To properly evaluate the ideas you have gathered while reading, you must be

able to know the different kinds of information which are explicit information and
implicit information.
Two Kinds of Information:
 Explicit Information is the information stated in the text. Readers can see
the piece of information stated in the given passage.
 Implicit information is the information not directly presented in the text. As
readers, we need to read between the lines to understand the details that the
writer is trying to tell us.

Critical reading enables you to distinguish the explicit and implicit information
provided by the author. Explicit information is information that is clearly stated in
the text. Implicit, on the other hand, are ideas suggested in the text but not directly
stated. This is where the ability to make inferences based on clues within the text is
applied.

Through proper identification of explicit and implicit information, the critical

reader can properly evaluate the claim/s made by an author. Claims state the point
or position of an author regarding a certain topic. The claim statement is further
proven by supporting details from various resources and reliable evidence.

Tiongson (2016) gave the following characteristics of good claims:

1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable. It is expected for a written

text to yield objections and opposite perspectives to appear for readers of a
text that supports a certain stand on a topic. Completely factual texts are not
considered debatable.

2. A claim should be specific and focused. With the statement of claim limiting
the scope of the written text, it must be noted that claims must be focused on
a single topic alone to arrive at an equally concise and specific result or
conclusion.

3. A claim should be interesting and engaging. It should capture the interest of

readers at first glance and encourage a healthy discussion on the topic.

4. A claim should be logical. The evidence supporting the claim must be

reasonable at its best.
 Claims of Fact are pieces of information which are grounded on reliable authority
such as science or history.
 Claims of Fact relate to statements that can be easily verified and not dependent
on a person's preference. It also asserts that a condition has existed, is existing,
or will exist and is based on facts or data.
 Facts that are universally accepted are not considered claim of fact but instead a
statement of fact.
Claims of Fact are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a
rule. And, to verify whether these statements are claim of fact or not, ask these
questions:
Is it debatable? Is it verifiable? Is it specific? Can it be solved objectively?
Types of factual claims (generally "objective")
1. Factual / historical
2. Relational - causal connections
3. Predictive

Proof requires:
• sufficient and appropriate grounds
• reliable authority
• recent data
• accurate, typical data
• clearly defined terms -no loaded language
• a clear distinction between fact and inference

EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF FACT

 The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy.
 Generally, obesity causes health problems.
 The earth is warming rapidly.

 The Claim of Policy calls for some form of action.

 It states what the reader should or ought to do about a particular
situation/topic.
The Claim of Policy advocates a specific course of action. It asserts that
specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems.
Claims of policy argue that certain conditions should exist. Almost always
"should" or "ought to" or "must" are included in this claim.
Claims of Policy are specific statements on procedures or laws that need to be
modified based on certain issues or conditions.
Most of the time, claims of policy ask for plans of action to solve current
problems.
Proof requires:
  Making proposed action (clear), need (justification), plan (must be workable),
benefit (advantages) consider opposition / counter arguments.
Consider this statement, for example:
To attract more non-traditional students, this college must review and revise
its course offerings.

The given statement above is an example of a claim of policy. It calls on

action for the college referred to, regarding its course offerings to arrive at a
workable conclusion which is to attract more non-traditional students. The author
may choose to elaborate on this course of action to prove that this claim can work for
the college.

EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF POLICY

 The mayor should suspend the classes today.
 You must send your children to public schools.
 The government should legalize medicinal marijuana.
 The Boy Scouts should not have to include gay scout leaders.
 Local Malls should not open during the general community quarantine.

 Claims of Value refer to statements that appeal to a person’s taste and morals
or the sense of what’s good and what’s bad.
 This type of claim weighs the values according to which is more desirable. Claim
of value deals with topics concerning moral, philosophical, or aesthetic aspects.
Claims of Value involve judgments and evaluations. It judges whether
something is good/bad, right/wrong, just/unjust, ethical/non-ethical, and others. We
judge the worth of something. It attempts to prove that some things are more or less
desirable than others.

Some claims of value are simply expressions of taste, preferences, and

prejudices. The most important in proving claim of value is by establishing standards
of evaluation.

Proof requires:
• Establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a warrant that defines what
constitutes instances of the relevant value)
• note the priority of the value in this instance
• Establish the advantage (practical or moral) of your standards
• Use examples to clarify abstract values
 Use credible authorities for support

The famous saying, honesty is the best policy, is one good example of a claim
of value. To prove the statements validity, the author may elaborate on the examples
that show how honesty holds advantage over other policies and how it has been
proven to be effective.
 EXAMPLES OF CLAIMS OF VALUE
 It is better to be feared than loved.
 Cheating is not good.
 Gay marriage is immoral.
 Buying a house is a lot better than building it.
 Rock music sucks.
 The government is doing a great job during the Covid-19 pandemic.

 The word paragraph comes from two Greek words: para which means
“beyond” or “beside” and graphein which means “to write”.
 A paragraph is a collection of related sentences with one central idea. Each
sentence shows connection to other sentences in the paragraph.
 A paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit. As an independent unit,
it is complete in itself. As a related unit, it is a part of a composition that is
combined with other paragraphs to make a larger composition.
 Whether a paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit, it has its
beginning, middle and end.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

One of the most important elements in writing is the form or structure. It is

worth noting that without a solid structure in place, the content you have gathered
would fall apart. After constructing an outline and writing your first draft, it is time to
get on to paragraph writing.

An effective paragraph shows the unity of the sentences used in developing

the main idea. A paragraph is made up of the topic sentence which contains the
main idea, the supporting details and the conclusion or the clinching sentence at
the end.

 Topic sentence – it reveals the main or central idea of the paragraph. It does
not necessarily have to be placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It may be
found in the middle of the first and the last sentence or at the end. If it is found
at the end of the paragraph, it may be used as a clinching or concluding
sentence.
 Supporting details – they give the paragraph life as it elaborates on the scope
given by the topic sentence.
 Clinching sentence – it closes your paragraph. According to Dagdag (2010),
this “may be a restatement of the topic sentence, a summary, or a conclusion
based on the supporting details.”

 Narration, from the root word narrates, originated from the Latin word
narrare— which means related or told.
  It gives a written account of an event or story, or simply, storytelling. The
sequence of events is told in chronological order.
 It usually contains the following: the who, what and when.
 A narrative must have “vivid” description of details, a consistent point of view
and verb tense, and a well-defined point or significance.” (Tiongson, 2016).
 At the end of writing it, it must send a clear message to its readers through
the story.
A narrative paragraph simply tells what happened and establishes facts. It
is sharing of personal experiences that offer lessons and insights. It is more than
just a chronological sequence of events that happen to the different
characters. It also contains elements of drama and tension.

Narration is the most common type of paragraph development. It has the

following elements:
1. Setting. It is the time and location in which a story takes place.
2. Characters. The life-giving element of the story.
3. Plot. It is the logical series of events in the story.
The five essential parts of the plot are:
a. Exposition. It is the part of the story where the characters and
the setting are revealed.
b. Rising Action. It is where the events in the story become
complicated and the conflict in the story is exposed.
c. Climax. This is the highest point of interest and the turning
point of the story.
d. Falling Action. The events and complications begin to resolve
themselves.
e. Denouement. The final resolution of the plot in the story.
4. Point of View. It is the perspective of the writer in narrating the
story.
5. First person point of view. The story is told by the protagonist or
one of the characters using pronouns I , me , we.
6. Second person point of view . The author tells the story in second
point of view using the pronouns you , yours, and your.
7. Third person point of view . The narrator is not part of the story but
describes the events that happen. The writer uses the pronouns he,
she , him, and her.

 Description gives information of what a person, an object, a place or a

situation is like.
 It appeals to the reader’s senses.
 A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are
carefully chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the mind of the reader.
 Descriptive writing emphasizes a reader’s ability to paint vivid pictures using
words on a reader’s mind. This relies on the writer’s ability to appeal to
his/her five senses: the sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.

To rouse feelings, emotions and reactions from the readers is what descriptive
paragraphs aim for. Simple adjectives will not simply cut it for readers desiring
for appropriate description of an event, thing, place or person.

According to Dagdag (2010), there are two types of description: objective and
subjective. Objective description is a factual description of the topic at hand.
This relies its information on physical aspects and appeals to those who crave
for facts. Meanwhile, subjective description allows the writer to explore ways to
describe an emotion, an event, a thing, a place or person, appealing to
emotions. Often, this is an artistic way of describing things, mostly from the eye
and perspective of the writer.

Here is a word bank of sensory words to refer to when you want to add
descriptive details to your paragraphs

SIGHT SOUND SMELL TOUCH TASTE

sparkling yelp musty sticky spicy
gloomy shriek rotten grainy sweet
glossy whisper fragrant smooth sour
bright hiss fresh satiny bitter
dazzling screech pungent pointy bland
cloudy chortle fruity clammy creamy
blurred sneeze stinky furry delectable

 Definition explains a concept, term or subject. Its main purpose is to tell what
something is.
 It consists of three parts: (1) the term, concept or subject to be defined; (2)
the general class to which it belongs; and (3) the characteristics that
differentiate it from the other members of its class.
 A definition explains what a term means. When you want your readers
to know exactly how you are using a certain term or an unfamiliar
concept , you use definition.

Definition is the main constituent of any dictionary. In developing a paragraph

by definition, you should take account of these things:
a) the term to be defined
b) the class to which the term belongs
 c) the characteristics that distinguish the term from the other
members of its class.
Take a look at this example of a definition:
An owl is a bird with a large head, strong talons and has a nocturnal
habit.
Owl – is the term to defined
Bird – is the class where the owl belongs
with a large head, strong talons and has a nocturnal habit – are the
characteristics that distinguish the owl from the other birds.
The following are the different types of definitions:
1. Formal Definition. The definitions provided in dictionaries.
2. Informal Definitions. The three common informal definitions are operational
definitions, synonyms, and connotations.
a. Operational Definitions gives the meaning of an abstract word for
one particular time and place.
b. Synonyms or words that mean the same as another word.
c. Denotation is the exact meaning of the word
d. Connotation is an idea or meaning suggested by or associated with
a word or things.
3. Definition Paragraph. It is a definition sentence which is extended into a
paragraph by adding meanings, descriptions, narrations , and other kinds
of paragraph development to make clear the term being defined.

 Classification paragraphs group items into categories, to establish a clear

distinction.
 If the topic encompasses a large body of information, one effective way of
elaborating it is through classifying things of distinct features into
groups/classes.
 Classification groups items into categories to establish a clear distinction
between related or similar ideas. Similar items are grouped into categories for
the readers to better understand and analyze the material at hand.
In a classification paragraph you tell readers how a collection of items can
be sorted into categories. It is an activity of sorting items (people, things ,
ideas ) into categories.

1. Terms that signal classification

aspects kinds qualities traits
areas levels systems types

2. Transitional Expressions
 can be divided can be categorized
can be classified the first type
 A comparison tells how two things are similar. A contrast tells how they are
different.
 A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a unifying idea or
purpose of attempting to weigh decisions between two ideas or subjects.
 A comparison and contrast paragraph must be balanced in such a way that
there is an equal amount of information for each subject to avoid bias.

There are two ways in writing a comparison and contrast paragraph.

1. Subject – by - Subject Method. You present all of the facts and

supporting details about one topic , and then you give all the facts and
supporting details about the other topic.

2. Point – by - Point Arrangement. You discuss each point for both subjects
before giving on the next point.

 A cause is what makes a particular thing happen.

 An effect is what results from a particular situation, activity, or behavior.
 A paragraph developed by causal analysis must not only raise the question
why, but also give answers to the satisfaction of the reader.

Cause and Effect paragraphs are written for the following purposes:
 to discuss why a certain phenomenon occurs
 to discuss the results of a phenomenon, event, feeling or action
 to understand a situation
 to solve a problem
 to predict an outcome
 to entertain
 to persuade

Some of the signal words used in this type of paragraph are the following:
  For
 Because
 Since
 Due to
 So
 But
 For this reason
 As a result
 Consequently
 Otherwise
 Therefore
 Thu

 In composition writing, problem-solution is a method for analyzing and writing

about a topic by identifying a problem and proposing one or more solutions.
 Problem-solution paragraphs as the term implies, presents and identifies a
problem and proposes possible solution/s.

In composing this type of essay, you must present an argument or stand

and support it with reliable evidence in order to persuade the readers to make a
particular move or action (Kemper et.al, 2016).

According to Soles (2010), topics for problem-solution essays “are

typically framed in the form of questions.” Problem-solution essay can provide
answers to 5W and 1H (who, what, when, where, why, and how) questions.
Soles (2010) added that this type of essay has essentially two parts: “a full
explanation of the nature of the problem, followed by an analysis of solutions and
their likelihood of success.”

Structure of paragraphs in a problem-solution essay:

Nordquist (1995) suggested the following structure of a problem-solution

paper that may serve as a guide on what to include in this type of essay:
1. Introduction. At the forefront of the essay, the introduction must serve to
capture the reader’s attention. This may contain the thesis statement wherein
the problem or topic at hand is presented. This is where the problem is
defined, and the reason why it is significant to a specific group of people (or
the target audience).
 2. Problem Paragraph. This paragraph/s will dwell on the elaboration of the
problem, effectively conveying the importance of a solution. You may present
reliable sources and evidence to support your stand.
3. Solution Paragraph. Present and describe a concrete solution to the problem.
Explain how this solution is better than other probable solutions.
4. Conclusion. Conclude the essay with connection between the problem and its
proposed solution.

 A persuasive paragraph tries to convince the reader that a particular point of

view is worthy of consideration. It wants you to consider both sides of an issue,
but it reveals a bias in favor of one side over another.
 A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in
something.
 Knowing how to write a persuasive paragraph allows you to express your
personal conviction or opinion about an issue or topic and make the readers
agree with or adopt your conviction or opinion.

Much like problem-solution essays, persuasion essays seek to urge

readers to take a particular action (Forlini, et.al, 1990). The main goal of
persuasive essays is to convince the reader to agree to the writer’s opinion or at
the very least, take it into serious consideration.
According to Forlini (1990), “the purpose of persuasive writing is to obtain
the reader’s agreement on a matter of opinion.”
The statements given in persuasive essays are heavy on opinion while
based on facts. The opinions of the writer must be (a) controversial enough or
something that would inspire conversation and debate, (b) significant and
interesting, and (c) supported by evidence. (Forlini, 1990).
It is also vital that in order to prove your stand, you must thoroughly
research about the issue you are about to discuss. Make a list of your strongest
arguments composed of facts and data. Introduce a new reason or fact with
every paragraph.

Some of the transitional expressions used in persuasive paragraphs are the following:
ANSWER THE
GIVE REASONS DRAW CONCLUSION
OPPOSITION
First (second, third, etc.) Of course Therefore
Another, Next Some may say Thus
Last, finally Nevertheless Hence
Because, since, for On the other hand Consequently
Although
  A paragraph is a collection of related sentences with one central idea. Each
sentence shows connection to other sentences in the paragraph.
 A paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting details, and a clinching
sentence.
 There are many ways of developing a paragraph, such as: narration,
description, definition, classification, comparison and contrast, cause and
effect, problem-solution and persuasion.

 Organization - this is the structural framework for writing. It is important to

effective writing because it provides readers with a framework to help them fulfil
their expectations for the text. This is the logical progression and completeness
of ideas in a text.
Organization is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged.
 Coherence – by coherence we mean that every part of a composition must
contribute to one main unifying thought, which means that the various parts of a
text must follow one another in an order which makes their relationship clear.
 Cohesion - means that the overall text has meaning.

Text organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the
reader logically through it. This property makes a text readable and its
message clear. Organization can be achieved through the following techniques:
 Physical format
 Signal words
 Structure

Physical Format
The format is an aspect of the organization that is immediately apparent to
the reader. It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings and
subheadings, bullet points or font emphasis. However, use this technique with
discretion as improper or superfluous formatting can be confusing.

Example:
Marxist ideology has three main theories. Historical materialism purports
that all the features of society can historically be traced back to economic
activity. Social class in capitalist societies is what produces unjust structures of
power that exist today. Socialism would be the next rational step for the
development of human society.

Explanation:
The words in bold are the three most important Marxist theories that the first
sentence is referring to. By emphasizing these words, the reader can identify the
 correct term for the concepts along with their definitions; this would also aid in
remembering the theories since they stick out from the rest of the text.

Signal Words
Signal words are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They
can “signal” the transition from one point to another, the ordering of events
and concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type (e.g., linear narration, question
and answer).

Example:
Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club greatly influenced me as a fictional
writer. First, his use of the unreliable narrator fascinated me, and I have written
similar characters in my works. Second, the theme of patriarchal oppression can
also be found in the stories I write. Third, the novel’s stunning twist is something
that I have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am extremely grateful to have
encountered Palahniuk’s genius early in my writing career.

Explanation:
By using sequential signal words (first, second and third) before the
beginning of every sentence, the reader can follow what seems to be the writer’s
list of three reasons why the novel influenced him. The word thus also signals the
conclusion and the end of the list.

Structure
The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It
consists of the following:
 Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
 Middle: supporting details
 End: conclusion, summary, final message

Example:
Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an “aura,” this appears as a
rainbow of light around the body that can be seen by individuals with clairvoyant
abilities. The colors change depending on one’s mood, health, and thoughts.
Some scientists believe that the existence of the aura has something to do with
the electromagnetic fields produced by cells and tissues in the human body.
Whether auras are real or not, the fact remains that there are forces everywhere
that are real even though we cannot see them.

Explanation:
 Organization in this paragraph is not readily noticeable as it does not use
cues like formatting or signal words. However, the text is organized in this way:
 Beginning: Introduce topic of aura
 Middle: Definition and evidence of existence of auras
 End: Ending message about forces in the world

 Language Use – refers to the appropriateness of word/vocabulary use.

An effective language is specific, concise, familiar, correct and appropriate.

It is important that you make good choices when it comes to language use
because how you use language affects the tone of the text and the readers’
interpretation of it. Before writing, you have to think about and consider your
target audience.
Determine when it is appropriate to use formal language or when
informal language is acceptable.
Informal language is usually used in writing for oneself or in writing to
family, friends, and colleagues. On the other hand, formal language is used in
writing academic, business, and official texts.

Proper Language Use

Proper language use allows you to capture the message that you want to convey
to your readers. It is all about choosing the right words that accurately capture your
ideas.
However, writers sometimes encounter problems with the following:
 Misused Words
 Words with Unwanted Connotations
 Technical or Highfalutin Words

Misused Words
A writer might sometimes use a word incorrectly, and this occurs when the
word does not mean what he or she thinks it does. So, it is important to be
certain of the definition of a word before using it; this often happens with
words that sound or look alike.

Words with Unwanted Connotations

There are words that take on a meaning specific to a context. Some
writers might not be aware of these connotations, so they end up using language
that is unintentionally confusing, comical or even offensive to readers.
Technical or Highfalutin Words
Writers want to sound smart by using words that are very technical or
have deep meanings. Though some writing genres require the use of such
words, writers should still be careful about using them since they make
readers work harder to understand texts.
Mechanics - refers to a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate and
capitalize. Mechanics are conventions that have to be considered in writing. Some of
these conventions are spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. It is important to
know and observe these conventions in writing to avoid confusion.

Spelling
When you write, always make sure that you are consistently using one
standard with regard to the spelling of your words. Remember that there are
slight differences in American English spelling and British English spelling.

Punctuation
Punctuation is the act of using a system of symbols such as the comma, period,
quotation marks, question marks, etc. that are used to give structure to and organize a
text. The use of punctuation guides the reader regarding how the text should be read.

Capitalization
Capitalization is the act of writing the first letter of a word in uppercase while the rest of
the letters are in lowercase. There are rules in capitalization that one has to remember.

 Organization is the logical progression and completeness of ideas in a text.

 By coherence we mean that every part of a composition must contribute to one
main unifying thought, which means that the various parts of a text must follow
one another in an order which makes their relationship clear.
 On the other hand, cohesion means that the overall text has meaning.
 Language Use refers to the appropriateness of word/vocabulary usage.
 Mechanics refers to a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate
and capitalize.