest, the
sociological theory or the documents or the interviews or the literature
or the fiction, where all these genres or regimes would be at the same
level, each one interpreting the others without anybody being able to
say which is judging what.”
“But that’s impossible; and besides, it would be incredibly boring.
And what good would it do?”
“Well, it would be good for training people like you. And it would
be good for educating the public, for getting people to understand,
getting them to love technologies. I'd like to turn the failure of Aramis
into a success, so it won't have died in vain, so...”
“You're funny, Norbert. You want to reeducate the whole world
and you want to produce a discourse that doesn’t control anyone!
Readers want a line, they want mass transit, not point-to-point, not
personalized cabins. You want to know what I think? You’re about to
embark on another Aramis project, another wild-goose chase. As infea-
sible as the first one. Remember the lesson of Aramis: “Don’t innovate
in every respect at once.’ Your book is just one more rickety endeavor,
ill-conceived from birth, a white elephant.”
“But if it were viable, at least it would be useful to others, to
future engineers like yourself. To help them understand research.”
If I had indeed discovered the importance of research. . . I was
hardly convinced by Norbert’s science, but since it was he, after all,
who was to give me a grade on my internship, | grunted and fell silent.
He continued.
“Never mind, I'll write one more report, another colorless text,
an expert’s audit; I'll follow the advice of the Times: ‘Make it boring.”
After a few moments, he went on in a tone of feigned indifference
(for I knew he wanted to keep me in his lab):

-208_ EPILOGUE
 “And you, what are you going to do now?”
“T hardly know how to tell you . . . Sociology is fascinating, but
I think . . .” Then I took the plunge: “I’m going to be an engineer
again, a real one; I’m going to work for a big software company.”
“Too bad for me, but I suppose it’s good for you, it surely pays
better,” Norbert said in a tone at once bitter and paternal. “At least
you've learned some things you can use, haven't you?”
“Uh, yes, the glorious uncertainty of technological research; but
to tell the truth, in fact, I think I’m going to work now more on real
technological projects, trying, really, I mean, to forget, well, not to
forget, but to set aside . . .; this was after all, don’t take this the wrong
way, a parenthesis.”
“Because Aramis . . .?”
“Yes, no, of course, but anyway, I’d like, I think, I hope to come
across a technological project, purely technological, I’m not sure how
to put this, but they've got a really well-conceived project, really
doable.”
“Ah! ah!” Norbert interjected sarcastically. “So you haven't been
immunized? You think Aramis is a special case? That they could have
done better? That it’s pathological? I’ve never seen such a stubborn
engineer. Aramis will have died in vain if you think it was a monster.
Aramis gave you the best. . .”
“Stop, stop, no, I’m not abandoning Aramis, and you know why?
On the contrary, I’m continuing it. The place where I’m going to
work—you ll never guess what they're working on. A huge project to
develop an intelligent car. And you know what they talk about in their
documentation?” I went on proudly. “Adjustable mobile sectors, non-
material couplings, reconfigurable trains, ultrasound devices, UGTs! Yes,
it’s true—it’s Aramis backward. Instead of starting with public trans-
portation to end up making a car, they're starting with private cars and
turning them into public transportation, into trains. You see, now, I'm
not ungrateful! But there, at least, it’s technologically perfected; they’re
spending billions on it.”
“More than on sociology, I understand. And what’s your project
called?”

EPILOGUE [299
 “Prometheus.”
“Prometheus! The ‘smart car’?” And my former mentor burst out
laughing vengefully. “And it’s perfected? And it’s technologically feasi-
ble? But the stealer of fire is Aramis to the tenth power, my poor fellow.
Frankenstein’s monster looks like the Belvedere Apollo compared to
this project.”
“Not at all,” I replied, piqued. “It’s technologically state-of-the-
art, but feasible.”
“After one year! Listen to him, look what he’s saying! He's
forgotten nothing and learned nothing. But in five years I'll come along
and study it for you, your Prometheus, my poor little engineer, theyll
be asking me for another postmortem study . . .”
“In any case you won't have me as your assistant,” I said stiffly. I
closed the door of the office and left Norbert H. to his “refined”

eee
sociology. As for me, from now on I'd be devoting myself to hard
technology.
Ah, my internship grade? A well-deserved A+.

Two years later, on the plane coming back from a colloquium on

“smart cars,” I was stunned to read the following article in the April
28, 1990, San Diego Union:

“Calleda ‘personal rapidtransit’ system, the ideais to

construct a network of lightweight, automated rail lines
that make it possible for commuters to direct individual
rail cars to a specific destination, without making interme-
diary stops,” Franzen told reporters here.
“You would walk into a station and buy a ticket,” he said.
“The vehicle will read that ticket and take you exactly
where you want to go.
“The technology exists all over the world,” Franzen said.
“Tt has not been put together inthis form anywhere inthe
world...”

200 EPILOGUE
 “Damn!” I said to myself. “If they’d just waited a couple more
years, Aramis would have been on the right path, technologically! “This
revolutionary transportation system is soon going to transform the city
of Chicago . . . Thereby solving the problems of congestion, . . .
pollution.’ But it’s Bardet, it’s Petit all over again! . . . ‘A billion
dollars.’ They should have held out. It’s all becoming profitable again.
I should have stuck with guided transportation . . .”

EPILOGUE 208
GLOSSARY ;
A-320 An airplane built by the European consortium Airbus
, Industry. Designed to compete with big North Ameri-
can commercial aircraft, it was a major success for
Charles Fiterman (q.v.).
actuator A word which, in robotics, designates any motor that
exercises physical force, as opposed to an electronic
circuit that conveys information.
aerotrain A mass-transit system that resembled Aramis and that
underwent extensive testing from 1965 to 1976. Ac-
cording to the Encyclopédie Larousse: “The whole his-
tory of the aerotrain, which has lost government sup-
port in France, at least for the time being, after an
initial period of heavy investment, is intertwined with
the history of the various means of propulsion that
were tried. But its history also reflects opposition
from other transportation systems, railroads in particu-
lar, which saw the aerotrain as a serious rival that
they did not want to exploit for their own purposes,
despite proposals made along these lines.” This failure,
like the relative failure of the Concorde, had repercus-
sions for the Aramis project at several points.
AIMT Automatisation Integrale du Mouvement des Trains: A
plan devised by the RATP that would completely auto-
mate the Parisian subway—that would make it, in ef-
fect, as automated as VAL. Currently, the subways are
automated only in part, since each train has a driver
who can take over in case of failure or emergency.
airgap =A narrow break in an electromagnetic circuit. Its
width affects the motor’s power.
 Alsthom A large company that has long specialized in manufac-
turing locomotives, electrical turbines, and railway
cars.
ANVAR Agence Nationale pour la Valorisation de la Recherche
(“National Agency for the Valorization of Research”).
This state organization provides matching funds for in-
novative projects to be carried out by small private
companies in collaboration with public research labora-
tories.
Aramis Acronym for Agencement en Rames Automatisées de
Modules Independants dans les Stations (“arrangement
in automated trains of independent modules in sta-
tions”). The name is an allusion to one of the four he-
roes of Alexandre Dumas’ well-known novel The Three
Musketeers.

Araval A transit system that, like VAL, would have been auto-
mated; but unlike Aramis, it would have run on a stan-
dard line, without a dense network, without
branchings, and thus without the state-of-the-art elec-
tronics of the nominal Aramis. Orly-Val is in effect a
belated realization of this “downgrading” of Aramis.
Ariane The European space rocket, which was developed
with the aim of breaking the American and Russian
monopoly on satellite launchers. The enterprise is
both a technological and a commercial success, and is
often cited as an example of the usefulness of coopera-
tion among European nations.
AT-2000 One of the many PRT systems dreamed up by Gerard
Bardet. The direct ancestor of Aramis, it was based on
the rather wild idea that train cars could be divided
lengthwise into separable parts. The carrier function
would thus be distinct from the feeder function, as if
the aisles were detachable from the seats.
Automatisme et An engineering company, founded in 1951 by Gérard
Technique _Bardet, that specialized in transport technology.
Balladur Edouard Balladur was minister of finance in the gov-
ernment of Jacques Chirac (1986-1988), during the
period when Aramis was being developed. He later
served as prime minister, from 1993 to 1995.
Bardet Gerard Bardet was a brilliant engineer responsible for
many technological innovations, especially in the field
of transportation. Trained at the Ecole Polytechnique,
he was director of Automatisme et Technique (q.v.)
and held the first patents on Aramis.

208 GLOSSARY
 Bertin Jean Bertin (1919-1975), French engineer who first
worked for SNECMA (q.v.), then set up his own con-
sulting and engineering firm. With Paul Guyenne, he
invented the aerotrain (q.v.).
Bienvenie Fulgence Bienveniie, one of the engineers who de-
signed the Paris subway. See the excellent report pro-
duced under the direction of Maurice Daumas, Analyse
historique de l’évolution des transports en commun dans la
région parisienne, 1855-1930 (Paris: Editions du CNRS,
1977).
Bus Division The “Routier”: one of the two major divisions of the
RATP (q.v.). The other is the “Ferroviaire,” the Rail
Division.

Cabinentaxi One of the many PRT systems——a cross between a

train and a taxi. It was developed in Germany over a
number of years, at the same time that Aramis was be-
ing built and tested.
Cantor Georg Cantor (1845-1918), German mathematician
who developed set theory and demonstrated the exist-
ence of transfinite numbers.
catadiopter A type of reflector, invented by a French astronomer
(at least, this is what the French claim), that is made
of mirrors and lenses—i.e., that operates by means of
both reflection and refraction. Catadiopters are com-
monly found on bicycles, cars, and other vehicles.
CET Centre d’Experimentation Technique (“Center for Tech-
nical Experimentation,” or full-system site study).
This is not a fixed site but rather the name for the
phase during which the chief innovations of a new
technology are tested.
CGT Confédération Générale du Travail: one of France’s
many labor unions—the biggest in terms of member-
ship. In tactics and ideology, it is strongly associated
with the Communist Party, which was still very
influential when the Aramis saga began.
Chausson A company that specializes in the manufacture of cars
and buses and that made the first buses for the RATP.
The Chausson APU 53 was the ancestor of the buses

toss
that run in Paris today.
Chirac Jacques Chirac, head of the Gaullist Party, served as
prime minister of France 1974—1976 and 1986—1988.
He was also the mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995,
and was elected president of France in 1995.
CMD Canton Mobile Deformable (“adjustable mobile
 zone”). As opposed to fixed sections along the track,
the CMD is a responsive zone around each car which
increases or decreases depending on the car’s speed
and its distance from the car behind. It is the equiva-
lent of the safe driving distance for an automobile,
which varies according to speed. The CMD is the soul
of Aramis (see Chapter 6).
Concorde Supersonic plane developed and built by a Franco-Eng-
lish consortium during the presidency of Charles de
Gaulle. It was deemed a major technical success but a
complete commercial failure.
Conseil Général des “General Council on Bridges and Roads”: A supervi-
Ponts et Chaussées sory board that brings together the highest officials
from the prestigious three-hundred-year-old “Corps”
des Ponts et Chaussees, the body that has overseen
much of the French highway system since the time of
Louis XIV. The Corps is made up of a small number
of highly gifted students selected from the Ecole
Polytechnique and sent on to specialized elite engi-
neering schools. In the course of their careers, these
chosen few go on to head various national agencies as
well as the principal semiprivate industries in France.
Unlike their American counterparts, the top French
engineering schools such as the Polytechnique, the
Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines, and the Ecole
Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees are much more pres-
tigious than universities.
conversational A term having nothing to do with the art of the sa-
lon. In cybernetics, it refers to a feedback loop be-
tween a command and its activator.
Dassault Marcel Dassault, hero of the French aircraft industry
and founder of a vast and highly profitable business in
military and civil aircraft after the First World War.
DATAR Delegation a |’Améenagement du Territoire et a PAc-
tion Regionale, a regional planning commission.
DATAR is one of the many institutions that attempt
to redress the imbalance between Paris and the rest
of France by planning more equitable development.
DIT Direction des Transports Terrestres (“Bureau of
Ground Transportation”) of the Transportation Minis-
try. This is the agency that oversees all related re-
search institutes and developers.
ECA Electronique de Commande des Actuateurs (“elec-
tronic activator control”): an electronic interface be-
tween the onboard control unit (UGE) and the subsys-

| 306 GLOSSARY
 tems to be controlled in the car (doors, brakes, steer-
ing).
Eole One of the new, fully automated transit lines that are
now being constructed in the middle of Paris to re-
lieve congestion on the RER.
EPAL Etablissement Public de l’Agglomeration Lilloise: a
semiofficial body that oversees the creation of new
townships and new infrastructure in the Lille Region
in the north of France.
Espace A car designed by Matra and produced by Renault.
The Espace (“Space”) served as the model for the
Aramis cabin.
Ficheur Michel Ficheur was the man behind VAL. Later he
moved to the Research Ministry to oversee transporta-
tion research at a time when the ministry was becom-
ing increasingly powerful. Ficheur developed a method-
ology for supervising research projects in a more
systematic way.
Fiterman Charles Fiterman, a Communist, was France’s trans-
portation minister from 1981 to July 1984. He played
a crucial role in the Aramis story.
FNAC A Paris bookstore chain that created a small-scale,
short-distance transportation system for the parking
garage of its store on the rue de Rennes.
Fourcade Jean-Pierre Fourcade, former minister with the UDF
(a right-of-center party) and first vice-president of the
Ile-de-France Regional Council.
Francilienne beltway A highway around Paris that allows through traffic to
bypass the city instead of clogging its arteries.
Frybourg Michel Frybourg, a graduate of the Ecole Polytech-
nique, founded INRETS (q.v.) and headed it until
1982.

Giraud Michel Giraud, from the same party as Jacques Chi-

rac, held several cabinet posts and served as president
of the Ile-de-France Regional Council.
Giraudet Pierre Giraudet, the RATP’s director from 1971 to
1975, was responsible for a major modernization of
the metro. Under his leadership, the Paris system was
largely automated—with drivers——and the last ticket
puncher disappeared from the Porte des Lilas station.
guided transportation ‘Transportation that runs on rails—subways, trolleys,
commuter trains, and so on.
Habegger A minitrain developed in Switzerland in the early

GLOSSARY 207
 1960s. Based on the monorail, with electric power
and tiny cars, it was never completely automated and
has been used only in amusement parks. Though it
was not a fully fledged PRT, it demonstrated to trans-
portation engineers that systems of intermediate size
and complexity existed between trains and automo-
biles.

heterogeneous Expression coined by John Law to describe the multi-

engineering _plicity of worlds in which an engineer must function
simultaneously in order to construct an artifact. The
phrase is used in opposition to the idea that engineers
deal with nothing but “purely technical” matters. See
John Law, “Technology and Heterogeneous Engineer-
ing: The Case of Portuguese Expansion,” in W. E.
Bijker, T. P. Hughes, and T. Pinch, eds., The Social Con-
struction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the So-
ciology and History of Technology (Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press, 1987), pp. 111-134.
homologation A technological and legal term. To say that the trans-
portation minister and the RATP (the minister's desig-
nated contracting authority) “homologate” Aramis
means that they formally declare the system to be not
only feasible in principle but also safe and authorized
to transport passengers.
hyperfrequencies Extremely high radioelectric frequencies, above 1,000
megahertz. Hyperfrequency makes radioelectric cou-
plings of very high capacity possible with power of
just a few watts.
llede-France Region Since 1982 France has been fighting a tendency to-
ward increasing State control and has been doing so
through a process of decentralization, creating adminis-
trative “regions” with sizable powers and financial
abilities. The Ile-de-France Region is one of these. But
the fact that Paris lies in the middle of it means that
the Region is very complicated to manage, since Paris
is at once a city and the seat of national government,
and is administered by both the elected mayor and a
prefect designated by the government. In addition,
Paris is a département—one of seven smaller administra-
tive units inside the Region. Each of these administra-
tive levels has its own responsibilities and concerns in
the matter of transportation.
INRETS Institut de Recherche sur les Transports (“Institute for
Transportation Research”): a research center depend-
ent on the Transportation Ministry. INRETS examines
 the ministry's technical dossiers, often a difficult task
given the scale of operations——both technological and
financial—of the SNCF, the RATP, and the major auto-
mobile manufacturers.
isotopy In semiotics, the set of procedures which gives the
reader the impression that there is continuity among
the characters and parts of a narrative. The term was
imported into semiotics by A. J. Greimas; see A. J.
Greimas and J. Courtes, Semiotics and Language: An Ana-
lytical Dictionary, trans. Larry Crist et al. (Bloom-
ington: Indiana University Press, 1983).
Lagardére Jean-Luc Lagardere has been president of Matra since
1977.

Lépine competition An annual fair, conceived by a famous prefect of Paris

and first held in 1901. The fair offers inventors of
every stripe the opportunity to present their devices
to one another and to would-be investors. Its name
has become synonymous with weird and useless gadg-
etry.
Matra company ‘French high-tech company (also known as Societé des
Engins Matra), founded in 1945. Under the leadership
of Jean-Luc Lagardere, it has become preeminent in
its field, with major divisions devoted to military appli-
cations, telecommunications, automobile technology,
and mass transit. It is also involved in many activities
relating to publishing and the media. Its branch Matra
Transport is one of the central characters in this
story, since it was set up to handle the business gener-
ated by VAL and, at least in part, by Aramis.
Matra Transport A subsidiary of the Matra company founded in 1972
to develop the VAL system in Lille, as well as Aramis.
It has since become an important company in its own
right, selling automated-transport systems around the
world (e.g., the city of Taipei, and Chicago’s O’Hare
Airport).
Mauroy Pierre Mauroy was prime minister from 1981 to
1984. He was replaced by Laurent Fabius up to the
1986 legislative elections, which were won by the
Right.
Mirage Ill One of the most sophisticated of the Dassault fighter
planes.
Mitterand Francois Mitterand, a moderate leftist, was elected
president of France in 1981. He won reelection for a
second seven-year term in 1988.

GLOSSARY +208
 module A unit that is considered to be reusable in other trans-
portation systems without any specific adaptation to
the particular circumstances of a given site. “Modu-
lar” research is the opposite of “specific” research. In
practice, the complexities of guided transportation
make a modular approach very difficult.
MST Mission Scientifique et Technique (“Scientific and Tech-
nical Mission.”) Branch of the Research Ministry re-
sponsible for the politics of science.
Notebart In the 1970s and 1980s Arthur Notebart was presi-
dent of the Lille urban community, mayor of the city,
and a member of the Chamber of Deputies. He put
all his energy into the VAL project.
orange card A special fare card that allows Parisians to pay just
once a month, or even once a year, for unlimited use
of public transportation within the city and its imme-
diate outskirts. Half the cost of the card is borne by
the passenger's employer. This rate structure makes it
difficult to calculate the profitability of a new invest-
ment—but it does make public transportation in Paris
relatively inexpensive, indeed a real bargain compared
to other costs (as tourists can hardly fail to note).
The low fees are the result of a decision by Pierre
Giraudet (q.v.) to simplify the subway- and train-fare
system.
Orly Rail ‘Traditional rail system that links Paris with Orly Air-
port. It has one major disadvantage: passengers have
to take a bus to reach the terminals.
OrlyVal A VAL system a few kilometers long that was opened
in 1990 to link Orly Airport to the RER station in
the Paris suburb of Antony. Built with private funding,
it quickly went bankrupt—as predicted—and is now
run jointly by the RATP and the SNCF.
PCC Poste Central de Commande (“central command
post”): supervisory hub of the Aramis system. It in-
cludes a computer network, workstations, consoles,
video monitors, and telephones that permit electronic
control and surveillance of the system’s components,
stations, and movements, as well as communication
with maintenance, police, and emergency services.
Petite Ceinture An old rail line that circles Paris and that, for much
of its length, has fallen into disrepair. See map in the
frontmatter.
phonic wheel A cogged wheel that allows very fine calibrations of
its axle’s rotation.

/s10 GLOSSARY
Poma 2000 A PRI system which is based on the same principle
as the ski lifts at mountain resorts and the cable cars
in San Francisco. Each car, which is small and has no
driver, is automatically linked to a continuously run-
ning cable and circulates between stations. The system
has been operating for several years in the French
town of Laon.
Prometheus The code name for a European Community project to
develop “smart cars.”
PRT Personal Rapid Transit: the adaptation of mass trans-
portation to the needs of the individual or small
groups of passengers, in order to fight the hegemony
of automobile transportation. The concept of PRT be-
came very popular during the Kennedy administra-
tion, but it has since fallen out of favor somewhat.
Aramis was the longest-running PRT project. In re-
cent years there has been a renewal of interest in this
technology——a hybrid of car and train.
Quin Claude Quin was a member of the Communist Party,
an elected representative from Paris. He headed the
RATP from 1981 to 1986.
Rafale A military aircraft developed by Dassault amid much
controversy over its cost and specifications. Like
Aramis, it was a symbol of France’s high-tech ability.
Rail Division The “Ferroviaire”: one of the two major divisions of
the RATP (q.v.). The other is the “Routier,” the Bus
Division.
RATP Regie Autonome des Transports Parisiens: the operat-
ing agency responsible for the subways and buses of
the city of Paris and its immediate outskirts. Its status
is intermediate between that of a private enterprise
and that of an administration. Like the SNCF (q.v.), it
functions as both buyer and client: it is responsible
not just for transporting passengers but for designing,
commissioning, and ordering the means of transporta-
tion. The ministry that supervises it has only limited
control over its operations. The agency is the product
of a merger between two companies—one involved
with aboveground transport and the other with under-
ground transport—which had completely different
missions and technical cultures. This difference is still
apparent in the fact that the RATP has two branches—
the Rail Division (“Ferroviaire”) and the Bus Division
(“Routier”)}—and it played a role in the Aramis case,
since Aramis is a hybrid creature, both ferroviaire (it
runs on tracks) and routier (it has a buslike construc-

GLOSSARY pat
 tion). See Michel Margairaz. Histoire de la RATP: La sin-
guliere aventure des transports parisiens (Paris: Albin
Michel, 1989).
refresh time The speed with which the data in a computer or on a
screen are brought up to date.
RER Reseau Express Regional (“Regional Express Net-
work”), a mass-transit system that is saturated during
rush hours in its central Paris stations, especially on
Line A, which runs east-west. Two major competing
projects are slated to reduce the pressure on the RER
network: the RATP’s Meteor (an automated metro sys-
tem for which Matra won the contract), and the
SNCF’s Eole.

Roissy Rail A traditional rail system that links Paris with Charles
de Gaulle Airport. Its major disadvantage is that pas-
sengers must take a bus to reach the terminals.
SACEM An automated guidance system used on traditional
metros (RER). It allows trains to approach each other
more closely than human drivers can permit them to
do: it overrides the safety instructions and enables
trains to follow each other at the hair-raising interval
of one and a half minutes. It was developed at the
same time as Aramis and involves much the same kind
of software.
Saunier-Seité Alice Louise Saunier-Seite, right-wing minister of
higher education and research; the béte noire of re-
searchers, who compared her to Margaret Thatcher.
Schneider A manufacturing company that made some of the
RATP’s first buses.
SK A short-distance transportation system, a kind of hori-
zontal cable car much like the one in Morgantown,
West Virginia. The SK can be seen in the Villepinte
Exhibition Park north of Paris.
SNCF = Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer: the French
state-owned railway company. Like the RATP, it is re-
sponsible for transporting passengers, as well as for de-
signing means of transportation, having them con-
structed, and ordering them. It thus combines the
functions of buyer and client, and enjoys a large meas-
ure of administrative autonomy.
SNECMA — Société Nationale d'Etude et de Construction de
Moteurs d’Aviation (“National Company for the Study
and Construction of Aircraft Engines”): a major high-

pia GLOSSARY
 tech French company specializing in airplane and
rocket engines.
sniffer plane An airplane that was the focus of a huge scandal in
the early 1980s. Oil companies and bogus scientists
collaborated in financing and developing a revolution-
ary system designed to sniff out oil reserves from
above. The instrument’s black box, when it was finally
opened, turned out to be empty. The scandal was pub-
licly acknowledged in 1983, after being denied several
times by former president Valery Giscard-dstaing.
SOFRES One of France's largest polling firms, specializing in
political and marketing polls.
SOFRETU A consulting and development firm for guided-trans-
portation systems, The RATP owns 80 percent of it.
South Line The Rocade Sud: a major transverse line into the sub-
urbs of Paris (see map in the frontmatter) which al-
lowed people to travel, without passing through Paris,
among many small communities where demand was
too small to support a standard metro system.
testing phase The last phase of a project before final approval—that
is, acceptance by the public authorities of the transpor-
tation system's safety.
TGV Train a Grande Vitesse (“high-speed train”). These
trains, which criss-cross France at a speed of 300 kilo-
meters per hour, have been a great technical and eco-
nomic success for the SNCF.
7 TRACS A very clever system of moving sidewalks that suc-
ceed in the apparently impossible feat of going faster
in the central portion than at either edge. It was aban-
doned in 1986. Since the same engineers and the
same decisionmakers work on all such transportation
systems, successes or failures in one area have reper-
cussions for the others, even though the technological
principles may be quite different.
UGE Unite de Gestion Embarquee (“onboard control
unit”): an electronic unit on board the transportation
vehicle that functions to control safety, driving, and su-
pervision.
UGT Unite de Gestion de Trongon (“traffic-control unit”):
one of Aramis’ lower-tier electronic control systems,
in charge of dispatching the various vehicles. For each
one-kilometer sector of track, the UGT controls the
anticollision function, exchanges data with the Central
Command Post, regulates merging of the cars, moni-

GLOSSARY aia |
 tors the cars’ positions, and transmits alarm signals
when necessary.
VAL An automated subway similar to the shuttle that
serves the Atlanta airport. First implemented in Lille,
a large city in northern France, it has since been ex-
ported to several countries, including the United
States (it is now being used at Chicago’s O’Hare
Airport).
valorimeter Any instrument that measures a value—for example,
in units of money, in kilocalories, or in petroleum-
equivalents. It designates any measuring instrument
that establishes an equivalence between dissimilar things.
variable-reluctance The main mechanical invention of Aramis. The rotary
motor engine allows engineers to do away with the gears
that, in ordinary vehicles, link the rotation of the elec-
tric motor with the axles. By varying the reluctance—
which is, in magnetism, what resistance is in electric-
ity—the engineers connect the functions of axle and
rotor.
Villette (La) A slaughterhouse in the north of Paris. It was a fail-
ure, in technical as well as economic terms—a real
pork barrel. The building was converted into a gigan-
tic Museum of Science and Industry, four times the
size of the Beaubourg museum. It is now a huge
monument devoted to the “glory of Science and
France.”

pai GLOSSARY
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