PERSONALITY A.

TYPE THEORIES
1. Physique: Body Types. ( Bodily constitution , health and vigor associated
 Components of Personality with temperament)
 Theories of Personality a) Kretschemer’s classification (not confirmed)
 Type Theories  ASTHENIC
 Trait Theories - tall, thin body associated with schizophrenia or schizothyme
 Developmental Theories temperament , a mental disorder characterized by splitting of personality ,
 Theories of Personality Dynamics dissociation, emotional deterioration , and out of idealization content.
 PYKNIC
PERSONALITY: DEFINITION AND ITS COMPONENTS - short, fat body with cyclothymic temperament, mild manic –
depressive psychosis involving recurring cycles of exhilaration and
WHAT IS PERSONALITY? depression.
 Is the sum total of the traits and characteristics and patterns of adjustment of an  DYSPLASTIC
individual that sets him apart or makes them different from other individuals. - bodily defective and handicapped.
 An attribute of the learner, personality connotes individual differences.  NORMAL
- have only mild forms of asthenic and pyknic characteristics and
COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY have bodies and temperaments that are appropriate and accepted as
normal by majority.
1. Physical or biological traits and characteristics. b) Sheldon’s classification (not confirmed)
 These include general physical appearance, size of the body, height, weight,  Endomorphic ( endomorph, n )
color of hair, manner of walking, health, and etc. - prominence of the intestines and other visceral organs, round in
2. Capacities the body but weak muscles and bones.
 Mental ability or intelligence , special abilities and talents in art , music , signs ,  Mesomorphic (mesomorph, n)
etc. - athletic type with strong and rippling muscles, broad – shouldered
3. Psycho-social Traits and narrow – hipped.
 These refer to good manners , gregariousness, extroversion --- introversion,  Ectomorphic (ectomorph, n)
dominance-submissiveness, affluence, generosity, lifestyle, patterns of - tall, thin, stoop shouldered, with delicate skin, fine hair, sensitive
adjustment, etc. nervous system.
4. Spiritual and Moral Values 2. Temperament Types. ( Physiology: types based on body chemistry and
 These are piety, honesty, sincerity, keeping of promises, punctuality, endocrine balance)
responsibility, devotion to duty, absence of antisocial tendencies, and etc. a) Sheldon’s temperament types
5. Temperament  Viscerotonic
 This is emotional maturity and stability. - predominantly endomorphic , loves to eat , seeks bodily reaction,
sociable, relaxed in posture and movement , and slow in reactions.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY  Somatotonic
- predominantly mesomorphic, energetic, likes exercises, direct in
Theories explain the development and emergence of this personality traits and his manners, and loves competitive aggressiveness.
characteristics . Among these theories of personality as gleaned from the treatment  Cerebrotonic
of the subject to Hilgard are as follows: ( Hilgard, pp. 468 – 495) - predominantly ectomorphic, sensitive and emotional, worries
much, does not like groups and love solitude.
b) Greek classification usually attributed to Hippocrates. Temperament is
dependent upon the predominant body fluid.
 Sanguine
- warm hearted, pleasant, quick to react, balanced emotional
excitement. Predominant body fluid is blood.
 Melancholic
- suffers from depression and sadness, unpleasant, calm emotion.
Predominant body fluid is black bile.
 Choleric
- easily angered and quick to react, easily excuse emotionally.
Predominant body fluid is the yellow bile.
 Phlegmatic
- listless, slow, apathetic, calm emotion, weak. Predominant blood
fluid is phlegm.
3. Behavior: Psychological Types. (These are Jung’s theories)
a) Introvert
- prefers to be alone, shy, withdrawn but may be a leader in a
discussion of his level of intelligence is high.
b) Extrovert
- tends to be amidst people , very sociable , conventional ,
orthodox , well dressed , outgoing , chooses an occupation that deals with
people like sales or promotional work.
c) Ambivert
- the normal who is in - between the two extremes of introversion
and extraversion.
B. TRAIT THEORIES
- describes a personality by its position and a number of scales , each of
which represents a trait.
 Allport’s Personal Dispositions
- These are traits that are unique for a person called by Allport as personal
disposition, hence, cannot be used in an exact way in comparing one person with
another. These traits are organized in some kind of hierarchy as follows:
 Secondary Traits
- when the traits are so many that they merely expressed isolated
interests or mod modes of responding in our better characterized as
attitudes than the rate such as likes and dislikes, positive or negative
attitude toward something.
 Central Traits
- when the traits are too few to describe a person.
 Cardinal Traits
- when a person is dominated by a single outstanding trade that
makes him stand out and he becomes a reference personality whose
characteristic we expect others to know.
 Cattell’s Theory of Surface and Source Traits
 Surface Traits
- These traits are found by cluster analysis.
 Source Traits
- These traits are found by factor analysis.
C. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
- deal with continuities, that is, one can tell what a person will do in a given
situation by what he has done before in earlier situations that resemble the present.
1. Psychoanalytic Theory of Development
- The theory holds that we undergo a maturational scheme of
psychosexual stages and its stage, psychosocial crises occur which if successfully
met need to maturity of psychological development; if unsuccessful in met they
leave on neurotic residue.
a) Compulsive Personality
- characterized by excessive cleanliness, orderliness, obstinacy,
stinginess, and punctuality.
b) Authoritarian Personality
- directorized by “highly conventional behavior, superstition,
destructiveness and cynicism, desire for power, concern over sex”.
2. Learning Theories
- personality is the result of learning through a reward and punishment. In
general we tend to repeat experiences in the past that worked for us satisfactorily
and avoid those what worked out unsatisfactorily.
3. Role Theories
- “Describe personality according to the manner in which individual meets
the various demands that society makes upon in his role as child, parent, man,
woman, worker, citizen”.
FIVE POSITIONS THAT SOCIETY ESTABLISHED
Age-sex Positions
- A child should act like a child, a man acts like a man, and a woman as a
woman.
Occupational Positions
- a farmer develops a farmer personality, a doctor, a doctor personality , a
lawyer , a lawyer personality, etc.
Prestige Positions  Moving away from people
- A slave has a slave personality, a millionaire has a millionaire personality, - This is the satisfy the need for independence and self-sufficiency.
a President has a President personality, and etc. 2. Erich Fromm’s Isolation Theory
Family, clan, household According to this theory, man has been isolated from nature and from other men and
- a father has a bread winner personality , a child is a subservient to the this have given rise to five basic needs which if not satisfied would result in
parents, the head of the clan must have that personality, and etc. frustration and problems.
Position in association groups based on congeniality or common interest The Five Basic Needs:
- an orchestra member must act as such , member of a Lion’s Club at as a  Relatedness - man has lost his nervousness and so he has to relate himself to
Lion’s Club member, etc. others based on love and affection.
D. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DYNAMICS  Transcendence – man has to submerge his animal nature of green so that he
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory becomes cooperative and productive.
 The Id  Rootedness - mine has to satisfy his need for belongingness to group by
- this consist of innate instinctual drives of sexual and aggressive in nature brotherly love and affection and so he associates himself with other people.
which seeks immediate gratification of primitive, irrational pleasure seeking of  Identity – man needs to feel that he is different from others and so he tries hard
drives such as sex, hunger, thirst, etc. to do or create something that would give an identity to him.
 The Ego  Frame of Orientation – man needs an environment that is stable and with
- This is a personality responsible for controlling behavior and socially consistent events to be able to understand it.
approved ways: There is rational thinking. 3. Maslow’s Self - Actualization Theory
 The Superego According to this theory, man is good and self-actualization or achievement is his
- This is functions, the sense of right and wrong, that works according to the goal.
ideal. Man’s needs are as follows:
Lewin’s Field Theory  Biological Needs
The individual is embedded in a field called his life space, which is actually his - give comfort to the body, such as food, clothing, and shelter, and some
environment, in which conflicts arise and alternatives open to the individual to material needs.
resolve the conflicts.  Psychological Needs
OVERCOMPENSATION THEORY - these are needs for love, affection, belongingness, safety, operation,
- This is a theory of Alfred Adler. companionship. These needs push people to associate with others.
- This is trying to exile in something to compensate or weakness or deficiency.  Self- Actualization Needs
- example : Hitler and Stalin was short but struggle hard for political might. - these are needs for exceptional and ideal achievements and creativity.
NEEDS THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
1. Karen Horney’s Theory of Personality
According to harney, a child may result conflicts in a harsh environment in one of
three ways:
 Moving toward people
- This is to satisfy need for love, affection, and approval of other people so
the child or individual tries hard to please people to win their love, affection, and
approval.
 Moving against people
- This is to satisfy the need for power, dominance, prestige, admiration,
financial and sexual success.
 Foundation of Education foot upon stepping on a live charcoal is an example.
Drives, needs, wants, urges
 Psychological Basis of Education - These are inborn urges and tendencies and wants. Some refer to these
 Learner instincts as drives. These tendencies give rise to ambitions which motivate
 Temperament individuals to exert efforts to attain their goal.
 Personality Capacities and special aptitudes
 Learning Process - These include all those latent potentialities that an individual possesses
 Motivation which are developed through the process of education. Besides general capacity and
 Discipline and Guidance intelligence, an individual possesses certain special talents or aptitudes, such as
 The Teacher and the Policy Maker those for mathematics, arts, music and the like.
Temperament or emotion
 Psychological Basis of Education
- This refers to certain emotional predispositions of an individual. Some
- Education depends heavily upon psychology because the king and amount
emotional patterns such as rage, some forms of fear, and lust (sex) are inborn. One
of education that the learner acquires is conditioned by his psychological traits such
with a poor temperament , one who is easily irritated and emotionalized even with
as general mental ability, aptitudes, temperament, interests, effort-making capacity,
trivial matters.
physical condition, etc.
 Learner
 The systems of Schools of Psychology
• n 1: someone (especially a child) who
Structuralism
learns (as from a teacher)
- This is the point of view held by Wundt and Titchener. All consciousness
• or takes up knowledge or beliefs
of facts and phenomena of experiences are based upon the operation of the nervous
[syn: scholar, assimilator]
system, particularly the brain. Then follows as abstract analysis of the mental
• 2: works for an expert to learn a trade
structures that are operating.
[syn: apprentice, prentice]
Functionalism
- Led by Dewey and Carr, functionalists are interested in how an organism
 Stages of development
makes its adjustment to its environment, that is, either it changes or makes
1. Prenatal Period
adaptation to it.
-From conception to birth, during this period all parts of the human body
Behaviorism
such as the internal organs, skeletal bones, flesh, etc. are formed. The inherited
- Founded by Watson, behaviorism considers the Stimulus Response
characteristics from the parents are also imparted to the child during this period.
hypothesis as its basic theory. This theory believes that a stimulus, physical or
2. Period of Infancy or Babyhood
otherwise, creates a response.
This period is from birth to two years. The baby begins to learn the rudiments from
Gestalt Psychology
right and wrong.
- According to this theory, the whole is more than the sum of all its parts,
3. Early Childhood
meaning that the whole processes qualities, attributes, or functions which the
From 2-6 years, the pre-school age. The child begins to learn some social
individual component elements do not possess.
relationships and mixes and plays with children of his age group. The child wants to
explore or anything he can reach and asks too many questions.
 Psychological factors that Condition the Intellectual and Behavioural
4. Late Childhood
Development
From 6 or 7 years to 11 or 12 years, the elementary period. They learns things taught
Reflexes
in school such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and language, and social studies.
- These are inborn automatic responses to simple localized stimulation
Further learns what is right and wrong. They begins to be interested in the opposite
involving particular muscles and parts of the body. The automatic withdrawal of a
sex.
5. Puberty Stage
From 12 or 13 to 14 or 15 years, the early high school period. This is the stage when
the urge of sex begins to assert itself very rapidly. In fact, man at this age is already
capable of procreation. The girls start having their monthly period.
6. Early Adolescence
From puberty to 17 years, middle high school period. Rapid sex maturation occurs.
Some young people get married at this age. Voice, feeling and thinking continue
changing. Start to develop their life ambitions and aspirations.
7. Late Adolescence
From 18 to 21 years. The student in college are now preparing for the professional
or vocational careers and those out of school are entering or finding jobs in
preparation for an independent life. Development of intellectual and social skills
continues.
8. Early Adulthood
From 21 – 40 years, productive years. New life adjustments occur such as courtship
and marriage, parenthood, employment, recreational hobby, religious affiliation
which may occur earlier, joining clubs, and years of achievement.
9. Middle Age
From 46 - 65 years. Man or woman must have achieved most of his/her aspirations
in life such as a wellestablished home and family, stable and lucrative employment
or business, creative achievements even political achievement. Some physical and
physiological functioning begin to decrease or deteriorate. The preparation of
retirement.
10. Old age
From 65 and above, period of retirement. Characteristics of old age occur, such as
deafness, failing eyesight, forgetfulness, baldness arthritis, senility, etc. Painful
adjustments have to be made to meet some unavoidable circumstances such as death
of spouse, solitude as children now have their own homes or jobs in far places, etc.
 Types of Learners
 Visual learners are characterized by the following:
- They tend to be fast talkers.
- They exhibit impatience and have a tendency to interrupt.
- They use words and phrases that evoke visual images.
- They learn by seeing and visualizing.
Your teaching strategy for visual learners should include the use of
demonstrations and visually pleasing materials, and you should make an effort to
paint mental pictures for learners.
 Auditory learners are characterized by the following:
- They speak slowly and tend to be natural listeners.
- They think in a linear manner.
- They prefer to have things explained to them verbally rather than to read
written information.
- They learn by listening and verbalizing.
Your teaching strategy for auditory learners should sound good and should
be planned and delivered in the form of an organized conversation.
 Read-write learners are characterized by the following:
- They prefer for information to be displayed in writing, such as
lists of ideas.
- They emphasize text-based input and output.
- They enjoy reading and writing in all forms.
Your teaching strategy for read-write learners should include writing out
key words in list form. The learners will learn by silently reading or rewriting their
notes repeatedly; writing out in their own words the ideas and principles that were
taught or discussed; organizing any diagrams, graphs, other visual depictions into
statements (e.g., “The trend is . . . ”); and putting reactions, actions, diagrams,
charts, and flowcharts into words. They like multiple-choice tests.
 Kinesthetic learners are characterized by the following:
- They tend to be the slowest talkers of all.
- They tend to be slow to make decisions.
- They use all their senses to engage in learning.
- They learn by doing and solving real-life problems.
- They like hands-on approaches to things and learn through trial and error.
 Temperament
- In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's
personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate
rather than learned. A great many classification schemes for temperament have been
developed; none, though, has achieved general consensus in academia.
 9 Temperament Characteristics
Research by Thomas and Chess used the following nine temperament traits in
children based on a classification scheme developed by Dr. Herbert Birch
1. Activity refers to the child's physical energy. Is the child
constantly moving, or does the child have a relaxing
approach? A high-energy child may have difficulty sitting
still in class, whereas a child with low energy can tolerate a
very structured environment. The former may use gross
motor skills like running and jumping more frequently.
Conversely, a child with a lower activity level may rely more
on fine motor skills, such as drawing and putting puzzles
together. This trait can also refer to mental activity, such as
deep thinking or reading—activities which become more
significant as the person matures.
2. Regularity, also known as Rhythmicity, refers to the level of predictability in a
child’s biological functions, such as waking, becoming tired, hunger, and bowel
movements. Does the child have a routine in eating and sleeping habits, or are these
events more random? For example, a child with a high regularity rating may want to
eat at 2 p.m. every day, whereas a child lower on the regularity scale may eat at
3. Initial reaction is also known as Approach or Withdrawal. This refers to how
the child responds (whether positively or negatively) to new people or environments.
Does the child approach people or things in the environment without hesitation, or
does the child shy away? A bold child tends to approach things quickly, as if without
thinking, whereas a cautious child typically prefers to watch for a while before
engaging in new experiences.
4. Adaptability refers to how long it takes the child to adjust to change over time
(as opposed to an initial reaction). Does the child adjust to the changes in their
environment easily, or is the child resistant? A child who adjusts easily may be
quick to settle into a new routine, whereas a resistant child may take a long time to
adjust to the situation
5. Intensity refers to the energy level of a positive or negative response. Does the
child react intensely to a situation, or does the child respond in a calm and quiet
manner? A more intense child may jump up and down screaming with excitement,
whereas a mild-mannered child may smile or show no emotion.
6. Mood refers to the child’s general tendency towards a happy or unhappy
demeanor. All children have a variety of emotions and reactions, such as cheerful
and stormy, happy and unhappy. Yet each child biologically tends to have a
generally positive or negative outlook. A baby who frequently smiles and coos could
be considered a cheerful baby, whereas a baby who frequently cries or fusses might
be considered a stormy baby.
7. Distractibility refers to the child’s tendency to be sidetracked by other things
going on around them. Does the child get easily distracted by what is happening in
the environment, or can the child concentrate despite the interruptions? An easily
distracted child is engaged by external events and has difficulty returning to the task
at hand, whereas a rarely distracted child stays focused and completes the task at
hand.
8. Persistence and attention span refer to the child’s length of time on a task and
ability to stay with the task through frustrations—whether the child stays with an
activity for a long period of time or loses interest quickly
9. Sensitivity refers to how easily a child is disturbed by changes in the
environment. This is also called sensory threshold or threshold of responsiveness. Is
the child bothered by external stimuli like noises, textures, or lights, or does the
child seem to ignore them? A sensitive child may lose focus when a door slams,
whereas a child less sensitive to external noises will be able to maintain focus.
 4 Temperament Types
1. Sanguine temperament is fundamentally impulsive and pleasure seeking;
sanguine people are sociable and charismatic. They tend to enjoy social gatherings,
making new friends and tend to be boisterous. They are usually quite creative and
often daydream. However, some alone time is crucial for those of this temperament.
Sanguine can also mean sensitive, compassionate and thoughtful. Sanguine
personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are
chronically late, and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often,
when they pursue a new hobby, they lose interest as soon as it ceases to be engaging
or fun. They are very much people persons. They are talkative and not shy.
Sanguines generally have an almost shameless nature, certain that what they are
doing is right. They have no lack of confidence.
2. Choleric temperament is fundamentally ambitious and leaderlike. They have a lot
of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill it in others. They can
dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great
charismatic military and political figures were choleric. They like to be in charge of
everything. However, cholerics also tend to be either highly disorganized or highly
organized. They do not have in-between setups, only one extreme to another. As
well as being leader-like and assertive, cholerics also fall into deep and sudden
depression. Essentially, they are very much prone to mood swings.
3. Melancholic temperament is fundamentally introverted and thoughtful.
Melancholic people often were perceived as very (or overly) pondering and
considerate, getting rather worried when they could not be on time for events.
Melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art - and can
become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world. Often they are
perfectionists. They are self-reliant and independent; one negative part of being a
melancholic is that they can get so involved in what they are doing they forget to
think of others.
4. Phlegmatic temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from
warmly attentive to lazily sluggish. Phlegmatics tend to be content with themselves
and are kind. They are accepting and affectionate. They may be receptive and shy
and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They are consistent, relaxed,
calm, rational, curious, and observant, qualities that make them good administrators.
They can also be passive-aggressive.
 Personality
- According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American
Psychiatric Association, personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving,
relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a
wide range of social and personal contexts." Theorists generally assume a) traits are
relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among individuals (for instance, some
people are outgoing while others are reserved), and c) traits influence behavior.
 Five-dimension Personality Model
- Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed
the "Big Five":
A. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and
interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.
B. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs.
disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
C. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs.
retiring, somber, and reserved.
D. Agreeableness: the tendency to be soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful vs.
ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
E. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious,
insecure, and self-pitying.
 Learning Process
 Learning Theory
Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by
psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and
attitudes. Various branches of learning theory are used in formal training programs
to improve and accelerate the learning process.
 Behaviorists believe that animals, including humans, learn in about
the same way. Behaviorism stresses the importance of having a
particular form of behavior reinforced by someone, other than the
student, to shape or control what is learned. In aviation training, the
instructor provides the reinforcement. Frequent, positive
reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning. This theory provides
the instructor with ways to manipulate students with stimuli, induce
the desired behavior or response, and reinforce the behavior with
appropriate rewards.
 Cognitive Theory Much of the recent psychological thinking and
experimentation in education includes some facets of the cognitive
theory. This is true in basic as well as more advanced training
programs. Unlike behaviorism, the cognitive theory focuses on what
is going on inside the student's mind. Learning is not just a change in
behavior; it is a change in the way a student thinks, understands, or
feels.
 Combined Approach Both the behaviorists and the cognitive
approaches are useful learning theories. A reasonable way to plan,
manage, and conduct aviation training is to include the best features of
each major theory. This provides a way to measure behavioral
outcomes and promote cognitive learning. The combined approach is
not simple, but neither is learning.
 Definition of Learning
 Learning is purposeful Each student sees a learning situation from a
different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual whose past
experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the
requirements involved. For example, an instructor may give two
aviation maintenance students the assignment of learning certain
inspection procedures. One student may learn quickly and be able to
competently present the assigned material. The combination of an
aviation background and future goals may enable that student to
realize the need and value of learning the procedures. A second
student's goal may only be to comply with the instructor's assignment,
and may result in only minimum preparation. The responses differ
because each student ads in accordance with what he or she sees in the
situation.
 Learning is a result of Experiences Since learning is an individual
process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student can
learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and
knowledge cannot exist apart from a person. A person's knowledge is
a result of experience, and no two people have had identical
experiences. It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical skill
requires actual experience in performing that skill. Student pilots learn
to fly aircraft only if their experiences include flying them; student
aviation maintenance technicians learn to overhaul power plants only
by actually performing that task. Mental habits are also learned
through practice. If students are to use sound judgment and develop
decision
 Learning is Multifaceted If instructors see their objective as being
only to train their students' memory and muscles, they are
underestimating the potential of the teaching situation. Students may
learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and
feelings. The fact that these items were not included in the instructor's
plan does not prevent them from influencing the learning situation.
 Learning is an Active Process Students do not soak up knowledge
like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that
students remember something just because they were in the
 classroom, shop, or airplane when the instructor presented the
material. Neither can the instructor assume that the students can apply
what they know because they can quote the correct answer verbatim.
For students to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps
outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually. But
if learning is a process of changing behaviour, clearly that process
must be an active one.
 Principles of Learning
 Readiness Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and
they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting
students ready to learn is usually the instructor's responsibility. If
students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason
for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack
motivation. Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and
eagerness. When students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor
at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor's job.
 Exercise The principle of exercise states that those things most often
repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. The
human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and
apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students do
not learn to weld during one shop period or to perform crosswise
landings during one instructional flight. They learn by applying what
they have been told and shown.
 Effect The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the
student. It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling. Experiences that produce
feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are
unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to
teach landings during the first flight, the student is likely to feel
inferior and be frustrated.
 Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost
unshakable, impression. For the instructor, this means that what is
taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that
learning must be right. Unteaching is more difficult than teaching. If,
for example, a maintenance student learns a faulty riveting technique,
the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and
reteaching correct ones. Every student should be started right.
 Intensity A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches
more than a routine or boring experience. A student is likely to gain
greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by performing them
rather than merely reading about them. The principle of intensity
implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute. In contrast to flight instruction and shop instruction, the
classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that can be
brought into teaching.
 Recency The principle of recency states that things most recently
learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is
removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more
difficult it is to remember. It is easy, for example, for a student to
recall a torque value used a few minutes earlier, but it is usually
impossible to remember an unfamiliar one used a week earlier.
Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan
a summary for a ground school lesson, a shop period, or a post-flight
critique.
 How People learn
 Graph
 Definition
What I hear, I forget.
What I hear and see, I remember a little.
What I hear, see, and ask questions about or
discuss with someone else, I begin to
understand.
What I hear, see, discuss, and do, I acquire
knowledge and skill.
What I teach to another, I master. (Silberman,
1996, p. 1)
 Levels of Learning
 Graph

 Definition
Levels of learning may be classified in any number of ways. Four
basic levels have traditionally been included in aviation instructor training.
The lowest level is the ability to repeat something which one has been
taught, without understanding or being able to apply what has been
learned. This is referred to as rote learning. Progressively higher levels of
learning are understanding what has been taught, achieving the skill for
application of what has been learned, and correlation of what has been
learned with other things previously learned or subsequently encountered.
Figure 1-3
 Domains of Learning
 Cognitive Domain
Graph
Definition
Besides the four basic levels of learning, educational
psychologists have developed several additional levels. These
classifications consider what is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, a
change in attitude, a physical skill, or a combination of knowledge
and skill? One of the more useful categorizations of learning
objectives includes three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge),
affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor
domain (physical skills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy of
educational objectives.
 Affective Domain
Graph
Definition
The affective domain may be the least understood, and in many
ways, the most important of the learning domains. A similar system for
specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by D.R. Krathwohl.
Like the Bloom taxonomy, Krathwohl's hierarchy attempts to arrange these
objectives in an order of difficulty.
 Psychomotor Domain
Graph
Definition
Psychomotor or physical skills always have been important
in aviation. Typical activities involving these skills include learning
to fly a precision instrument approach procedure, programming a
GPS receiver, or using sophisticated maintenance equipment. As
physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the
requirement for integration of cognitive and physical skills
increases.
 Motivation is probably the dominant force which governs the student's
progress and ability to learn. Motivation may be negative or positive, tangible
or intangible, subtle and difficult to identify, or it may be obvious.
  Positive motivation is provided by the promise or achievement of
rewards. These rewards may be personal or social; they may involve
financial gain, satisfaction of the self-concept, or public recognition.
Motivation which can be used to advantage by the instructor includes
the desire for personal gain, the desire for personal comfort or
security, the desire for group approval, and the achievement of a
favourable self-image. Reward is getting something good for doing a
given task. It needs someone who has the power to give the good
thing. It is the opposite of punishment.
 Negative motivation may engender fear, and be perceived by the
student as a threat. While negative motivation may be useful in certain
situations, characteristically it is not as effective in promoting efficient
learning as positive motivation. Punishment is the authoritative
imposition of something negative or unpleasant on a person or animal
in response to behavior deemed wrong by an individual or group.
Negative consequences that are not authorized or that are
administered without a breach of rules are not considered to be
punishment as defined here.
 Discipline and Guidance
- Guidance and discipline of children are ongoing processes that will
embrace everything you do with children. Learning self-control and how to get
along with others is part of growing up, and family child care providers play an
important role in teaching children these important skills. The word discipline comes
from the word disciple, meaning to teach. Caring for children for long hours each
day, year after year, gives providers a wonderful opportunity to help shape, guide,
and nurture the behavior of children. A good understanding of children and guidance
techniques is the basis for effective discipline. Take time to view things from a
child's perspective. It can make a difference in your relationship with children.
 Guidance and Discipline Techniques
a. Set up a safe environment
- One of the most important things a caregiver can do is to
establish a safe environment. Children move quickly, and they love to climb
and explore. Take a close look at your home indoors and outdoors. A
fenced-in yard will help keep children away from the street. Childproof your
home by locking up dangerous chemicals and medicines, covering electrical
outlets, and storing breakable objects up high.
b. Establish a Predictable Routine
- Young children need a consistent routine and schedule.
Their small stomachs and high energy levels need nutritious snacks
and meals frequently. Establish consistent times for eating, napping,
and playing. It helps children learn how to pace themselves. Balance
active time with quiet time and group time with time to be alone.
This kind of balancing leads to a wellplanned and balanced routine.
c. Set a good example
- Young children love to imitate adults. Watch your habits
because children will be sure to be copy them! If you want children
to treat each other kindly or have good eating habits, be sure to
demonstrate how to do it. Talk about what you do, and explain
things in simple terms.
d. Watch your Language
- Use your words carefully when you teach children. Focus
on what to do rather than what not to do. TRY SAYING: "Slow
down and walk" INSTEAD OF: "Stop running" TRY SAYING:
"Come hold my hand" INSTEAD OF: "Don't touch anything" TRY
SAYING: "Keep your feet on the floor" INSTEAD OF: "Don't
climb on the couch" TRY SAYING: "Use your quiet voice inside"
INSTEAD OF: "Stop screaming and shouting".
e. Praise
- Effective praise encourages learning, independence, and
strong self-esteem in children.
f. Remove or Isolate
- When a child is running out into the street or about to get
into the household bleach, there is no time for negotiation.
g. Timeout
- A more sophisticated form of "remove or isolate" is called
"time out." A "time out" is just that - a cooling off period.
h. Natural and Logical Consequences
- Natural and logical consequences are effective in helping
children see the connection between their actions and the results of
their behavior.
i. Distract
- This technique works especially well with very young
children. When a child is doing something unacceptable, try to call
attention to another activity - perhaps playing with another toy or
reading a book together.
j. Redirect
- Sometimes the problem with behavior is not what the
child is doing as much as how she is doing it.
k. Ignore
 - Behavior that is not harmful to the child or others can be
ignored. The goal is to have the child stop the undesirable behavior
by not paying attention to it.
l. Reward
- Remember that it is more effective to reward good
behavior than to punish bad behavior. A reward or "positive
reinforcement" refers to positive ways adults can respond when
children behave in desirable ways. Positively rewarded behavior is
usually repeated. Rewarding a child for good behavior at the right
time is very important. So is the reward itself. You can use social or
material rewards with children.
 The Teacher ans the Policy Maker
-Policy making often is considered a privilege and jealously guarded by
those in authority. In education, policies are usually made by school board members
and administrators, but teachers are rarely part of the process. For our purposes, let’s
define policy as “a definite method of action selected from among alternatives to
guide present and future decisions.”
 Curriculum Planning and Implementation
-Teachers are an integral part of the decision-making process in curriculum
planning and implementation at the classroom level. Unfortunately, the impact of
teachers on the curriculum at the K-12 level is minimized by the involvement of
special interest groups, politicians, and bureaucrats.
 School-Based Management
- School-based management is another way to maximize the teacher’s role
as policy maker. In schoolbased management, the decision-making process is
decentralized to involve school constituencies such as administrators, teachers,
parents, community members, and students
 a higher level of meaningful involvement by teachers and
teacher teams in the decision-making process;
 opportunities for professional development in decision
making skills;
 a proactive approach to information sharing among school
constituents;
 and freedom and empowerment for teachers to implement innovative
teaching reform ideas
 Internal Evaluation
- Internal evaluation is a team-based approach in which teachers can play an
important part in policy decisions. A “somewhat specialized form of action
research”.
 Technology
- Computer technology has become an inseparable part of the 21st-century
schooling in the United States and provides another platform for teachers to get
involved in policy decisions. In a freemarket society, computer networks are one of
the best tools to establish dialogues between professionals across different
disciplines, share ideas, enhance professional awareness, and influence public
policy.
 Advisory Councils
- Another avenue through which teachers have impacted policy decisions is
evident in the School Advisory Councils (SAC) created by the Florida Department
of Education (1998). SAC is a model for school-site policy making and
accountability. SAC is made up of teachers, parents, community leaders, non-
instructional staff, and administrators. SAC gives its partners responsibilities and
opportunities for making decisions on all school issues.
The Learning Process
The Nature of Learning
- Learning is the acquisition through maturation and experience of new
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will enable the learners to make better and
adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to the new situations and conditions.
Types of Learning
1. COGNITIVE LEARNING
This is the acquisition of knowledge, facts, information, principles, ideas,
concepts, understanding, reasoning, etc.
There are two types of cognitive learning:
Associative Learning
This is establishing the relationship between words or ideas and their
meanings, between words or ideas.
Problem Solving Learning
This is the process of overcoming difficulties that hinder the attainment of a
goal by using knowledge and skills gained from associative learning and other types
of learning.
2. ATTITUDINAL/AFFECTIVE LEARNING
 This is the formation of good and acceptable attitudes, judgments, One who has studied has a better understanding of the things communicated
appreciations and values. to him than one who has not.
It is the acquisition or development of sound moral and spiritual values such 7. Greater Facility Of Communication
as honesty, integrity, punctuality, piety, etc. One who has gone to school has learned the mechanics of the language and
There are two types of appreciative learning: so he has a greater facility in communicating his ideas than one who has not.
Aesthetic Learning 8. More Logical Reasoning
The appreciation of what is good and abhorrence of what is bad. One who has learned how to reason out can make more logical reasoning
Intellectual Learning than one who is not.
This may be develop by reading good and classical literary pieces. 9. Greater Innovativeness And Creativity
3. PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING An educated person has more innovative and creative ideas than one who is
This involves the use of muscles in bodily movement. not.
The reflexes are especially important because the activities are usually 10. Greater Chance Of Employment
responsive to certain stimuli. One who has acquired skills has more chances of employment than one who
There are two types of psychomotor learning: has not.
Bodily Movement Coordination
The harmonious functioning of the different parts of the body in order to Other Kinds Of Learning
attain the desired performance of the activities.
Manipulative Dexterity CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING
The skillful use of the hands and feet. Direct Learning
Learning to ride a bicycle is direct learning.

The Tests Of Learning

Indirect Learning
The following are the criteria or the tests of the learning. Reading books, magazines and other publications, listening to the radio and
viewing movies and television shows to gain information is indirect learning.
1. Greater Speed Burnham classifies learning as:
One who has learned how to write, writes faster than one who has not. Congenital
2. Greater Precision And Accuracy Reflex action such as the sudden withdrawal of the foot as it steps of a live
One who has learned a dance can execute the steps with greater precision charcoal is congenital learning.
and accuracy than one who has not Temporary
3. Reduced Effort Forgetting portions of a poem or lines in a play is an example of temporary
One who has already learned to write exerts less effort in writing than one learning.
who is just learning how to write. Permanent
4. Less Expense Hence More Savings Knowledge used in a lifetime such as basic mathematical operation,
One who has learned how to type does not need to hire a typist to type. He language, values, etc. is permanent learning.
cuts down on expenses. Other kinds of learning are:
5. Greater Knowledge, Information And Ideas 1. Sensory Learning such as Braille reading used by the blind.
One who has gone to school to learn has greater knowledge, information and 2. Motor Learning as in typing and writing.
ideas of the things around him than one who has not. 3. Verbal Learning such as solving a mathematical problem or memorizing a
6. Greater Understanding principle.
4. Ideational Learning such as writing a story or novel.
5. Attitudinal Learning as in learning values.
Theories Of Learning
1. TRIAL AND ERROR.
A series of response are conducted until the correct response is achieved.
2. ASSOCIATION/ STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORIES
A. Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory
- For every stimulus there is a corresponding response and the connection
between stimulus and response is called S-R Bond.
Thorndike conceived three principal laws of learning:
a. Law of Readiness
When an organism is ready to act, action is satisfying and inaction is
annoying.
When an organism is not ready to act, action is annoying and
inaction is satisfying.
b. Law of Exercise
Exercise or practice reinforces learning.
c. Law of Effect
Learning is strengthened if it gives satisfaction to the learner.
It is weakened if it gives annoyance to the learner.
B. Conditioning Theories
a. Classical Conditioning Theory
Exemplified by the experiment of Pavlov. When food is presented
to the dog, it was accompanied by the ringing of a buzzer. Upon seeing it,
the dog salivated.
b. Operant Conditioning Theory
This theory was developed by Skinner. It is a motivational as well
as a learning device.
An individual tends to repeat a behavior that is rewarding and
pleasant and tends to avoid a behavior that is not rewarding and
unpleasant. Two Kinds of Positive Reinforcers
Factors that make an individual repeat an experience are positive
reinforcers.
1. Primary Reinforcers which satisfy basic needs like food, water,
etc.
2. Secondary Reinforcers which satisfy some psychological needs
like praise, high grades, etc.
Factors that make an individual avoid repeating an experience are
called negative factors which come in the form of rebuke or scolding,
ridicule, or low mark.
c. Social Learning Theory
This is the theory of Bandura and Wallace. This is learning from
observation and imitation.
According to Bandura, there are four subprocesses involved.
Four Subprocesses
1. Attention
The behavior or value desired has caught the attention and interest of the
learner.
2. Retention
The learner retains the behavior or value to be learned.
3. Motoric Reproduction
The learner now imitates or emulates his model.
4. Reinforcement
The learner now practices what he has imitated.
3. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORIES OF LEARNING
According to these theories, insight and understanding are utilized in
discovering the logical relationships of things and situations which are then
organized into a meaningful whole to solve a problem or difficulty.
Three cognitive field learning theories will be discussed.
1. Kohler’s Theory
There is an element of trial and error involved but insight and understanding
are utilized to the maximum.
For example, solving a math problem. A student employs different
solutions. Utilizing available data and insight and understanding, he finally arrives at
a correct solution.
2. Lewin’s Theory
An individual lives in a life space, his environment. External forces (things,
situations, or conditions) act on him.
His drives, ideas, concepts, feelings, attitudes, and insights create the
internal forces that interact on him too.
The result of these two forces is the behavior of the individual.
3. Bruner’s Theory
It involves three processes:
a. Acquisition
The process of obtaining and assimilating with understanding new
information better than a previously learned one.
b. Transformation
The process of manipulating or utilizing the information gained to remove a
difficulty or to solve a problem to which it is suited – is an application in learning.
c. Evaluation
 The process of finding out whether the information is acquired or Factors Affecting Transfer of Learning
appropriately utilized. 1. Mental Ability
Four basic concerns to any learning situation; otherwise no learning takes The higher the mental ability of the learner, the more transfer of learning
place. will take place.
a. Understanding 2. Similarities Between Subject Matter
Understanding the basic and logical relationship between and among the The more similarities that exist between two subjects, the more transfer of
components of a subject and even with other subjects is a prerequisite to learning. learning will take place.
b. Readiness 3. Motivation and Effort-Making Capacity
It is a prerequisite to learning. However, readiness may take a long time. The more motivated the learners are and the more effort exerts, the more
c. Independence transfer of learning will take place.
A learner must be trained to be independent and self-sufficient in solving 4. Method of Teaching
problems that come in the way. Be able to search for information needed and The more effective a method of teaching is, the more transfer of learning
determine and correct errors alone. will take place.
d. Motivation 5. Facilities
Intrinsic motivation is more desirable than extrinsic motivation. A learner The more adequate and superior the facilities in the teaching-learning
has a desire to learn because of its worth and not with its rewards and punishments. situation are, the more transfer of learning will take place.
6. Background
4. Transfer of Learning Theories The learner with a superior environment can have more transfer of learning.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Refers to the facility in learning subject matter due to a previously
learned one.
Acquired knowledge, skills, ideas, concepts, understandings, insights,
attitudes, and values aid in obtaining the same in the study of another subject matter.

1. MENTAL DISCIPLINE THEORY THE LEARNER

This theory asserts that the skill or training gained in the study of one Learning Outcomes:
subject will improve the performance of the same skill in the study of another The students will be able to;
subject.  Identify the biological and physiological development of the learner.
2. IDENTICAL ELEMENTS THEORY  Undertsand the meaning of developmentalism, and its two basic factors;
According to Thorndike, the amount of transfer depends upon the presence  Individual differences and it’s types.
of identical elements in both learning situations. Its presence may be content,
method, rules, or principles facilitate learning. A. The biological and physiological development of the learner
3. GENERALIZATION THEORY 1. The Prenatal Stage
According to Judd, experiences in one learning situation can be applied in - it is from conception to birth.
another learning situation. This theory is similar to identical elements, but more -during this period all the parts of the human body such as the internal
emphasis on the understanding and recognition of the relationships between the organs, skeletal bones, flesh, etc. are formed.
generalizations of the two learning experiences involved. - the inherited characteristics from the parents are also imparted to the child
4. CONFIGURATION THEORY during this period.
Similar to gestalt theory of learning. It refers to the unified pattern of 2. Infancy or Babyhood
organization of a learning situation. - birth to 2 years.
 - development of physical and physiological behavior patterns such as
rolling, crawling, sitting, standing, walking, talking, laughing, taking solid foods,
controlling the elimination of wastes, learning sex differences, relating to
emotionally to parents and kins, etc.
- begins to learn the rudiments of right and wrong
- the child enjoys sucking his fingers and toes (oral stage)
- tantrums are used to call attention
- sprouting of baby teeth at the end of this period.
3. Early Childhood
- 2 to 6 years
- pre-school age
-exploratory and inquisitive period
- the child wants to explore any place or anything he can reach
- asks so many question
-the child begins to learn some social relationships and mixes and plays with
children of his age group
- he learns some physical and manual skills
- enjoys playing with his sex organs
- continues to learn what is right and wrong
- at the end of this period, the child can walk and run with steadiness, talk
understandably. Follow simple directions, and take a bath and dress by himself alone
4. Late childhood
- 6 or 7 years to 11 or 12 years
- elementary school period
- the child learns manual skills taught at home and school
-learns things taught in school i.e. reading, writing, arithmetic and language
- joins peer groups
- further learns what is right and wrong and how to relate himself to others
- becomes critical of others
- begins to be interested in the opposite sex
5. Puberty stage
- starts about 12 or 13 to 14 or 15 years
- urge of sex begins to assert itself very rapidly
- capable of procreation
-very fast physical or physiological changes
- grow their pubis hair
- boys begin to grow their hair in arms and legs
- rapid growth of height and weight
- apparent growth of breast for girls
- girls start having their monthly period
-this is in the early high school years
6. Early adolescence
• from puberty to about seventeen years old
• this is the late high school period
• rapid sex maturation occurs.
• some young people get married at this stage
• voice, feeling, and thinking continue changing
• the youth continue their studies and now develop their life ambitions and
aspirations
7. Late adolescence
• 18 to 21 years
• the process of development continues
• the youth in college are now preparing for their professional or vocational
careers
• those out of schools are entering or finding jobs in preparations for an
independent life
• development of intellectual and social skills continues
8. Early Adulthood
• from 21 to 40 years
• new life adjustments occur such as courtships and marriage, parenthood,
employment, recreational hobby, religious affiliation, which may occur earlier,
joining clubs and years of achievement
• higher studies may be pursued.
• this is the start of the productive years.
9. Middle Age
• from 40 to 65 years
• man or woman have achieved most of his or her aspirations in life
such as a well established home and family, stable and lucrative employment or
businesses, creative achievements, political achievement.
• Is also the time for the preparation of retirement. Some physical,
physiological functioning begin to decrease and deteriorate.
10. Old Age
• starts at age 65
• men and women are generally still strong, energetic, and mentally alert
• period of retirement
• some physical, physiological and mental functioning continue to decline
more rapidly
• deafness, failing eyesight, forgetfulness, baldness, arthritis, senility occur
• painful adjustments have to made to meet some an avoidable circumstance
such as death of spouse, solitude as children now have their own family, inadequate
financial resources, inability to perform home chores more efficiently, unpleasant
relationships with kin and neighbors,etc.
B. Developmentalism
- Also called Pestalozzianism. Is a system of educational doctrines and
practices developed by the Swiss educator, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
and followers.
Developmentalism Pestalozzianism stresses that instruction should proceed
from the familiar to the new, incorporate the performance of concrete arts and the
experience of actual emotional responses, and be paced to follow the gradual
unfolding of the child’s development. His ideas flow from the same stream of
thought that includes Johann Friedrich Herbart, Maria Montessori, John Dewey, and
more recently Jean Piaget and advocates of constructivist theories of curriculum
development. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
Two Basic Facts About Development
1. Development is sequential
- development follows strictly a definite sequence of steps or stages of
progression
►The child who learns to roll over eventually learns to walk
► Learner has to start from Gr. 1, pass through series of grades before
reaching Gr. 6
2. The rate of development is not equal for all individuals
- Some persons develop and learn faster than others.
Two major factors:
►Heredity – Gives all the potentialities for growth & development
►Environment – Provides the direction of the growth and development of
an individual.
Heredity
- We inherit almost all the things we need for growth and development:
mental ability, physical and physio;ogical structure, emotional stability, and other
traits. Some even inhirit criminal tendecies. Of ourse, those who have inhereted
superior capacities learn and grow faster than those who have inherited inferior
capacities.
- Heredity gives all the potentialities for growth and development.
Environmental
- Environmental modiefies to a certain extent the effects of heredity. A
person enowed with inteligence but bereft of education cannot fully develop into a
community achiever. On the other hand, a person who combines intelligence and
formal education can fully develop himself into an achieving citizen.
- Environment provides the direction of the growth and development.
Individual Differences
A. Heredity
1. Age.
Certainly, age is a big factor in making on different from another. A six-year
old boy cannot do nor unerstand what a twelve-year old boy can. Generally, older
learners have more physical strength and higher level of comprehension than
younger ones. Maturation and readiness are important in learning. Mature leaners
have greater capacity to receive instruction.
2. Sex.
In our culture, sex determines certain roles. Maless are expected to be
aggressive , fearless and capable of doin heavier work. Females are expected to be
passive, demure, prim and the like. As to choice of profession, males usually prefer
farming and agriculture, engineering, military, law, medicine, and foresty while
females flock to teaching,ursing, nutrition, home econmoics, social work, and
pharmacy. Hence, to a large extent, sex determines the direction of the growth and
development of individuals.
3. Physical condition.
It has been observed that some people are born bigger, healthier, and
stronger than others. Naturally, healthier persons progress more rapidly in their
development than those who are less healthy. Moreover, they select activities that
call for more energy like athletics, mechanics, driving, etc. There are also people
who are born with handicaps such as deafness, muteness, defective arms and legs,
and the like. Naturally, normal people develop faster and better and are to attain
higher status than the handicapped people.
4. Intelligence(mental ability).
Children do not have the same level of mental ability. Some are more
intelligent than others. And those who are more intelligent progress d grow faster
than those who are less intelligent.
5. Aptitude and special talent.
Children are gifted with special aptitudes and talents in music, painting,
acting, science, mathematics, and the like. These children, given the chance, often
show excellence of performance and leadership in their respective fields of
specializations far above the ordinary individuals.
6. Temperament.
There are individuals who are easily irritated and tensed even with trivial
things, symptonic of emotional immaturity and instability. Generally, children who
are more emotionally mature and stable are more patient in studying their lessons
hence, learn faster than those who are more temperamental. Even in actual work
performance,people who are emotionally mature and stable perform better and are
easier to deal with than people who are emotionally immature and unstable.
7. Extroversion-introversion, dominance-submissiveness.
Extroverts are usually gregarious and like the dominants, enjoy interacting
with people. Hence,they choose careers that afford them more contacts with other
people. On the other hand, introverts and submissive prefers jobs than can be efficient in the true sense of the word, the pupils learn remarkably well than when
performed in peace, quiet and with less contacts with other people. These traits the teachers are inefficient in which case the pupils suffer a setback. Second, the
determine the direction of the growth and development of individuals. facilities. If the facilities are adequate and serviceable, the pupils learn well and
8. Effort-making capacity. progress rapidly, otherwise the pupils will be retarded in their learning. Third, the
An important trait, one with much effort-making capacity studies and works location. Children studying in a school located in a very quiet place find learning
harder, concentrates more and exhibits steadiness in his work. One cannot hope to conducive.They learn much more than the children exposed to very noisy
succeed without an effort-making capacity and surely, effort-making capacity is a surroundings like a busy street or a market place.
great determent o success. Those who have more of this trait usually forge ahead
faster than those who have less.
9. Criminal tendency.
Psychologists can prove that criminal tendency is inherited. Children who
have this tendency are usually bullies, troublemakers and they commit many anti-
social acts, in or out of school. Usually, individuals with this tendency end up in
early death, or in prison, or in perpetual hiding from the agents of the law unless the
unless the criminal tendency is redirected of softened by the environment.
B. Environment
1. Family background
Children coming from poor families with very meager incomes have stunted
growth especially if they have not pursued higher education or none at all. Family
background that includes level of education and value orientation of parents is an
other determinant. If the parents suffer from ignorance and wrong values, the
children likewise suffer the adverse consequences because such parents can not pay
much attention to the proper upbringing of their children. On the other hand,
children coming from affluent families and educated parents with the right values TEMPERAMENT
can grow and develop more progressively than children coming from poor families. TEMPERAMENT
Besides, rich homes are usually provided with more learning materials and tools *Refers to certain emotional predispositions of an individual.
which the children can avail of for their learning activities. Naturally, children of *Refers to personality traits that determine how someone reacts to the world
affluent families can pursue higher education which is usually denied to children of .
poor families. *The traits of temperament are mostly innate traits that we are born with,
2. Community background. although they can be influenced by an individuals, family, culture or their
Children coming from squatter or slum areas and from crime-infested areas experiences.
have a very slim chance of growing progressively because of the bad influence of EMOTIONS AS IT AFFECTS THE LEARNER ( BERNARDINO, PP 58-61)
their neighborhood. The barkada influence is especially strong i these places. While Emotion is a stirred-up state or disorganized behavior caused by a
it is true that a minority can reach optimum development in such areas, surely, the situation which the individual cannot cope it.
majority cannot. On the other hand, those children coming from affluent areas, and EXAMPLE:
from the average social class, have all the opportunities offered by society for them If a wife loses her husband, she feels sad and cries. The tears due to
to attain optimum and development. the increased activity of the tear gland.
3. School.
The school i a very important factor in learning and development. Good THEORIES OF EMOTION
schools can develop pupils better than the poor ones. Three components make the
difference between good and poor schools. First, the teachers. If the teachers are The different theories of emotion are:
1. Evolutionary Theory- “Emotions is the primitive matrix from which all later
mental powers are developed.”
2. James-Lange Theory- according to this theory, bodily changes are antecedents of
the mental state. Bodily changes occurs occur before emotional reactions.
Example:
In meeting a snake, we run and feel frightened shortly after.
3. Cannon-Dana Theory- emotions is the result of the action and reaction of the
cerebral cortex and the diencephalon (part of the brain). Bodily changes are not
antecedents nor consequents of conscious mental states.
4. Emergency or Conflict Theory – this theory states that emotion is a mechanism
that enables an individual to meet conflicts or emergencies.
5.
IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONS
Emotion is important because:
1. Generally, emotion shapes up the personality of a
person.
2. Emotion either makes us strong to do action or
prevents us from doing any action during
emergencies.
3. Emotion enables us to cope with conflicts and
emergencies.
4. Emotions dominates our lives.
METHODS OF ERADICATING UNDESIRABLE EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
1. Disuse- avoid that which causes the undesirable behavior. If one is afraid of the
dark, do not give him a chance to be in the dark. Eventually the fear disappears.
2. Frequent Application of the stimulus- If a child is afraid of the dark, bring him
often to the dark. Eventually the fear disappears.
3. Ridicule or scorn- If a male child is fearful of the dark, call him a “coward”,”
You are not a man”,. His pride will dare him go into the dark.
4. Social Imitation- if a child is afraid of puppies, show him that other persons are
not afraid of puppies and that he can handle them without getting harmed.
5.Verbal Appeal- Give as many plausible reasons as possible against an
undesirable emotional attitude.
6. Reconditioning- If a child does not like to take medicine because it is bitter,
make the medicine sweet. If he is afraid to take a bath let him play with water, if
possible, in a bathtub.
MEANS OF INDIRECT ADJUSTMENT TO FRUSTRATION
1. Sublimation or substitution- is an indirect but socially acceptable expression of
emotion or drive.
- Substitution is replacing an activity for another in which the
individual fails to excel.
2. Compensation and overcompensation- is a socially acceptable means of
adjustment to make up for deficiency or inferiority, physical or otherwise. It is
almost the same if not exactly the same as substitution.
- Overcompensation is an extreme form of compensation
less rational and often anti-social
3. Fantasy or introversion- act of imagining success and satisfactions that are not
attain. This consist of to types:
A. The conquering hero type- one who imagine himself
to be the victorious hero.
B. The suffering hero or martyr type- one who believes that
the world is sympathetic to his cause.
4. Rationalization- act of giving some socially acceptable reasons for one’s
frustrations. There are three methods in this way of adjusting to frustrations.
A. sour grapes mechanism- one finds fault in a motive which he fails to
attain. If an ardent suitors fails to win the hand of he girl, he would say,
“anyway, she is not pretty.”
B. sweet lemon mechanism- one finds satisfaction in his failure because it is
a blessing in disguise.
For example, an accountancy graduate failing to have academic
honors passes the CPA exams. He says, “it’s a blessing I wasn’t an honor
student. Otherwise, I would have flunked the board exam.”
C. projection- act of blaming somebody or something for one’s failure. A
flunker in a licensing examination said that he failed because he was not
able to enroll in a review center.
5. Simulation of physical ailments- this is composed of two types:
a) Hysteria- simulation of localized ailments. Usually, it is a combination of a
screaming and crying.
b) Neurasthenia- simulation of generalized bodily
ailments. A nervous breakdown of evident.
6. Nomadism- act of wondering aimlessly.
7. Regression- act of submerging into the subconscious state or forgetting. If one is
wronged, instead of taking a revenge he just forgets the matter.
8. Delusions- this are the strong beliefs in things opposite to reality. For instance,
one may believe that he has a kingdom where he is the king. Usually, patients in the
mental hospital suffer from delusions.
9. Regression- act of seeking infantile expression of motives. A grown-up person
acts like a child.
10. Escape through alcohol and drugs- act of excessive drinking of liquor and  Controls and directs human behavior.
taking of prohibited drugs to forget or ease up frustration.  Inculcates spiritual and moral values in the minds of the young.
 Gives satisfaction and happiness to the individual.

MOTIVATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM MOTIVE AND INCENTIVE

Motivation is the process but motive is a disposition, tendency, desire, or

aspiration. Motive, which is within the individual, has a definite goal to achieve.
Incentive, on the other hand, is an external benefit or reward of some kind
derived from an activity. Praising is a motivation, the praise given is an incentive.

CLASSES OF MOTIVATION
These are two classes of motivation:
 Intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is an internal stimulus that
arouses one to action. In this type of motivation, the learners work, not for
medals or anything tangible, but for the personal satisfaction for
accomplishing their work and attaining their goals.
 Extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is an external stimulus. This
type of motivation is based on incentive. Extrinsic motivation comes in the
forms of praise and other forms of social approval, high grades, medals,
cooperation, scholarship, rivalry, and competition and etc.

MOTIVATION CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES

OBJECTIVES:  Biological and physiological drives. These are innate or inborn stimuli such as
 Define what is motivation the desires of food, water, shelter, and other comforts of the body. In the
 Explain the importance of motivation hierarchy of motives, biological drives are the lowest but the most important.
 Distinguish motive from incentive  Psychological drives. These are the drives which are acquired, learned, or
 Identify the classes of motivation derived. These are the needed for social approval, security, safety,
 Identify the classification of motives belongingness, love, esteem, prestige, power and the like. In the hierarchy of
 Determine the source theories of motivation motives, these are the second.
 Creativity or self-actualization. These are general or unconsciousness drives
WHAT IS MOTIVATION? or motives. This drives is very strong, almost compulsive, and for some, even
 It is the process of arousing and sustaining interest in an activity in risking their lives. Scientist, explorers, inventors, composers, artist, performers,
order to achieve a goal. heroes, are belong to this class. In the hierarchy of motives, this is the highest
 It is the creation of a desire on the part of the learner to perform an class or level.
activity to satisfy a need.
MOTIVATIONAL CYCLE
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation goes through a cycle. The first stage starts with a need which
 Direct activities towards the achievement of a goal. turn into motives. The tension or stress arises. The second stage is the action. The
motives spurs individual into action and the activity continues until the motive has
been satisfied. Then, the third stage starts, which is the satisfaction of the individual.
Tension vanishes and stability or equilibrium take its place. This is called
homeostasis, which is the absence of tension and the satisfaction, stability and
equilibrium characterize the individual.
SOURCE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
 Need-drive-incentive theory. Need is probably the greatest source of
motivation and the desire to satisfy a need is the strongest motive. For instance,
the needs of food, water, shelter, clothing, and the rest are very powerful and
the desire to satisfy such is very strong.
 Cue stimulus (non-drive) theory. According to this theory, the stimulus to
activity does not come from within the individual but from the outside. Given
the necessary incentives, the individual performs an act repetitively until the
acts become a habit and a motivating factor.
 Affective arousal theory. This theory is an application of law of effect of
Thorndike. Pleasant experiences tend to be repeated and unpleasant experiences
tend to be avoided.
 Cognitive theory. According to this theory, an individual takes an action that
is most favorable to his perception and rational thinking. This is the level on
decision making or making a choice.
 Psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud, the proponent of this theory, claims
that the libido or physic energy is sexual in origin and is the primary driving
force of behavior. A person chooses an activity that best expresses his physic
energy.
THE TEACHER AND THE POLICY MAKER
Learning Objectives:
 Discuss about the important functions of a teacher and what are the
teachers need to poses while he is teaching.
 Explain what is the importance of policy maker in education, and;
 Learn the scope of educational law or policies.
 THE TEACHER
- The teacher is a key process in the teaching-learning situation. Hence, he
must be a model to all his pupils in all aspects of life. Children are good imitators
and they usually make their teachers their role models.
1. MASTERY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER

This is based upon the principle that one cannot give what he
does not have. This is the most important qualification of a
teacher because unless he knows his subject matter thoroughly,
he can never teach well. Otherwise, he does not have any moral
right to stand his class and teach.
2. MASTERY OF THE METHODS AND TOOLS OF TEACHING
 The teacher is like a carpenter. The carpenter who clumsily uses
old, rusty, and unsharpened tools cannot produce fine furniture.
3. MASTERY OF PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING OR EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 The teacher must be able to apply with a certain degree of
expertise principles, motivation, individual differences, and
discipline, and reinforce the laws of learning for optimum results.
4. MASTERY OF THE MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION AND ART OF
COMMUNICATION
 The teacher must possess oral proficiency in the medium of
instruction used.
5. MASTERY OF LESSON PLANNING AND SUBJECT MATTER
ORGANIZATION
 Contributory to the success of learning session is a good lesson
plan and well-organized units or parts of the lesson.
6. MASTERY OF THE NATIONAL PHILOSOPHY, GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES AS WELL AS INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES
 The teacher should know the national philosophy of
education, its goals and objectives so that he can include
these as implied goals and objectives in his instructional
objectives. Contradiction or deviation of such is a violation
of the principle.
7. MASTERY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
 The teacher is the manager and director of the classroom
activities. He should see to it that the learning sessions are
conducted smoothly and effectively.
8. MASTERY OF MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF
ACHIEVEMENT
 To be able to know whether the teaching-learning situation
has been effective, the achievement of the learners must be
measured and evaluated.
9. SPIRITUAL AND MORAL VALUES
 
Honesty, kindness, friendliness, respect authority, devotion
to duty, and love for student.
10. MASTERY OF GOOD HUMAN RELATIONS
11. MASTERY OF GROOMING TECHNIQUE
 They should observe good grooming technique. Presentable,
good-looking, maintaining neatness, good taste, and
decency. No low-cut dresses or mini skirts.
12. MASTERY OF LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUE
 The teacher is both leader of the classroom and the
community.
13. HEALTH
 The teacher must be healthy, physically, and mentally so that
he can carry on his work.