In the previous lesson, you have learned about mitotic cell division and meiotic cell division, wherein

mitosis occurs in the body cells or

somatic cells that resulted in the formation of two identical cells with the same number of chromosomes. In contrast, meiosis cell
division happens in the sex cells.
Mitosis is divided into four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase, which can be abbreviated to PMAT for better
recall. On the other hand, meiosis is referred to as a special type of cell division because the cell undergoes two rounds of cell division
that produce four daughter cells that carry half of the chromosome number. Each daughter cell has a unique set of genetic materials
that resulted from crossing over from both parents.
Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes) while dogs have 52 chromosomes (26 pairs of chromosomes), refer to
Table 1.

The 46 chromosomes in humans result from the union of two

human gametes. These human gametes (organisms’
reproductive cells also referred to as sex cells – egg and
sperm cells) unite during fertilization. The union of these sex
cells forms a zygote. The zygote is diploid with 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes such that one set
of chromosomes come from both the parents. This means the
father and the mother contributed with 23 chromosomes
each.

The formation of gametes is generally called

gametogenesis. This process can be classified as
spermatogenesis and oogenesis. The perpetuation of
human generation is broadly supported by gametogenesis
that produces two new haploid cells.

Sperm cells production in males. These cells are produced in the testes, in particular in the walls of thin, tightly coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules. The primordial germ cells that are considered the ancestor for the production of sperm cells among males
are called spermatogenesis. The spermatogonia (singular spermatogonium) is developed from the primordial germ cell, which
divides in mitosis, which later matures and generates the primary spermatocytes or sperms cells. These spermatocytes then passed
meiosis I, which leads to the creation of two (2) haploid secondary spermatocytes. Meiosis II then takes place, producing four cells
that are very small but of similar size. Sperm cells are also known as spermatozoa (singular form is spermatozoon). In the head of
the sperm cells, the nucleus is located. And the mitochondria that provide the energy for the movement of the sperm’s tails are at
the midpiece connecting the head to the tail of a sperm cell.

Oogenesis refers to the growth process in which the primary egg cell becomes a mature ovum in the female reproductive system. The
oogonia (sing. oogonium) rapidly divide from the second to the seventh month in human embryo gestation that initially is derived from
the primordial germ cell. The oogonia then enter meiosis I, where it produces the primary oocyte that will stay until puberty is
reached. The signal to continue meiosis among human females will be given nearly 12 years later. In this case, the primary oocyte will
produce two daughter cells, of which one contains hardly any cytoplasm and is characterized by its small size that is known to be the
first polar body. In contrast, the larger cell is referred to as the secondary oocyte.

For the second meiotic cell division, the small cell or the first polar body produced during meiosis I may not divide. If division favors the
small cell, it may result in the production of another two small cells or two polar bodies while most of the cytoplasm is retained by the
bigger cell- ootid. Thus, four cells are produced consisting of a big cell and three small cells (polar body), and it is the big cell that
becomes the mature ovum while the small cells disintegrate. The big cell contains food that is much more than enough for the survival
of a growing embryo at the start of its development.

When Something Goes Wrong During Meiosis

The daily continuous process that primarily involves meiosis may not always result in its normal output. There are instances that
accidents happen that affected the movement of chromosomes and lead to birth defects that may affect the brain and other parts of the
body.

Down’s Syndrome
Trisomy 21 is when there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. This causes a condition called Down syndrome. Down syndrome
features include intellectual disability, slow growth, abnormalities of the face or skull such as upward slanting eyes and a flattened face,
and heart conditions. The major problem is overall developmental and intellectual disability. Babies born with Down syndrome can
learn necessary skills like sitting, walking, and talking, but at a delayed pace compared with other children.

Edwards Syndrome
Trisomy 18, also called Edwards syndrome, after the physician who first described the disorder as a rare chromosome abnormality
that affects approximately one in every 6,000-8,000 live births. These children have severe developmental delay, as well as severe
congenital disabilities and health problems involving nearly every organ system in the body.

Babies with trisomy 18 have low birth weight, have a weak cry, and startle to sound. They have problems feeding and fail to thrive.
They have a small head size, with a prominent back of the head (occiput). Their ears are usually low set, and their eyes' opening, nose,
and mouth are small. Their sternum (breastbone) is typically short. Almost all babies with trisomy 18 have heart defects. They have
clenched fists from before birth, and extending the fingers fully is difficult. Their elbows and knee joints are in a bent position rather than
relaxed. They typically have club feet, and their feet have been described as a "rocker bottom" due to their shape. Babies with trisomy
18 may also have spina bifida, cleft lip and palate, eye problems, and hearing loss. Some develop seizures in the first year of life,
kidney problems, and scoliosis (curvature of the spine). Feeding difficulties, heart problems, and increased susceptibility to infection are
factors that contribute to the death of these children.

Patau Syndrome
Trisomy 13, also called Patau syndrome after the physician who first described the disorder, affects one in every 8,000-12,000 live
births. Babies with trisomy 13 have many abnormalities involving nearly every organ system in the body and developmental delay.

Babies with trisomy 13 often have a normal birth weight, a small head, and a sloping forehead. Noses are usually large ("bulbous"),
ears are low-set and unusual in shape, eye defects occur frequently, and cleft lip and palate, as well as heart defects, are very
common. Many babies with trisomy 13 are born with small areas of missing skin on the scalp (cutis aplasia), which resemble ulcers.
The brains in babies with trisomy 13 usually have major structural problems. Oftentimes, the brain does not divide appropriately into
two hemispheres, resulting in a condition called holoprosencephaly. Many babies with trisomy 13 have extra fingers and toes
(polydactyly). Some are present with a sac attached to the abdomen in the umbilical cord area (omphalocele), which contains some of
the abdominal organs, as well as spina bifida. Girls may have an abnormally shaped uterus, called a bicornuate uterus. In boys, the
testes sometimes fail to descend into the scrotum.

Klinefelter Syndrome
Babies with Klinefelter syndrome have one or two extra sex chromosome(s). These babies are always boys and, instead of having an
XY chromosome pair, they have XXY or XXXY as their sex chromosomes. Usually, boys with Klinefelter syndrome are not diagnosed
until puberty. The features of this condition include infertility, shrinkage of the testicles, and the development of breasts. Intellectual
disability is not usually associated with Klinefelter syndrome, although it does sometimes occur.

Turner Syndrome
Babies with Turner syndrome, always girls, lack one of their X chromosomes, and therefore, only have 45 chromosomes (XO). This
condition's features include the absence of functioning ovaries, short stature, a webbed neck, skeletal deformities, and a broad chest
with widely spaced nipples.
Because most girls with Turner syndrome lose their ovarian function in early childhood, they do not enter puberty at the normal age.
Generally, suppose a girl with Turner syndrome has not had her first menstrual period by the age of 15. In that case, she will be given
estrogen to induce breast development and other puberty features. Girls with Turner syndrome are infertile. These girls need to remain
on estrogen to maintain their sexual development and protect their bones from osteoporosis until about age 50, which is the normal
age of menopause.