1

Section 4
The road to partition
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Foundation of the British East India Company

 The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in December 1600, who obtained the
Crown's charter from Queen Elizabeth I for exclusive permission to trade in the East Indies
for a period of fifteen years.

Establishment of the first factory in India

 By 1610, the company built its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam in the Coromandel
Coast in the Bay of Bengal. The high profits (some as high as 200%) reported by the
Company after landing in India, initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to
other trading companies in Britain, such as the Scottish East India Company. But, in 1609, he
renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period, but warned that poor
profits would lead to the cancellation of the charter. The Company arrived in India in 1633.

Agreements with Mughal Emperor Jahangir

 The Company traders were in hostilities with the Dutch, as they competed for the rich spice
trade. The company asked the British government to open diplomatic relations with the
Mughal Empire so as to have an ally against the Dutch. James I sent Sir Thomas Roe to the
court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, and he gained for the British the right to establish a
factory at Surat. In return, the Company offered to provide European goods to the Imperial
Court.
 Gradually the EIC flourished under the good graces of the Mughal Empire, trading in silk,
indigo, cotton and saltpetre.

Trade in Bengal
 In 1633, the East India Company set foot in Bengal by establishing a factory at Hariharpur.
 On 2 February, the English obtained a Farman from Emperor Shajahan permitting them to
pursue trade and commerce in Bengal.
 The most important privilege was obtained from the Bengal governor, Shah Suja, who
permitted the English to carry out trade in Bengal without any customs duties, in lieu of an
annual lump sum of just Rs. 3000. It was this unique privilege which would take the company
to the political domination of Bengal in course of time.
 In 1668, a new factory was opened at Dhaka, the capital of Bengal. The founding of Calcutta
by Job Charnock in 1690 completed the process of factory settlement and began the process
of establishing political dominance by the company in Bengal.
 The rebellion of Shobha Singh in 1696 offered the company an opportunity to obtain
permission to fortify the Calcutta settlement and thus arrange its own defence.
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Indian National Congress

 Indian National Congress was founded in 1885, it transformed into a broad based nationalist
organisation from the beginning of the 20th century.
 It was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and
Africa.
 Its aim was to obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians, and to create a
platform for civic and political dialogue between them and the British Raj.
 The Indian National Congress initially had little year round activity and was active only in its
annual gatherings. Its delegates were mostly upper caste Hindus and its leaders primarily
came from the legal profession.
 At the beginning of the 20th century, Congress' demands became more radical in the face of
constant opposition from the British government, and the party decided to advocate in
favour of the independence movement because it would allow a new political system in
which Congress could be a major party.
 At the beginning the Muslims were not attracted to INC in significant numbers. Sir Sayyed
Ahmad advised the Muslims to keep themselves away from INC in the interest of furthering
Muslim solidarity.
 The moderate leaders of the INC did not oppose British rule at first but, in the early years of
the twentieth century, the situation began to change. ‘Extremists’ became influential in the
INC and, in 1906, demanded Home Rule for the first time.
 In 1907 the INC’s annual meeting turned into a struggle between moderates, who wanted to
continue with the old policies, and work with the British and extremists, who wanted to
adopt a more aggressive approach.
 The main cause of disagreement was the British decision to partition Bengal in 1905.

All India Muslim League

 Muslim League was established in December 1906, was instrumental in creating public
opinion in favour of Muslim nationalism and finally in achieving Pakistan in 1947.
 On December 1906, at Shahbagh, Dhaka, attended by 3,000 delegates, adopted a resolution
to form an All Indian Muslim League, against the backdrop of the Congress sponsored
agitation against the partition of Bengal (1905) and the Swadeshi Movement.
 The objectives of the AIML were to look after the interests of the Muslims; promote their
loyalty towards the British government and cultivate harmonious relations of the Muslims
with other Indian communities, particularly the Hindus.
 He started his movement by establishing a college at Aligarh. Sir Syed and like him, many
other Muslim leaders believed that the Muslims as a downtrodden nation could get more
benefit from the loyalty to the British rather than from any opposition to them. He called
upon his followers to devote their energy and attention to popularising English education
among the Muslims. This perception and consequent activism has been known as the Aligarh
Movement.
Hindu Mahasabha
 The Hindu Mahasabha (officially Akhil Bhārat Hindū Mahāsabhā or All-India Hindu Grand-
Assembly) is a political party in India.
 The organisation was formed to protect the rights of the Hindu community in British India,
after the formation of the All India Muslim League in 1906 and the British
India government's creation of separate Muslim electorate under the Morley-Minto
reforms of 1909.
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Partition of Bengal 1905 - 1911

Background:
• The partition of Bengal controversy is the most significant event in Lord Curzon’s time in India.
• Since Bengal was the biggest province with a population of 54 million, he believed diving it would
be an efficient move to handle its administration.
• It was under the control of one lieutenant Governor only and comprised of Orissa, Bengal, and
Behar.

Following are the major reasons for the decision of Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon:

Reasons for the Partition:

• It was the biggest province with dense population, deep jungles and marshy areas making it
difficult to keep an eye and manage.
• It had a population that was ten times greater than Britain population making it difficult to be
handled by only one Lieutenant.
• Due to many forests and rivers, the resources of communication were also minimal.
• It was difficult to maintain proper law and order in the province because of the lack of police.
• For the promotion of trade in trade using Port of Chittagong, the partition of Bengal seemed a
great decision.
• Lord Curzon’s intention to divide Bengal was also political.
• He thought that the Muslims of East Bengal will be better off in a separated province that will be
governed from Dhaka.
• The partition was in favor of the Muslims because in the East Bengal they were in poor conditions
and crushed under the Hindu landlords.

The Partition:
 In October 1905, the partition of Bengal came into force.
 After the partition, there were two provinces of manageable sizes, the East Bengal and the
West Bengal.
 The East Bengal had a population of 31 million with 18 million Muslims and it included
Assam along with Mymensingh, Chittagong, and Dhaka as its capital.
 Calcutta was made the capital of West Bengal. It had a total population of 54 million with 45
million Hindus.
 They strongly believed that it was the prime object of the government to encourage the
growth of a Muslim power in eastern Bengal as a counterpoise to thwart the rapidly growing
strength of the educated Hindu community. Economic, political and communal interests
combined together to intensify the opposition against the partition measure.

Muslims’ Response:
• It received a positive response and they welcomed the partition of Bengal.
• It was believed that the partition will bring favorable results for the Muslims of Easy Bengal socially
and economically.
• The Muslims were positive that they will be free from Hindu dominance and will get equal
opportunities.
• Since Dhaka was supposed to be the capital it was considered that the chances of advancement of
Muslims will be great as it was the center of Muslim culture.
• It could have resulted in an uplift of Muslims' involvement in politics too.

Hindus’ Response:
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• The educated Bengali Hindus felt that it was a deliberate blow inflicted by Curzon at the national
consciousness and growing solidarity of the Bengali-speaking population
 The Hindus of West Bengal considered themselves superior to the Muslims of East Bengal.
• The decision of giving Muslims a separate province where they will be in clear majority hit the
Hindus a deadly blow.
• Hindus considered Lord Curzon’s decision of partition as devilish and branded his of using the
policy of ‘divide & rule’.
• The Hindu traders and landlords wanted the status quo and every chance to exploit Muslims with
their cruelty.
• The Hindu lawyers were also upset with the partition as they believed it will affect their practice
and East Bengal will have their own courts.
• In Bengal, the Hindu press was also afraid as they believed their business will also be affected as
the partition will allow Muslims to start their own newspaper.
• Murder attempts by Hindu extremist increased on Muslims leaders and British officials.
• Hindus boycott British goods.

Reversal of the Partition:

• When Lord Harding became the Governor-General of India, Hindus became active.
• They sent a representation to Lord Harding to cancel the partition of Bengal decision.
• In December 1911 on the occasion, holding of ‘Darbar at Delhi’, George V visited India and
announced the cancellation of partition.

Muslims’ Reaction on Cancellation of Partition:

• The cancellation shattered the hopes of Muslims who were relying on the British's promise to
divide Bengal.
• At that moment, they realized that to get fair treatment in India, they must use the Muslim League
to speak for their rights and the party prosper.
• The disappointment and anger served as a fuel to quicken and strengthen Muslim politics.
• The Muslims realized that they cannot rely on the British to give them any sort of power.
 6

Partition of Bengal 1905

 The leadership of the Indian National Congress viewed the partition as an attempt to 'divide
and rule' and as a proof of the government's vindictive antipathy towards the outspoken
Bhadralok intellectuals.
 Mother-goddess worshipping Bengali Hindus believed that the partition was tantamount to
the vivisection of their 'Mother province'. 'Bande-Mataram' (Hail Motherland) almost
became the national anthem of the Indian National Congress.
 Agitation against the partition manifested itself in the form of mass meetings, rural unrest
and a Swadeshi Movement to boycott the import of British manufactured goods.
 Swadeshi and Boycott were the twin weapons of this nationalism and Swaraj (self-
government) its main objective.
 The new tide of national sentiment in Bengal against the Partition spilled over into different
regions in India, the Indians vowed to use only swadeshi (indigenous) cottons and other
clothing materials made in India.
 The Swadeshi Movement soon stimulated local enterprise in many areas; from Indian cotton
mills to match factories, glassblowing shops, iron and steel foundries.
 The anti-partition agitation was peaceful and constitutional at the initial stage, but when it
appeared that it was not yielding the desired results the protest movement inevitably
passed into the hands of more militant leaders.
 The Muslim intelligentsia, however, criticised the ideas of extremist militant nationalism as
being against the spirit of Islam. The Muslim press urged its educated co-religionists to
remain faithful to the government.
 On the whole the Swadeshi preachers were not able to influence and arouse the
predominantly Muslim masses in east Bengal.
 Soon, the Muslims realised that the partition would be a boon to them and that their special
difficulties would receive greater attention from the new administration.
 The creation of the new province provided an incentive to the Muslims to unite into a
compact body and form an association to voice their own views and aspiration relating to
social and political matters.
 The general trend of thoughts in the Muslim minds was in favour of partition. The All India
Muslim League was founded at Dacca in 1906 in favour of the partition.
 The economic aspect of the movement was partly responsible for encouraging separatist
forces within the Muslim society. The superiority of the Hindus in the sphere of trade and
industry alarmed the Muslims.
 Fear of socio-economic domination by the Hindus made them alert to safeguard their own
interests.
 These apprehensions brought about a rift in Hindu-Muslims relations. In order to avoid
economic exploitation by the Hindus, some wealthy Muslim entrepreneurs came forward to
launch new commercial ventures.
 It was alleged that the Hindu landlords had been attempting to enforce Swadeshi ideas on
the tenants and induce them to join the anti-partition movement.
 To assuage the resentment of the assertive Bengali Hindus, the British government decided
to annul the Partition of Bengal.
 According to the suggestion, in December 1911 announced the revocation of the Partition of
Bengal and of certain changes in the administration of India.
 The Partition of Bengal of 1905 left a profound impact on the political history of India. From
a political angle the measure accentuated Hindu-Muslim differences in the region. One point
of view is that by giving the Muslim's a separate territorial identity in 1905 and a communal
electorate through the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 the British Government in a subtle
 7

manner tried to neutralise the possibility of major Muslim participation in the Indian
National Congress.
 8

Communal Difference:
 In 1906, the Muslims organised an Islamic conference at Keraniganj in Dhaka as a move to
emphasise their separate identity as a community. The Swadeshi Movement with its Hindu
religious flavour fomented aggressive reaction from the other community. A red pamphlet
of a highly inflammatory nature was circulated among the Muslim masses of Eastern Bengal
and Assam urging them completely to dissociate from the Hindus.
 Moreover, such irritating moves as the adoption of the Bande Mataram as the song of
inspiration or introduction of the cult of Shivaji as a national hero, and reports of communal
violence alienated the Muslims.
 One inevitable result of such preaching was the riot that broke out at Comilla in March 1907,
followed by similar riots in Jamalpur in April of that year. These communal disturbances
became a familiar feature in Eastern Bengal and Assam and followed a pattern that was
repeated elsewhere.
 The 1907 riots represent a watershed in the history of modern Bengal. While Hindu-Muslims
relations deteriorated, political changes of great magnitude were taking place in the
Government of India's policies, and simultaneously in the relations of Bengali Muslim leaders
with their non-Bengalee counterparts.
 Both developments had major repercussions on communal relations in eastern Bengal. The
decision to introduce constitutional reforms culminating in the Morley-Minto Reforms of
1909 introducing separate representation for the Muslims marked a turning point in Hindu-
Muslim relations.
 The landlord-tenant relationship in the new province had deteriorated and took a communal
turn. The Hindu landlords felt alarmed at the acts of terrorism committed by the anti-
partition agitators. To prove their unswerving loyalty to the government and give evidence
of their negative attitude towards the agitation, they offered their hands of friendship and
co-operation to their Muslim counterparts to the effect that they would take a non-
communal stand and work unitedly against the anti-government revolutionary movements.
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Simla Deputation

 On 20 July 1906, Secretary of State for India Lord Morley announced in the House of
Commons reforms concerning the Indian constitution. The announcement created much
excitement among the Muslim leadership.
 Simla Deputation organised by the Indian Muslim leaders, met the Governor General and
Viceroy Lord Minto in Simla on 1 October 1906.
 The aim of the deputation was to win the sympathies of the British on their side concerning
matters relating to their interests as a community.
 The Indian Councils Act of 1892 had badly hurt Muslim interests. The process envisaged in
the Act for sending representatives to the Central and Provincial Assemblies had failed to
ensure a fair representation of the Muslims.
 Following the advice of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the Muslims stayed away from the Congress
as it was a party that had Hindu majority, thus most of its decisions went in favour of the
Hindus, although some Muslims were also associated with Congress.
 The Muslim leaders, appealed to the Viceroy Lord Minto to accept a deputation of Muslim
leaders to discuss the forthcoming constitutional reforms. Lord Minto agreed to see the
proposed deputation.
 On 1 October a deputation of 35 Muslim leaders led by Aga Khan met Lord Minto in Simla.
 The demands the deputation put forward to lord Minto were: (a) employment of Muslims to
Civil administration, the military and the Judiciary in sufficient numbers; no competitive
examinations should bar employment to the higher posts; (b) preservation of a certain
number of seats for Muslims in the municipal and district boards and in the university senate
and syndicate; (c) separate election of Muslims to the Provincial council based on their
political importance and not on the population ratio; (d) election of a sufficient number of
Muslims to the Imperial Legislative council in order to avoid reducing the Muslims to an
insignificant minority; and (e) establishment of a Muslim University which would stand as a
glory to the religious and cultural life of the Muslims.
 In response Lord Minto expressed his indirect support to the principal demand of the
Muslim leaders as enunciated in the memorandum.
 This showed the success of the deputation. Eventually in 1909 the Morely Minto Reforms
made provisions for a separate electorate for the Muslims of India. With this, the Muslims
gained constitutional status as a separate community, which led to the rise of Muslim
nationalism and to the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
 This led to the formation of All India Muslim League.

Importance:
• The British happily accepted the demand of separate electorates and decided in favor of the
Muslims.
• This showed that they are trying to improve their relations with Muslims and are ready to
work with them.
• This also created the sense of the two-nation theory, showing that the Hindus and Muslims
are two different nations with different ideologies, beliefs, and religions and cannot live
together. Thus, due to the Simla Deputation’s success, the rivalry between these two
communities as well as the parties also increased.
• The success made Muslims realized their strength and they were motivated to have their
own political party that will become their voice to protect their political rights.
• Hence, the Muslim League was immediately formed to uplift their rights and status
politically.
• This can also be considered as the first building block towards the formation of Pakistan.
 10

Swadeshi Movement

 Swadeshi Movement emanated from the partition of Bengal, 1905 and continued up to
1908. It was the most successful of the pre-Gandhian movements.
 Theoretically, two major trends can be identified in the Swadeshi (Swadeshi) Movement-
'constructive Swadeshi' and political 'extremism'. 'Boycott' was the weapon to make
Swadeshi movement successful.
 Boycott achieved some initial success - thus the Calcutta collector of customs in September
1906 noted a decline in Manchester cloth sales. It is significant also that the sharpest decline
was in items like shoes and cigarettes where the demand was mainly from middle class
Indian gentlemen.
 In spite of such limitations the Swadeshi mood did bring about a significant revival in
handloom, silk weaving, and some other traditional crafts.
 Also a number of attempts to promote modern industries were taken.
 A considerable variety can be noticed within the national education efforts in Swadeshi
Bengal.
 These were plans to combine the traditional and the modern in a scheme for 'higher culture'
for selected youths. National Society of Education was set up as a parallel university in
March 1906.
 Though National Education with its negligible job prospects failed to attract the bulk of
students, still some institutions like Bengal National College or Bengal Technical Institute
survived after a couple of years.
 The emergence of Samitis was an achievement of the Swedeshi age.
 The Swadeshi movement indirectly alienated the general Muslim public from national
politics. They followed a separate course that culminated in the formation of the Muslim
League (1906) in Dhaka. But it also helped to give a new dimension in the Indian nationalist
movement by giving the anticipations of Gandhian mass satyagraha without the dogma of
non-violence.
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Morley-Minto Reforms

 Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)' launched the constitutional journey towards the introduction
of representative government and eventually the freedom from British rule.
 Under the pressure of the Indian nationalist demands and the need for enlisting Indian
political support, government introduced very limited electoral system at provincial level
under the India Act of 1909, popularly known as Morley-Minto Reforms.
 The leading features of the Act are the introduction of separate electorate for the Muslims,
inclusion of an Indian on the central and provincial councils and also on the council of the
Secretary of State for India and introduction of elected members in the provincial and
central councils. The reform proposal, however, did not at all intend to create any
representative government. Its only object was to make a start towards representative
government.
 The Act increased the functions of the legislatures. Now the budgets made by the governor
general and provincial governor were to be presented for discussion in the councils . The
councils got the power to make recommendations to governor and governor general for
making changes in the budgets.
 Morley-Minto reforms registered a major landmarks towards the growth of constitutional
government not immediately, because it did not enact anything very important
constitutionally other than introducing separate electorate for the Muslims.
 The Act of 1909 just paved the way to future constitutional reforms. After the First World
War, the state of affairs changed so radically that major constitutional reforms had to be
undertaken immediately, and for that Morley-Minto reforms provided a good background
exercises.
 12

Lucknow Pact

 The British had announced, in order to satisfy the Indians that they will be considering a
series of proposals that would lead to at least half of the members of the Executive Council
being elected and the Legislative Council having a majority of elected members.
 Both the Congress and the Muslim League supported these. Both had realized that for
further concessions to be gained, greater cooperation was required.
 The Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in electing representatives to the
Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils.
 Although the Muslims were given this right in the Indian Council Act of 1909, the Indian
National Congress opposed it.
 The Congress also agreed to the idea of one-third seats for the Muslims in the Councils
despite the fact that the Muslim population represented less than a third. Apart from that,
the Congress agreed that no act affecting a community should be passed unless three-
quarters of that community's members on the council supported it. After the signing of this
pact the rivalry between moderates and extremist reduced to some extent. There was a
significant change in their relation.

Demands presented to the British

Both the parties presented some common demands to the British. They demanded:
 The number of elected seats on the councils should be increased.
 Laws/Motions which were passed by large majorities in the councils should be accepted
as bindings by the British Government.
 Minorities in the provinces should be protected.
 All provinces should be granted autonomy.
 Separating the executive from the judiciary.
 At least half of the members of the Executive Council being elected, the Legislative
council having a majority of elected members
 13

Montagu-Chelmsford Report

 Montagu-Chelmsford Report appeared in the summer of 1918, aiming at introducing partial

responsible government in the provinces of British India.
 In view of the increasing pressure of the Indian nationalists to remedy the inadequacy of the
reforms of 1909, the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu (1917-1922) made a
momentous declaration, stating that the policy of the British government was to increase
the number of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development
of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible
government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.
 This was considered to be the first comprehensive study on the whole problem of Indian
government.
 The recommendations of the report were faithfully embodied in the Government of India
Act of 1919, which introduced partial responsible government in the provinces.
 Although the report frankly admitted the backwardness of the vast majority of the Indian
people, it held the opinion that indirect election to the provincial legislature must give place
to direct election on as wide a franchise as might prove practicable.
 On the administrative side, the most important feature of the scheme was the adoption of
the principle of 'Dyarchy' by which the functions of the government were divided vertically
between 'reserved' and 'transferred' departments.
 14

Rowlatt Act

 The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt
Act or Black Act, was a legislative act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi on
10 March 1919, indefinitely extending the emergency measures of preventive indefinite
detention, incarceration without trial and judicial review enacted in the Defence of India Act
1915 during the First World War.
 It was enacted in light of a perceived threat from revolutionary nationalist organisations of
re-engaging in similar conspiracies as during the war which the Government felt the lapse of
the DIRA regulations would enable.
 Passed on the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee and named after its president,
British judge Sir Sidney Rowlatt, this act effectively authorized the government to imprison
any person suspected of terrorism living in British India for up to two years without a trial,
and gave the imperial authorities power to deal with all revolutionary activities.
 The unpopular legislation provided for stricter control of the press, arrests without warrant,
indefinite detention without trial, and juryless in camera trials for proscribed political acts.
 The accused were denied the right to know the accusers and the evidence used in the trial.
 Those convicted were required to deposit securities upon release, and were prohibited from
taking part in any political, educational, or religious activities.
 On the report of the committee, headed by Justice Rowlatt, two bills were introduced in the
central legislature in February 1919. These bills came to be known as "black bills". They gave
enormous powers to the police to search a place and arrest any person they disapproved of
without warrant. Despite much opposition, the Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919. The
purpose of the act was to curb the growing nationalist upsurge in the country.
 Mahatma Gandhi, among other Indian leaders, was extremely critical of the Act and argued
that not everyone should be punished in response to isolated political crimes.
 The Act angered many Indian leaders and the public, which caused the government to
implement repressive measures.
 The Rowlatt Act came into effect in March 1919.
 Accepting the report of the Repressive Laws Committee, the Government of India repealed
the Rowlatt Act, the Press Act, and twenty-two other laws in March 1922.
 The government passed the rotary of the accordance with the recommendation of this
committee.
 15

Amritsar Massacre

 The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, took place on 13 April
1919 when troops of the British Indian Army under the command of Acting Brigadier-
General Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of unarmed Indian civilians who had gathered
in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, and Punjab.
 The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of
two national leaders and to honour the Sikh festival of Baisakhi.
 The Jallianwalla Bagh is a public garden.
 On Sunday, 13 April 1919, Dyer banned all meetings; however this notice was not widely
disseminated. This was the day of Baisakhi, and many villagers had gathered to celebrate.
 On hearing that a meeting had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, Dyer went with. Dyer and his
troops entered the garden, blocking the main entrance, took up position, and on Dyer's
orders opened fire on the crowd.
 The casualty number estimated by the Indian National Congress was more than 1,500
injured, with approximately 1,000 dead.
 This "brutality stunned the entire nation" resulting in a "wrenching loss of faith" of the
general Indian public in the intentions of the UK.
 This incident shocked Rabindranath Tagore (the first Asian Nobel laureate) to such extent
that he stated that "such mass murderers aren't worthy of giving any title to anyone".
 Tagore renounced his knighthood in response to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919. In
the repudiation letter to the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, he wrote,
“The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in the incongruous
context of humiliation, and I for my part, wish to stand, shorn, of all special distinctions, by
the side of those of my countrymen who, for their so called insignificance, are liable to suffer
degradation not fit for human beings.”
 16

Hunter Commission

 On 14 October 1919, after orders issued by the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu,
the Government of India announced the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events
in Punjab. It was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission.
 The stated purpose of the commission was to "investigate the recent disturbances
in Bombay, Delhi and Punjab, about their causes, and the measures taken to cope with
them".
 After meeting in New Delhi on 29 October, the Commission took statements from witnesses.
 The report concluded that:
 Lack of notice to disperse from the Bagh in the beginning was an error.
 The length of firing showed a grave error.
 Dyer's motive of producing a sufficient moral effect was to be condemned.
 Dyer had overstepped the bounds of his authority.
 There had been no conspiracy to overthrow British rule in the Punjab.
The minority report of the Indian members further added that:
 Proclamations banning public meetings were insufficiently distributed.
 Innocent people were in the crowd, and there had been no violence in the
Bagh beforehand.
 Dyer should have either ordered his troops to help the wounded or
instructed the civil authorities to do so.
 Dyer's actions had been "inhuman and un-British" and had greatly injured
the image of British rule in India.
 The Hunter Commission did not impose any penal or disciplinary action because Dyer's
actions were condoned by various superiors (later upheld by the Army Council).
 17

Government of India Act, 1919

 The Government of India Act 1919 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It
was passed to expand participation of Indians in the government of India.
 The Act embodied the reforms recommended in the report of the Secretary of State for
India, Edwin Montagu, and the Viceroy, Lord Chemlsford.
 The Act covered ten years, from 1919 to 1929.
 This act appeared in the summer of 1918, aiming at introducing partial responsible
government in the provinces of British India.
 In response to the increasing pressure of the Indian nationalists to remedy the inadequacy
of the reforms of 1909, the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu (1917-1922) made a
momentous declaration in the House of Commons on 20 August 1917 stating that the policy
of the British government was to increase the number of Indians in every branch of the
administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to
the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the
British Empire.
 Although the report frankly admitted the backwardness of the vast majority of the Indian
people, it held the opinion that indirect election to the provincial legislature must give place
to direct election on as wide a franchise as might prove practicable. It urged the political
intelligentsia to devote themselves to the immense task of educating their country as a
whole to the new political life and especially to breaking down the social and communal
barriers which obstructed its development. After a thorough review of the Hindu-Muslim
schism that made parliamentary government as understood in England unworkable in India,
it favored, as a practical solution, the continuation of separate electorates introduced by the
Act of 1909.
 On the administrative side, the most important feature of the scheme was the adoption of
the principle of 'dyarchy' by which the functions of the government were divided vertically
between 'reserved' and 'transferred' departments.
 The 'dyarchy' principle remained in force till its replacement by the Government of India Act,
1935 that was implemented in 1937.
 Salient features of the Act were as follows:
1. This Act had a separate Preamble which declared that Objective of the British
Government is the gradual introduction of responsible Government in India.
2. Diarchy was introduced as Provincial Level. Diarchy means a dual set of governments
one is accountable another is not accountable. The provincial subjects were divided
into two groups: One was reserved and another was transferred. The reserved
subjects were kept with the Governor and transferred subjects were kept with the
Indian Ministers. This division of subjects was basically what they meant by
introducing the Diarchy.
3. The Government of India Act of 1919, made a provision for classification of the
central and provincial subjects. The Act kept the Income Tax as source of revenue to
the Central Government. However, for Bengal and Bombay for which, to meet their
objections, a provision to assign them 25% of the Income tax was made.
4. No bill of the legislature could be deemed to have been passed unless assented to
by the governor general. The later could however enact a Bill without the assent of
the legislature.
5. This Act made the central legislature bicameral. The lower house was the Legislative
Assembly, with 145 members serving three year terms (the model for today's Lok
Sabha); the upper house was the Council of States with 60 members serving five
year terms (the model for today's Rajya Sabha)
 18

6. The Act provided for the establishment of a Public Service Commission in India for
the first time.
7. This act also made a provision that a statutory commission would be set up at the
end of 10 years after the act was passed which shall inquire into the working into
the system of the government. The Simon commission of 1927 was an outcome of
this provision.
8. The communal representation was extended and Sikhs, Europeans and Anglo
Indians were included. The Franchise (Right of voting) was granted to the limited
number of only those who paid certain minimum “Tax” to the government.
9. The seats were distributed among the provinces not upon the basis of the
population but upon the basis of their importance in the eyes of the government, on
the basis of communities, and property was one of the main basis to determine a
franchisee. Those people who had a property, taxable income & paid land revenue
of Rs. 3000 were entitled to vote.
10. The financial powers of the central legislature were also very much limited. The
budget was to be divided into two categories, votable and non-votable. The votable
items covered only one third of the total expenditure. Even in this sphere the
Governor-General was empowered to restore any grant refused or reduced by the
legislature, if in his opinion the demand was essential for the discharge of his
responsibilities. Thus the Government of India Act provided for partial transfer of
Power to the electorate through the system of diarchy. It also prepared the ground
for the Indian Federalism, as it identified the provinces as units of fiscal and general
administration.
 19

Khilafat Movement

 Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a Pan-Islamic movement influenced by Indian

nationalism. The Ottoman Emperor Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) had launched a Pan-Islamic
programme to use his position as the Sultan-Khalifa of the global Muslim community with a
view to saving his disintegrating empire from foreign attacks and to crush the nationalistic
democratic movement at home.
 The visit of his emissary, Jamaluddin Afghani, to India in the late nineteenth century to
propagate Pan-Islamic ideas received a favourable response from some Indian Muslim
leaders.
 These sentiments intensified early in the twentieth century with the revocation in 1911 of
the 1905 Partition of Bengal, the Italian (1911) and Balkan (1911-1912) attacks on Turkey,
and Great Britain's participation in the First World War (1914-18) against Turkey.
 The defeat of Turkey in the First World War and the division of its territories under the
Treaty of Sevres (10 August 1920) among European powers caused apprehensions in India
over the Khalifa's custodianship of the Holy places of Islam.
 Accordingly, the Khilafat Movement was launched in September 1919 as an orthodox
communal movement to protect the Turkish Khalifa and save his empire from
dismemberment by Great Britain and other European powers.
 Contemporaneously, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi led his non-violent nationalist
movement satyagraha, as a protest against government repression evidenced, for example,
in the Rowlatt Act of 1919, and the Jalian Wallah Bagh Massacres of April 1919. To enlist
Muslim support in his movement, Gandhi supported the Khilafat cause and became a
member of the Central Khilafat Committee.
 By mid-1920 the Khilafat leaders had made common cause with Gandhi's Non Cooperation
Movement, promising non-violence in return for Gandhi's support of the Khilafat Movement
whereby Hindus and Muslims formed a united front against British rule in India.
 In Bengal, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement (1918 to 1924) became a mass
movement in which both Muslims and Hindus participated.
 The Bengal movement benefited from coordinated action by and between the Central and
Provincial Khilafat leaders.
 20

Non Cooperation Movement

 Non-Cooperation Movement was initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. To advance the Indian

nationalist cause, the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Gandhi decided in
1920 to follow a policy of passive resistance to British rule.
 The Rowlatt Act, the Jalliwanwala Bagh massacre and martial law in Punjab had belied the
generous wartime promises of the British. The Montagu-Chelmsford Report with its ill-
considered scheme of dyarchy satisfied few.
 Gandhi, so far believing in the justice and fair play of the government, now felt that Non-
Cooperation with the government must be started.
 At the same time, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres between the Allies and Turkey was
resented by the Muslims in India. The Muslims started the Khilafat Movement and Gandhi
decided to identify himself with them. Gandhi's 'skilful top level political game' secured in
winning over the Muslim support in the coming Non-Cooperation Movement in India.
 The movement was launched formally on 1st August 1920, after the expiry of the notice that
Gandhi had given to the Viceroy in his letter of 22 June, in which he had asserted the right
recognised 'from time immemorial of the subject to refuse to assist a ruler who misrules'.
 They were to boycott the British courts and establish private arbitration courts; they were to
use swadeshi cloth. Truth and non-violence were to be strictly observed by Non-
Cooperators.
 The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth. The value of
imports of foreign cloth fell from Rs. 102 crore in 1920-21 to 57 crore in 1921-22.
 The government promulgated Sections 108 and 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure at
various centres of the agitation.
 Volunteers' Corps was declared illegal and by December, over 30,000 people were arrested
from all over India.
 On 12 February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement came to an end.
 21

Bengal Pact

 Bengal Pact, 1923 is an agreement aimed at resolving the question of Hindu-Muslim

differences.
 Chitta Ranjan Das, a man of vision who sincerely believed in the principle of sharing political
power with the majority Muslim community of the province, came forward to take up the
task of strengthening relations between Hindus and Muslims.
 After the calling-off of the Non Cooperation Movement and the boycott of Legislatures, a
group of leaders of the Indian Congress led by CR Das and Pandit Motilal Nehru started
thinking in favour of entering the Legislative Council.
 Their object was to follow a policy of uniform and continuous obstruction from within the
Council with a view to putting an end to the system of Dyarchy as introduced under the
Government of India Act of 1919.
 However, the annual session of the Indian National Congress, held at Gaya in December
1922, rejected the proposal of Council entry.
 CR Das sought the active cooperation of the Muslim members of the Bengal Legislative
Council to make his political programme successful. He held discussions with prominent
Muslim leaders of Bengal and came to an agreement with them.
 The terms of the Pact, commonly known as the Bengal Pact, were passed in the meeting of
the Swarajist Party Councillors held on 16 December 1923.
 It was made clear in the meeting that the Pact would be effective only after the real
foundation of self-government in the province. The Pact was also passed in the Bengal
Provincial Congress Committee meeting held on 18 December 1923. The terms of the Pact
included the following:
a) Representation in the Bengal Legislative Council would be on population basis
with separate electorates.
b) Representation in the local bodies would be on the proportion of 60 per cent to
the majority community and 40 percent to the minority community.
c) Regarding Government appointments, it was decided that fifty five percent of the
appointments should go to the Muslims. Till the above percentage was attained, 80
per cent of posts would go to the Muslims and the remaining 20 percent should go
to the Hindus.
d) No resolution or enactment would be allowed to be moved without the consent
of 75 percent of the elected members of the affected community.
e) Music in processions would not be allowed in front of the mosques.
f) No legislation in respect of cow killing for food would be taken up in the Council
and endeavour should be made outside the Council to bring about an understanding
between the two communities. Cow killing should be taken up in such a manner as
not to wound the religious feelings of the Hindus and cow killing for religious
purpose should not be interfered with.
 Soon after its announcement, the Pact created a great outcry among Hindus and Muslims in
Bengal. Its bold provisions offended middle class Bengali Hindus who opposed it stubbornly.
 CR Das was supported in his stance by a considerable number of Congressmen in Bengal.
 The Muslims were very disheartened when the Bengal Pact was rejected by the Indian
National Congress.
 Though the Indian Congress discarded the pact, CR Das tried his best to get the terms of the
Pact ratified by the Bengal Provincial Congress Conference.
 Unfortunately his premature death in 1925 came as a blow to the cause of Hindu-Muslim
unity. His death was followed by the repudiation of the Pact, even by some of his own
followers.
 22

C. R. Das (Chitta Ranjan Das)

 Chitta Ranjan Das, (1870-1925) better known as CR Das and popularly known as
Deshabandhu, was one of the most dynamic political leaders of twentieth century Bengal.
 Responding to the call of MK Gandhi during the Non Cooperation Movement, he left his
lucrative practice at the Bar and took a leading part in the boycott of the visit of the Prince of
Wales to Calcutta in 1921.
 In 1922, he resigned the president ship of the Congress and laid the foundation of the
Swarajya Party within the Congress in collaboration with Pandit Motilal Nehru, Hakim Azmal
Khan, the Ali brothers and others. In the election to the Bengal Legislative Council, held in
1923, the Swarajya Party achieved a remarkable victory.
 He was a political realist with deep-rooted convictions and never diverted himself even in
the face of the most vigorous opposition. Himself an ardent advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity,
he succeeded in resolving the communal problem of Bengal in a memorable way.
 He won over the Muslims of Bengal to his side through an agreement commonly known as
the Bengal Pact. The terms of the agreement were accepted at a meeting of the Swarajya
Council Party held on 16 December 1923. Unfortunately the Pact was opposed by many of
the Congress leaders of Bengal. The Bengali middle class Hindus, led by SN Banerjee, BC Pal
and others, offered stubborn resistance to it. They feared that the Pact would weaken the
political influence of the Hindu community. They accused CR Das of surrendering the rights
of the Hindus. Even many moderate Hindu leaders held that CR Das had gone too far in
trying to win the confidence of the Muslims.
 The Muslims of the province welcomed the Pact wholeheartedly. But they were disillusioned
when the Pact was rejected.
 23

Simon Commission

 Simon Commission or, The Indian Statutory Commission a Parliamentary Commission (1927)
consisting of seven members of Parliament from both sides of the aisle to study Indian
problem in India and report on constitutional reforms in India. It is also known as the Simon
Commission, after the name of its Chairman Sir John Simon.
 The Indians had long been clamouring for an examination and revision of the dyarchy
constitution, the constitution itself had laid down that after the expiration of ten years a
commission should be appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the system
of government, the growth of education, and the development of representative institutions
in India.
 In the absence of any Indian member in the commission its acceptability to educated Indians
was doubtful from its very inception.
 The commission produced some voluminous.
 In spite of the commission's failure to affect any reform, the reports contain primary
materials of historical importance.
 The commission recommended the abolition of dyarchy and the introduction of
representative government in the provinces.
 It disapproved the idea of communal representation but recommended its retention until
such time as the Hindus and the Muslims should settle the issue between themselves.
 Depressed classes or lower caste Hindus were granted reserved seats in the legislature.
 However, the Commission was to include no Indians and was to be responsible solely to the
British Parliament.
 The Indian leaders protested strongly. The notion that Indians had no right to decide their
future constitution for themselves, but must wait on the British for favours was
unacceptable to them.
 At the Madras session in 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru put forward a resolution for complete
independence and called for a boycott of the Commission.
 Reasons for failure:
 The British eschewed Indian representation on the Commission. It made the
excuse that the Commission was a Parliamentary commission and therefore,
needed to be chaired by impartial and competent experts who would be
able to make actionable recommendations to the British Parliament.
 At this time, the average Indian citizen yearned for complete independence
from the British. They wanted a self-determined India, not an India still
beholden to its British oppressors. Essentially, they opposed the idea of
shared power, and they resented continued British interference into local
affairs. Indian citizens resented the English inclination to decide India's
future based on colonial interests.
 Last, but not the least, the draconian British response to Indian concerns
sparked more opposition to the Commission. On the 30th of October in
1928, things came to a head when an Indian 'hartal' or boycott
demonstration against the Simon Seven was violently suppressed. Fearing
further unrest, the British police had beaten back the crowds. Lala Lajpat Rai
(the leader of the non-cooperative movement and the boycott) suffered
grave injuries that led to his eventual death.
 24

The Delhi Proposal 1927

 In order to break the ice and to bridge the gulf between the Muslims League and Congress
so that they could present common demands before the British for the legislation of the new
Act, a group of prominent Muslims, mostly members of the two chambers of the central met
at Delhi on March 20, 1927.
 They knew that the greatest constitutional contention between Muslim League and
Congress was the matter of electorate. Congress propagated joint electorates as to them
separate electorates would have weakened the foundations of the Indian nationalism.
Whereas Muslim League out of their insecurity of undermined representation were not
ready to let go of their demand for separate electorate.
 The team realized that they could only convince the Congress to accept a common agenda if
they withdrew the League’s demand of Separate electorate. They discussed and tried to
chalk out the conditions following which the system of Joint Electorates could be accepted.
 After a prolonged discussion it was unanimously resolved that League should accept a
settlement with the Congress on the basis of certain proposals; the concluded agreement
came to be known as Delhi Proposals. Jinnah and company declared that they would
withdraw the demand of Separate Electorates provided the following demands will be
accepted by the Congress:
 Sind should be separated from Bombay and should be constituted into an
independent province.
 Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan
on the same footing as in any other province of India.
 Reservation of seats according to the population for different communities in the
Punjab and Bengal.
 Muslims should be given 1/3rd representation in the Central Legislature.
 25

Nehru Report

Nehru Report was the response of the Indian nationalists to the appointment of an all-white British
parliamentary commission, often referred to as the Simon Commission in November 1927 to study
the Indian constitutional problem.
 In January 1928 a committee was constituted at an all party conference with Pandit Motilal
Nehru as its chairman to consider and determine the principles of the future constitution for
India, particularly for viewing the communal problem as a whole and its relation to the
constitution.
 Of the many recommendations of the committee in producing a draft constitution the one
that had far-reaching impact was a provision for the complete reversal of the Hindu-Muslim
concordat of 1916.
 It rejected separate electorate and recommended reservation of seats for the Muslims only
in provinces where they constituted a minority.
 Other features of the report were: attainment of Dominion Status envisioning full
responsible government; a federal constitution guaranteeing rights and privileges to the
princely states; full status of a province to the Muslim majority area of North West frontier;
and a Declaration of rights to be incorporated in the constitution.
 The Nehru report caused deep anguish among the Muslim political circles in Bengal; they
saw in it the spectre of Hindu domination. The principle of separate electorate had become
very important to the Muslim and its sudden rejection was looked upon as a betrayal of the
Muslim cause by the Hindus.
 This report did not produce any significant impact except raising fresh communal rancor.
 Mohammed Ali Jinnah’[s Fourteen Points originated as his amendment to the Nehru Report
and contained elements for special safeguard for Muslim interest.
 The constitution outlined by the Nehru Report was for Indian enjoying dominion status
within the British Commonwealth.

Some of the important elements of the report:

 Unlike the eventual Government of India Act 1935 it contained a Bill of Rights.
 All power of government and all authority - legislative, executive and judicial - are derived
from the people and the same shall be exercised through organisations established by, or
under, and in accord with, this Constitution.
 There shall be no state religion; men and women shall have equal rights as citizens.
 There should be federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the centre.
 It included a description of the machinery of government including a proposal for the
creation of a Supreme Court and a suggestion that the provinces should be linguistically
determined.
 It did not provide for separate electorates for any community or weightage for minorities.
Both of these were liberally provided in the eventual Government of India Act 1935.
However, it did allow for the reservation of minority seats in provinces having a minorities of
at least ten percent, but this was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community.
 The language of the Union shall be Indian, which may be written either in Devanagari
(Hindi/Sanskrit), Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati, Bengali or Tamil in character. The use of
the English language shall be permitted.
 26

Fourteen points of Jinnah

 Fourteen Points a charter of demands enunciated as a constitutional reform plan to
safeguard the political rights of the Muslims in a self-governing India.
 Earlier in 1928, an All Parties Conference was convened to solve the constitutional problems
of India. A committee was set up under Pandit Motilal Nehru to suggest means to that end.
The report of the committee known as 'Nehru Report' demanded 'Dominion status' for India,
refused to accept separate electorates and rejected the idea of reservation of seats for the
Muslims of Bengal and Punjab.
 In this backdrop, the Muslim leaders decided to give an alternative charter of demands for
the Muslim community, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah was authorized to draft in concise term
the basis of a future constitution for India.
 As a response to the Nehru Report, the Muslims presented their own demands as envisaged
in the Fourteen Points which, in fact, were the counter proposals expressed in the Nehru
Report.

Fourteen Points

1. The form of the future Constitution should be federal in structure with the residuary powers
vested in the provinces;
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces;
3. All legislatures, central and provincial, and other elected bodies in the country shall be
constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities
in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even
equality;
4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third;
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be based on separate electorate as at
present, provided it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate
electorate in favour of a joint electorate;
6. Any territorial redistribution that might in any time be necessary shall not in any way affect
the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the North-west frontier province;
7. Full religious liberty, i.e liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association
and education, shall be guaranteed to all communities;
8. No bill or any resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other
elected body if three-fourth of the members of any community in that particular body
oppose such a bill, resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious to the
interests of that community, or in the alternative such other methods shall be devised as
may be found feasible and practicable to deal with such cases;
9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay presidency;
10. Reform should be introduced in the North-west frontier province and Beluchistan on the
same footing as in the other provinces;
11. Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with
the other Indians, in all the services of the state and in local self-government bodies having
due regard to the requirements of efficiency;
12. The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture
and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws
and Muslim charitable institutions and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the
state and by local self-government bodies;
13. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion
of at least one-third Muslim ministers;
 27

14. No change shall be made in the Constitution by the central legislature except with the
concurrence of the states constituting the Indian Federation.

Salt March

 The Salt March, also known as the Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act
of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to
produce salt from the seawater in the coastal village of Dandi (now in Gujarat), as was the
practice of the local populace until British officials introduced taxation on salt production,
deemed their sea-salt reclamation activities illegal, and then repeatedly used force to stop it.
 The 24-day march lasted from 12 March 1930 to 6 April 1930 as a direct action campaign
of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly.
 It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence
movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement. Mahatma
Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. Walking ten miles a day for 24
days, the march spanned over 240 miles.
 The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-
cooperation movement of 1920–22, and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of
sovereignty and self-rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930.
 The campaign had a significant effect on changing world and British attitudes towards Indian
sovereignty and self-rule and caused large numbers of Indians to join the fight for the first
time.
 The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi's release
from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference.
 Over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha.
 However, it failed to result in major concessions from the British.
 The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest
called satyagraha.
 In early 1930 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning
Indian sovereignty and self-rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the
campaign.
 28

Round Table Conference

The Round Table Conferences, 1930-1932: to discuss the British recommendations

Despite the opposition it faced, the Simon Commission still managed to produce a two volume
report in 1930. The report had little in it to cheer the Muslim community. Although it supported the
idea of separate electorates, it rejected Muslims having a one-third share of seats in the Central
Assembly and the idea of Sindh being separated from Bombay. The British then called a Round Table
Conference to discuss the commission’s recommendations.

The First Round Table Conference, November 1930: Congress refuses to attend
The first conference was held in London in November 1930. It was attended by the Muslim League,
the Liberals and representatives of the Princely States. However, Congress refused to attend unless
there was a guarantee that anything agreed at the conference would be implemented. No such
guarantee was given.
Instead of attending, Congress began its programme of non-cooperation. Since Congress was India’s
largest party, it was difficult for significant progress to be made in the talks.
There were, however, some advances made:
The princes declared that they would join a future federation of India as long as their rights were
recognized. The British agreed that representative government should be introduced at provincial
level.

The Second Round Table Conference, September 1931: little agreed

When the Indian representatives returned from the first Round Table Conference, they urged
Gandhi to stop his non-cooperation and agree to attend the next set of talks. In February 1931,
Gandhi met the Viceroy, Lord Irwin in the first of a series of meetings to agree the terms of future
progress.
So on 5 March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. Irwin agreed to release most political
prisoners and return property seized by the government; Gandhi agreed to call off the non-
cooperation campaign and attend the next round of talks. He also agreed to give up his demand for
full independence in return for a promise that in a federal India Indians would have a genuine say in
how they were governed.
The second Round Table Conference took place in London between September and December 1931.
It failed for two reasons:
The Labour Party had lost power in Britain and the new coalition government was less keen to reach
a compromise in India.
Gandhi took a hard line in the talks and refused to recognise the problems of the minorities in the
subcontinent.
Consequently, little was achieved at the conference. The British warned that if agreement could not
soon be reached, they would impose their own solution to the ‘Indian problem’.

The Third Round Table Conference, November 1932: poor attendance

The third Round Table Conference stood little chance of success. Lord Irwin had been replaced as
Viceroy by Lord Willington, who was much less prepared to make concessions. In places, the non-
cooperation movement restarted and Willington responded by having Congress leaders, including
Gandhi and Nehru arrested. In January 1932, Congress formally re-started the non-cooperation
campaign.
The events of 1932 meant that none of the parties involved in the third Round Table Conference
expected it to achieve anything. Indeed, Congress boycotted the talks, as did all the major princes.
Jinnah had gone into voluntary exile, disillusioned with the lack of progress being made, and was not
even invited to the conference.
 29

The Communal Award

 The Communal Award was made by the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald on 16
August 1932 granting separate electorates in India.
 The Award favoured the minorities over the Hindus causing consternation and eliciting anger
from Gandhi.
 The reason behind introduction of this 'Award' was that Ramsay MacDonald considered
himself as 'a friend of the Indians' and thus wanted to resolve the issues in India. The
'Communal Award' was announced after the failure of the Second of the Round Table
Conferences (India). The 'award' attracted severe criticism from Mahatma Gandhi.
 The Scheduled Castes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special
constituencies in which scheduled castes could vote.
 The Award was controversial as it was believed by some to have been brought in by the
British to create social division among the Hindus. Gandhi feared that it would disintegrate
Hindu society. However, the Communal Award was supported by many among the minority
communities.

Pakistan Movement

 Pakistan Movement evolved, as is generally believed, through the Lahore Resolution of

1940.
 The genesis of Pakistan has sometimes been traced back to 1905 when Muslim leaders of
India demanded for separate electorate of the Muslims which was conceded to by
the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909.
 Iqbal, the poet- philosopher, for the first time made the reference to the need for a 'North-
west Indian Muslim State' in his Presidential Address at the Allahabad Session of the Muslim
League in 1930.
 He then was visualising not partition, but recognition of Muslim majority areas in Northwest
India into an autonomous unit within an Indian federation.
 Chaudhury Rahmat Ali may be regarded as the proponent of the idea of Pakistan, he
demanded a separate national status for a new entity, and coined its name as 'Pakistan'
(from Punjab, Afghan province, Kashmir, Sindh and Baluchistan).
 The Lahore Resolution rejected the federal constitution envisaged under the 1935 Act.
Muslims of Bengal found their identity in the Lahore Resolution in the sense that they were
no longer a community, but a nation with its own defined territory.
 The Resolution gave Bengal Muslims a sense of nationhood and henceforth, instead of
making complaints against Hindu injustice, they demanded for separate political existence.
 The Hindu Press dubbed the Lahore Resolution as the 'Pakistan Demand'. The 1940
resolution nowhere mentioned Pakistan and in asking for 'independent states' the
spokesmen of the League were far from clear what was intended.
 The Hindu press supplied Muslim leadership a concrete slogan, which immediately conveyed
to them the idea of a state. It would have taken long for the Muslim leaders to explain the
Lahore Resolution and convey its real meaning and significance to the Muslim masses.
 On 15 April 1941 the so-called Pakistan Resolution was incorporated as a creed in the
constitution of the Muslim League in its Madras session.
 It continued to be the League's creed until its dissolution after the independence of Pakistan
in 1947.
 30

Government of India Act, 1935

 The most significant aspects of the Act were:
a. the grant of a large measure of autonomy to the provinces of British India (ending
the system of diarchy introduced by the Government of India Act, 1919)
b. provision for the establishment of a "Federation of India", to be made up of both
British India and some or all of the "princely states"
c. the introduction of direct elections, thus increasing the franchise from seven million
to thirty-five million people
d. a partial reorganization of the provinces:
I. Sindh was separated from Bombay
II. Bihar and Orissa was split into separate provinces of Bihar and Orissa
III. Burma was completely separated from India
IV. Aden was also detached from India, and established as a separate Crown
colony
e. membership of the provincial assemblies was altered so as to include any number of
elected Indian representatives, who were now able to form majorities and be
appointed to form governments
f. the establishment of a Federal Court
 Objectives of the Act:
The federal part of the Act was designed to meet the aims of the Conservative Party. Over
the very long term, the Conservative leadership expected the Act to lead to a
nominally dominion status India, conservative in outlook, dominated by an alliance of Hindu
princes and right-wing Hindus which would be well disposed to place itself under the
guidance and protection of the United Kingdom. In the medium term, the Act was expected
to (in rough order of importance):
 To win the support of moderate nationalists since its formal aim was to lead eventually
to a Dominion of India which, as defined under the Statute of Westminster 1931
virtually equaled independence;
 To retain British control of the Indian Army, Indian finances, and India’s foreign
relations for another generation;
 To win Muslim support by conceding most of Jinnah's Fourteen Points;
 To convince the Princes to join the Federation by giving the Princes conditions for entry
never likely to be equaled. It was expected that enough would join to allow the
establishment of the Federation. The terms offered to the Princes included:
 Each Prince would select his state’s representative in the Federal Legislature.
There would be no pressure for Princes to democratize their administrations or
allow elections for state representatives in the Federal Legislature.
 The Princes would enjoy heavy weight. The Princely States represented about a
quarter of the population of India and produced well under a quarter of its
wealth. Under the Act:
 The Upper House of the Federal Legislature, the Council of
State, would consist of 260 members: 156 (60%) elected from
the British India and 104 (40%) nominated by the rulers of the
princely states.
 The Lower House, the Federal Assembly, would consist of 375
members: 250 (67%) elected by the Legislative Assemblies of
the British Indian provinces; 125 (33%) nominated by the rulers
of the princely states.
 To ensure that the Congress could never rule alone or gain enough seats to bring down
the government.
 31

Krishok Proja Party

 The Krishak Praja Party (KPP) was founded in 1936 by A K Fazlul Huq. As the leader of rural
society, Fazlul Huq understood the importance of appealing to the rural masses.
 The KPP programme for the elections included: abolition of the Permanent Settlement
system of revenue making peasants the absolute proprietors of land reduction of rent rate
freeing the indebted peasantry from the bondage of the mahajan class giving interest free
loans to peasants creating irrigation facilities by digging canals all over the country and
making the river navigation free by eliminating engulfing water hyacinths introduction of
free primary education.
 His approach was non-communal and hence he commanded respect from the scheduled
caste Hindu peasantry as well.
 The KPP election manifesto was finally reduced to one election slogan: Dhal-Bhat (rice and
pulse) for all. The peasant voters responded to Huq by supporting him in a big way. Though
established only a year previously, his party secured third position among contesting political
parties in terms of number of seats won in the elections.
 In summary, the Congress got 52 seats, Muslim League 39, KPP 36, and various splinter
groups and independent candidates won the rest of the total 250 seats. Of the 36 members
elected with KPP tickets, 33 were from East Bengal. The KPP thus emerged essentially as an
East Bengal peasant party.

The decline of the KPP

 Ironically, the decline of the KPP began immediately after its spectacular electoral victory.
Fazlul Huq, the KPP leader, formed a coalition ministry with the support and participation of
the Muslim League and some other smaller groups and independent members.
 As the Chief Minister, Fazlul Huq seemed to have concentrated his attention more on power
politics than on developing his party. Of the 11 ministers in his cabinet, only two, including
him, were from the KPP and the rest were from the Muslim League and other factions. This
dissatisfied a number of influential members, thus weakening the KPP.

Muslim League makes a come-back

 In the meantime, the Muslim League began to rework its strategy and strength in all-Indian
as well as provincial level. From November 1937 onwards, the Muslim League leadership
began to re-organise the party from the grass-root level. The bulk of the Muslim population
was poor, downtrodden and exploited by both the Hindu and Muslim upper classes. Their
discontent was basically economic. But it was now given a religious shape by the Muslim
League. “Islam is in danger” -- was the cry by which the support of the Muslim masses was
secured.
 Gradually, Jinnah put forward the ‘two-nation’ theory: that Muslims were divided from
Hindus not merely by religion, but also culturally and racially; that they were, in fact, a
nation within a nation. The ascendancy of the Muslim League was so rapid that by 1943,
when the Huq Ministry fell, the KPP had become practically non-existent.
 The party contested the elections of 1946 but got only four seats, whereas the Muslim
League got 114 seats. After the partition, AK Fazlul Huq came to Dhaka and revived his party
under a new name, Krishak Sramik Party, which survived until 1958.
 32

1937 Indian Provincial Election

 The Government of India Act 1935 increased the number of enfranchised people.
Approximately 30 million people, among them some women, gained voting rights. This
number constituted one-sixth of Indian adults. The Act provided for a limited adult franchise
based on property qualifications such as land ownership and rent, and therefore favored
landholders and richer farmers in rural areas.
 The Congress won 758 out of around 1500 seats in a resounding victory, and went on to
form seven provincial governments.
 The 1937 elections demonstrated that neither the Muslim League nor the Congress
represented Muslims. It also demonstrated the provincial moorings of Muslim politics. The
Muslim League captured around 25 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. The Congress
Muslims achieved 6 percent of them. Most of the Muslim seats were won by regional
Muslim parties.
 Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany on 3 September 1939. The Congress
objected strongly to the declaration of war without prior consultation with Indians.
 The Muslim League promised its support to the British, with Jinnah calling on Muslims to
help the Raj by "honourable co-operation" at the "critical and difficult juncture," while asking
the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.
 22 October 1939, all Congress ministries were called upon to tender their resignations.
 On 2 December 1939, Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for Indian Muslims to celebrate 22
December 1939 as a "Day of Deliverance" from Congress.

Day of Deliverance

The "Day of Deliverance" was a celebration day marked by the All-India Muslim League and others
on 22 December 1939 during the Indian independence movement. It was led by Muslim League
president Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and intended to rejoice the resignation of all members of the
rival Congress party from provincial and central offices in protest over their not having been
consulted over the decision to enter World War II alongside Britain.

In 1938 and 1939, the Muslim League tried to bring light to the grievances of Muslims and Muslim
groups in Indian states run by Congress governments; the effort led to documents like the PIRPUR
REPORT : 1938, Muslim sufferings under The Congress rule by A. K. Fazlul Huq and SHARIF REPORT
(Bihar Province) : 1938, documenting pro-Hindu and anti-Muslim bias under Congress governments.
Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Nazi Germany on 3 September 1939. The Indian
National Congress, the dominant political party of the time, objected strongly to the declaration of
war without prior consultation with Indians. The Congress Working Committee suggested that it
would cooperate if there were a central Indian national government formed, and a commitment
made to India's independence after the war. The Muslim League promised its support to the
British, with Jinnah calling on Muslims to help the Raj by "honourable co-operation at the "critical
and difficult juncture," while asking the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.
Congress considered Linlithgow's subsequent response "wholly unsatisfactory and calculated to
rouse resentment among all those who are anxious to gain...India's independence," and on 22
October 1939, "call[ed] upon all Congress ministries to tender their resignations." The unilateral
protest resignation was supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, but less so by Mahatma Gandhi, who felt
 33

that it would strengthen both unwanted British wartime militarization and the Muslim League. Both
Viceroy Linlithgow and Muhammad Ali Jinnah were pleased with the resignations.
On 2 December 1939, Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for Indian Muslims to celebrate 22 December
1939 as a "Day of Deliverance" from Congress:
I wish the Muslims all over India to observe Friday 22 December as the "Day of Deliverance" and
thanksgiving as a mark of relief that the Congress regime has at last ceased to function. I hope that
the provincial, district and primary Muslim Leagues all over India will hold public meetings and pass
the resolution with such modification as they may be advised, and after Jumma prayers offer prayers
by way of thanksgiving for being delivered from the unjust Congress regime. I trust that public
meetings will be conducted in an orderly manner and with all due sense of humility, and nothing
should be done which will cause offence to any other community, because it is the High Command of
the Congress that is primarily responsible for the wrongs that have been done to the Musalmans and
other minorities.
The proposed Day of Deliverance was criticized as being divisive. On 9 December 1939, Gandhi
appealed to Jinnah to end the observance in light of pending Congress/Muslim league unity
discussions, and in anticipation of third party review of Muslim League allegations made about
Congress' treatment of Muslims.
Nehru exchanged several letters with Jinnah between 9–14 December 1939, offering to deal with
specific allegations of anti-Muslim actions, but the discussions fell through because Nehru refused to
disassociate Congress from Indian Muslims unaffiliated with the Muslim League, and concluded that:
I regret to learn this for this means that, apart from communal questions, we differ entirely on
purely political grounds. The Congress demand is essentially for a declaration of war aims and more
especially for a declaration of Indian independence and the right of the Indian people to frame their
own constitutions without external interference. If the Muslim League does not agree to this, this
means that our political objectives are wholly dissimilar.
The celebration was also criticized by prominent senior Muslim members of Congress, including Abul
Kalam Azad, who stated:
And now, when the Congress has given up on the government of eight provinces of its own choice
and free will, what advice has the League President to offer to the Muslims? It is this that they
should march toward the mosques and thank God on their deliverance from Congress ministries
which preferred duty to power and have resigned not only on the issue of India's freedom but for
the rights of all downtrodden peoples of the East. It is difficult to imagine any group of Muslims,
howsoever at loggerheads with the Indian National Congress, would tolerate to be presented to the
world in such colors.
The Day of Deliverance was celebrated in many parts of India by Muslim League supporters, as well
some non-Muslim Congress opponents. The latter included the All-India Depressed Classes
Association, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar and the Independent Labour Party, E. V. Ramasami Naicker,
as well as some Parsis, and Anglo-Indians.
Before the Day of Deliverance events, Ambedkar stated that he was interested in participating: "I
read Mr. Jinnah's statement and I felt ashamed to have allowed him to steal a march over me and
rob me of the language and the sentiment which I, more than Mr. Jinnah, was entitled to use." He
went on to suggest that the communities he worked with were twenty times more oppressed by
Congress policies than were Indian Muslims; he clarified that he was criticizing Congress, and not all
Hindus.
Jinnah and Ambedkar jointly addressed the heavily-attended Day of Deliverance event in Bhindi
Bazaar, Bombay, where both expressed "fiery" criticisms of the Congress party, and according to one
observer, suggested that Islam and Hinduism were irreconcilable.
 34

E. V. Ramasami Naicker of the Justice Party called upon his party and all Dravidians to celebrate 22
December "on a grand scale...to rid the country of the menace of the Congress.
Meetings and rallies were held by Muslims in various parts of Bengal, which was a step in the
development of Bengali Muslim separatist politics.

Lahore Resolution

The Lahore Resolution (The Pakistan Resolution) 1940

Background:
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the first Muslim who declared Muslims and Hindus as two separate
nations.
• Afterward, Allama Iqbal demanded a separated homeland for the Muslims of India in 1930.
• In 1933, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali shared the same idea of a separate homeland.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was an idealist, believed in Muslim-Hindu unity.
• However, the growing Congress tyranny made him realize the urgency of the situation.
• On 22nd March 1940, the historic session of Muslim League began at Minto Park, Lahore under the
leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

Key Points:

The Lahore Resolution, was prepared by Muslim League Working Committee and was presented
by A. K. Fazlul Huq, the Prime Minister of Bengal was a formal political statement adopted by the All-
India Muslim League on the occasion of its three-day general session in Lahore on 22–24 March
1940. The resolution called for independent states as seen by the statement:
 That geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be
constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary that the areas in which
the Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the North Western and Eastern Zones of
(British) India should be grouped to constitute ‘independent states’ in which the constituent
units should be autonomous and sovereign.
 The Resolution was adopted on 24 March with great enthusiasm. The Hindu Press dubbed it
as the 'Pakistan Demand', after the scheme invented by Rahmat Ali, an Indian Muslim living
at Cambridge.
 The Muslims of Bengal, who were searching for an identity throughout the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, finally found it in the Lahore Resolution. The Lahore Resolution
gave them a sense of nationhood. Henceforth the dominant theme in Muslim politics was
not complaint against Hindu injustice, but a demand for separate political existence.
 Abdul Hashim of the Bengal Muslim League interpreted the text as a demand for two
separate countries. In 1946, Prime Minister H. S. Suhrawardy of Bengal, a member of the All
India Muslim League, mooted the United Bengal proposal with the support of Muslim and
Hindu leaders, as well as the Governor of Bengal. However, it was opposed by Lord
Mountbatten, the Muslim League, the Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha.
 The resolution that was placed before the Delhi Convention of Muslim Legislators in 1946
included the principle that the zones comprising Bengal and Assam in the Northeast and the
Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan in the Northwest of India,
namely Pakistan zones, where the Muslims are in a dominant majority, be constituted into a
 35

sovereign independent 'state' and that an unequivocal undertaking be given to implement

the establishment of Pakistan without delay. The Committee did not question the change.
 Although there has been dispute over the amendment but, later on the Muslim League
leaders of Bengal accepted the “Two Nation Theory” presented by Jinnah.
 The Hindu press started referring the resolution as ‘Pakistan Resolution’ and it later became
famous with the same name.
 After the Pakistan Resolution was passed, the Muslims of India were no longer seeking
support from the Hindus. They set out to demand their separate homeland where their
religious and cultural rights will be protected.

Cripps Mission
 Cripps Mission was deputed by British parliament in early 1942 to contain the political crisis
obtained in India. The mission was headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, a Cabinet Minister.
 The war already broke out and the British Government needed full support from India.
 However, the two major parties, the Congress and the Muslim League and their conflicting
demands made it difficult.
 Cripps Mission was prompted by two considerations. First, Gandhi's call for the Satyagraha
(literally 'insistence on truth', generally rendered 'soul force') movement in October 1940
was designed to embarrass Britain's war efforts by a mass upheaval in India and needed to
be ended in the British interest. Secondly, the fall of Singapore (15 February 1942), Rangoon
(8 March), and the Andamans (23 March) to the Japanese was threatening the entire fabric
of British colonial empire. In the face of these crises, the British felt obliged to make some
gestures to win over Indian public support.
 Cripps’ constitutional declaration proposed the following:
a) After the conclusion of the war, general elections in the provinces will be initiated.
b) Status of Dominion will be given to India after the war.
c) Provinces can opt-out from the proposed Indian Federation.
 A constituent assembly would be elected by the provincial legislatures acting as an Electoral
College. This body would then negotiate a treaty with the British government. The future
right of secession from the Commonwealth was explicitly stated. The Indian states would be
free to join, and in any case their treaty arrangements would be revised to meet the new
situation.
 The Congress was very critical of the clauses regarding nomination of the states'
representatives by the rulers and the provincial option Jawaharlal Nehru had desperately
sought a settlement largely because of his desire to mobilise Indian support in the anti-
fascist war, while most Congress working Committee members and Gandhi himself had been
apathetic. This embittered Congress-British relations, and things were then rapidly moving
towards a total confrontation in the form of Quit India Movement. But Cripps blamed the
Congress for the failure of the Plan, while the Congress held the British government
responsible for it. A chance of establishing a united independent India was thus lost.

Quit India Movement

 Quit India Movement, 1942 an important event of the Indian freedom struggle, was the
outcome of a compound of anti-white fury.
 There was the attempt of the British bureaucracy right from the outbreak of the war for a
wholesale crackdown on the Congress on the pattern of 1932.
 36

 A good deal of controversy exists about the nature of the movement-whether it was a
'spontaneous revolution' or an 'organised rebellion'.
 The movement was, in reality 'elemental and largely spontaneous'. It was sparked off by a
variety of factors and of an expectation that British rule was coming to an end. Bureaucratic
high-handedness and provocation worsened the situation. Financial losses incurred in Malay
and Burma induced sections of Indian business community to give some covert support to a
movement (even if violent) for a short while.
 There were three broad phases of the movement. The first was predominantly urban and
included hartals, strikes and clashes with the police and army in most major cities. All these
were massive and violent but quickly suppressed.
 The second phase of the movement started from the middle of August. Militant students
fanned out from different centres, destroying communications and leading peasant rebellion
throughout India.
 The third phase of the movements started from about the end of September and was
characterised by terrorist activities, sabotage and guerrilla warfare by educated youths and
peasant squads.
 The real picture was that the removal of established leaders left younger and more militant
cadres to their own initiative and gave greater scope to pressure from below.
 After Quit India, there could be no turning back. Any future negotiations with the British
government could only be on the manner of transfer of power. Independence was no longer
a matter of bargain and this became amply clear after the war.
 37

Indian National Army

 Indian National Army was formed under the initiative of leaders like Subhaschandra
Bose, Rashbihari Bose and others who, being imbued with the spirit of national
independence, sided with the Axis Powers during the Second World War (1939-1945). The
Indian National Army (INA) is also called 'Azad Hind Fauz'.
 In December 1941 the Indians residing in Southeast Asia were much inspired at the victory
of Japan at the initial stage of the war. A number of associations were formed aiming at the
independence of India.
 It was decided that an Association of 'Free Indians' would be formed and a National Indian
Army constituted under the command of Indian officers. A conference was held at Bangkok
on 15 June with this end in view.
 It was agreed that Subhaschandra Bose would be invited to Southeast Asia. And the
formation of the INA was formally declared.
 In the meantime Subhas Bose silently left Calcutta on 17 January 1941 and arrived in
Germany. In Berlin he formed an India government in exile and extended support to
Germany. He began to broadcast his aims and objectives over Radio Berlin and made contact
with Japan. This aroused tremendous enthusiasm in India. Indians in Germany gave him the
title of 'Netaji' and the slogan of 'Jai-Hind' was initiated here during this time.
 On 4 July 1943, Rashbihari Bose resigned and Subhas became the president of the Indian
Independence Movement in East Asia. He formally took the leadership of INA on 25. On 21
October 1943 Subhas, popularly called 'Netaji', declared the formation of the Provisional
Government of Azad Hind and on the 23rd declared war on Britain and America.
 After the war the leaders were arrested, put on trial for treason and then sentenced to
transportation for life. Congress was outraged and protested strongly and the sentences
were hurriedly changed to dismissal from the army.
 Despite the failure of the Indian National Army, many Indian soldiers who had fought against
the Japanese returned home with new ideas of independence. Under Japanese rule,
nationalist movements had begun in many areas of south east Asia, and troops returning to
India brought these ideas with them.

Subhaschandra Bose

 Subhas Chandra Bose, (1897-1945) Nationalist leader of the left-wing Congress, founding
leader of the Forward Bloc, Commander-in-Chief of the Indian National Army (INA).
 At the historic session of the Calcutta Congress (1928) Subhas worked as the Commanding
Officer of the Congress Volunteer Corps. It was at the same session that Subhas and
Jawaharlal Nehru spearheaded the move for complete independence of India while Gandhi
and Motilal Nehru favoured Dominion status. Subhas was President of the Bengal Provincial
Congress Conference, 1929.
 Bose became President of the All India Trade Union Congress in 1929 and Mayor of the
Calcutta Corporation the following year.
 He actively participated in Gandhi's Salt Satyagraha movement in 1930 for which he was put
behind bars. After being released from jail he took a dissident stand against the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact (1931). Subhas was arrested for the third time under the notorious Regulation 111 of
1818.
 Subhas was unanimously elected President of the Congress in 1938, and was re-elected the
following year. But soon he became alienated from the core Congress leadership due to his
militant stand. MK Gandhi himself went against him. Under the circumstances, he opted to
resign his Presidency in April 1939.
 38

 He founded the Forward Bloc within the Congress in the same year, and tried to consolidate
the revolutionary forces of India in general and of Bengal in particular.
 Subhas supported the Axis powers in the Second World War (1939-1945). The Congress
Working Committee took disciplinary action against Subhas for criticising the Congress
Ministries formed in seven provinces after the election of 1937.
 On 26 January 1941 Subhas secretly left Calcutta, crossed the border of India through the
Northwestern Frontier and entered Russia through Kabul. After his arrival in Berlin, he
enlisted German support to organise anti-British movements.
 He formed the Provisional Independent Government for India, and began to propagate his
ideas through regular broadcasts from Berlin. From Germany he also made contacts with
Japan. Backed by the Governments of both Germany and Japan, Subhas started his voyage
to Singapore in a submarine and reached there on July 2, 1943.
 Indian prisoners-of-war, held by the Japanese, showed tremendous enthusiasm on his arrival
in Singapore.
 Subhas was reportedly killed in an air crash in Formosa in August 1945.

Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944

 C. Rajagopalachari's formula (or C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated

by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim
League and the Indian National Congress on the independence of British India.
 The League's position was that the Muslims and Hindus of British India were of two separate
nations and hence the Muslims had the right to their own nation.
 The Congress, which included both Hindu and Muslim members, was opposed to the idea of
partitioning India.
 With the advent of the Second World War the British administration required both parties to
agree so that Indian help could be sought for the war effort.

The CR formula entailed

i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with
the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.
ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts
having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be
conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views
before the plebiscite.
iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding
essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential
services.
v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.
vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain
to Government of India.

 As the Allies saw more victories, the attitude of British administration towards Congress
softened. Moreover, America had been pressing Britain to meet India's demand for self-
governance. Although other Congress leaders were still in prison Gandhi was released on 5
May 1944. After his release Gandhi proposed talks with Jinnah on his two-nation theory and
negotiating on issue of partition.
 39

 The CR formula acted as the basis for the negotiations. Gandhi and Jinnah met in September
1944 to ease the deadlock. Gandhi offered the CR formula as his proposal to
Jinnah. Nevertheless, Gandhi-Jinnah talks failed after two weeks of negotiations.
 Although the formulation supported the principle of Pakistan, it aimed to show that the
provinces that Jinnah claimed as Pakistan contained large numbers of non-Muslims.
 Thus if a plebiscite was placed, Jinnah ran a risk of partitioning Punjab and Bengal.
 Jinnah wanted a full partition and any relations would be dealt via treaty alone.
 However, Wavell the then viceroy of India who had earlier insisted on the geographic unity
of India, stated that the talks based on the CR formula failed because Gandhi himself did
"not really believe" in the proposal nor Jinnah was ready to "answer awkward questions"
which would reveal that he had "not thought out the implications of Pakistan".

SIMLA CONFERENCE (1945)

In 1945 Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India announced a plan for the transfer of power of India to its
natives. To discuss the details of the plan Lord Wavell invite d representatives from the various
political parties in a conference at Simla in June 1945.

Wavell Proposals

 An Executive council should be set up as Interim Government under the present constitution
(Government of India act 1935) until a new constitution could be agreed on.
 The Executive Council would contain equal number (5 each) of Muslims and Hindus.
 All portfolios would be given to Indians expect defence and Viceroy.
 To discuss the formation of the Executive Council and the future handover the Viceroy called
a Conference of all the political parties in Simla. The Muslim league delegation while Gandhi,
Abdul Kalam Azad represented the Congress. They deliberately included Muslim members in
the delegation to demonstrate that not all Muslims were members of the Muslim league.

There was a deadlock over the Muslim league’s demand that all the five members of the Executive
Council should be the nominees of the Muslim league . The Viceroy accepted four and Chief Minister
of Punjab and Unionist party leader Khizar Hayat Tiwana demanded one Muslim seat out of Muslim
quota, which was accepted by the Viceroy. Jinnah al so pointed out as the Sikhs and Scheduled
Castes on the Counci l were bound to vote with the Hindus, this would mean permanent Muslims
minority in the Executive Council. Jinnah also objected Lord Wavell could see no solution to the
problem and closed the conference on 14th July 1945. Another British attempt to find a solution had
failed.

ELECTIONS (1945 - 46).

Background:
• The general elections of 1945 – 1946 are the most significant among all events as the
constitutional future of India dependent upon its results.
• The Muslim League and Congress both contested in the elections actively with two contrasting
slogans.
• The Muslim League wanted a separate state for Muslims while Congress was contesting to keep it
united.
 40

The Result:
• The Muslim League experienced an extraordinary victory in the Muslim majority states.
• In the Central Assembly, the Muslim League won all 30 Muslim seats.
• In the Provincial Assembly, the Muslim League won 446 out of 496 Muslim seats.
• In Bengal, the Muslim League formed the ministry by winning 113 out of 119 Muslim seats.
• The Congress saw an equally impressive victory in the Hindu majority states.
• In NWFP, Congress defeated the Muslim League. The Muslim League managed to win only 17 out
of 36 Muslim seats.
• Dr. Khan Sahib along with Congress formed the ministry in NWFP.
• In Punjab, Khizar Hayat Tiwana formed the ministry with Congress.
• Congress won 930 seats in total and won with a majority in 8 provinces.
• The results of the elections proved Muslim Leagues claims of being a sole representative of the
Indian Muslims right.

Reasons for the Muslim League's Success:

• After the defeat in general election 1937, the Muslim League learned its lesson and aligned its
campaign as such that more and more people understand what the party is standing for.
• The Congress Tyranny during 1937 – 1939 made the Muslims of India realized that to protect their
religious and cultural rights, they must stand for themselves.
• The Muslim League campaign demanded the separate state which was an only way for common
Muslims to be free from Hindu domination.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah's role as a leader improved the Muslims' position as he did not compromise
on Muslim rights during the Simla Conference and the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks.

The Interim Government of India

 The Interim Government of India, also known as the Provisional Government, formed in 2
September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of
assisting the transition of British India to independence.
 It remained in place until 15 August 1947, the date of the independence (and partition)
of India, and the creation of Pakistan.
 After the end of the Second World War, the British authorities in India released all political
prisoners who had participated in the Quit India movement. The Indian National Congress,
the largest Indian political party, which had long fought for national independence, agreed
to participate in elections for a constituent assembly, as did the Muslim League.
 The newly elected government of Clement Attlee dispatched the 1946 Cabinet Mission to
India to formulate proposals for the formation of a government that would lead to an
independent India.
 The Indian National Congress won a majority of the seats, some 69 per cent, including
almost every seat in areas with a majority Hindu electorate. The Congress had clear
majorities in eight of the eleven provinces of British India.
 The Muslim League won the seats allocated to the Muslim electorate.
 The Viceroy's Executive Council became the executive branch of the interim government.
Originally headed by the Viceroy of India, it was transformed into a council of ministers, with
the powers of a prime minister bestowed on the vice-president of the Council, a position
held by the Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru.
 After independence all members would be Indians, apart from the Viceroy, in August to
become the Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten, who would hold only a ceremonial
position.
 41

CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)

The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

Background:
• The British Government's attempts to maintain peace between the two major parties of India,
Congress, and Muslim League failed back to back.
• The results of the general election 1945-1946, brought the two political parties in a deadlock.
• The urgency to find a solution to this deadlock was very critical by the British Government.
• Therefore, they sent a special mission to India comprising of three cabinet ministers.

Key Points:
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah made it clear to the mission that the Muslim majority states must be
grouped to form a separate country for Muslims.
• In contrary, congress opposed any idea of partition of India.
• The mission conducted a meeting in Simla with the leaders of the top party.
• In the conference, Cripps supported Congress and its idea openly.
• Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel, Abdul Kalam Azad and Abdul Ghaffar represented Congress.
• Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and Abdul Rab Nishtar represented the
Muslim League.
• Both parties were reluctant to accept the proposal of the other, therefore the mission formulated
a plan which was as follows:

- The mission proposed to form an All Indian Commission to decide whether to have two states or
one unified state after the departure of the British.
- This idea was rejected by Congress and Muslim League both.
- Congress feared that the commission will agree on partition and Muslim League feared that it
might reject the idea.
- Hence, the mission failed.

• After this failure, the mission announced its final plan which is as follows:

- India will be divided into three parts.

- Hindu majority territories, Western Muslim provinces and Bengal and Assam.
- Jinnah accepted the decision, but Nehru was reluctant and stated that after the withdrawal of the
British, Congress will not be bound by this plan.
- On Nehru's statement, Jinnah dropped this plan as he feared Hindu intolerance will fail this mission.

The Cabinet Mission and Viceroy formulated a three - tier constitutional plan, which was as follow:

Long term Plan:

1) It rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan

2) There would be three different parts to post - British India. (Hindu Majority Territories, Muslims
Majority Provinces, Bengal and Assam)

3) Each part would have local autonomy and would be able to draw up its own constitution
Muhammad Ali Wasim

4) Foreign affairs, defense and communication would be managed by a central Indian Union.
 42

Short term Plan:

The mission also proposed of setting up of an interim Central Government in which the
Indian national should hold all portfolios. Gandhi criticized and rejected the plan and called
it ‘An appeal and an advice’ while the Muslim league accepted long term and short term
plans. The viceroy broke his promise by refusing to form the government only with Muslim
league. On other hand Nehru, however said that Congress would not feel bound by the plan
once the British had gone. The Muslim league felt that his made further discussions
pointless. Any agreement might just overturned after the British had gone. So the Cabinet
Plan was dropped.

Direct Acton Day

 Direct Action Day, a hartal called by the Muslim League on August 16, 1946 to get rid of
'British slavery and contemplated future caste-Hindu domination'.
 The backdrop of the Direct Action Day was not only the Muslim League's acceptance of
the Cabinet Mission plan, but also the loss of face it had to experience because of the plan's
rejection by the Congress.
 The 'British betrayal', as the Muslim League branded the Cabinet Mission's successive failed
proposals to placate the obstinate Congress, made Jinnah bid good-bye to constitutional
methods and resort to a programme of 'direct action for the achievement of Pakistan'.
 Directives were issued to League leaders and the Muslim masses of the provinces to suspend
all business on the 16 August and observe complete hartal on that day.
 As a result of 'The Direct Action' Calcutta Riot soon spread throughout the country, and was
particularly destructively in Bihar and Noakhali.
 Both Hindus and Muslims fought each other more or less evenly in Calcutta, but the
encounter was mostly one-sided elsewhere. In Bihar, mostly Muslims were killed and in
Noakhali, Hindus.
 Ironically 'Direct Action Day' had a direct result. The fate of India was decided on that day,
and on that day was sealed the fate of the united Bengal. Direct Action Day made the
partition of Bengal inevitable.

Background:
• After the Cabinet Mission, Muhammad Ali Jinnah feared that the British might leave without
partition.
• Jinnah feared Hindu domination and asked his fellow Indian Muslims to observe the Direct
Action Day.
• The main aim of Direct Action Day was to pressurize Hindus and British for the partition by
showing Muslims strength, unity and feelings towards Pakistan.

Importance:
• The Direct Action Day showed Muslim unity and strength as it eventually pressurized British
and Hindus to accept the partition.
• This Day was observed peacefully but in Calcutta, many Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in
which around 4000 Indians were killed.
• Seeing the riots and the human loss, the British realized the need for partition for the peace
of both the communities which was a crucial step towards the creation of Pakistan.

Calcutta Riot 1946

 43

 Calcutta Riot, 1946 a dreadful event (16 August 1946) with its tremendous negative impact
on Hindu-Muslim relations. The violence, resulted from the hatred and distrust between the
two major communities.
 16th August 1946 was selected as the Direct Action day when Muslims throughout the
subcontinent were to 'suspend all business' to support the Muslim League demand for
Pakistan. On the other hand, the Hindu popular opinion rallied round the anti-Pakistan
slogan. Bengal's Congress leaders were not necessarily Hindu communalists. But since most
of the party's support came from the Hindus, a section of Congressmen developed a strong
sense of Hindu identity in view of the perceived threat from the Pakistan movement.
 Their campaign certainly served to inflame the Hindu mind against the Direct Action Day,
which was likely to be particularly successful in Bengal, since it had a League ministry in
power.
 The League's rally at Ochterloney Monument on that day was considered as the 'largest ever
Muslim assembly'. The Muslim League Chief Minister in his address reportedly assured the
audience that the military and police had been 'restrained'. This was interpreted by the
gathering as an open invitation to commit violence on its rival community.
 Official estimate put the casualties at 4,000 dead and 100,000 injured in the riot. Only on the
22nd Calcutta became quiet except for some isolated killings. During Calcutta's earlier Hindu-
Muslim clashes - notably in 1918 and 1926 - the targets of collective violence were
essentially symbols of class and colonial oppression.
 But the 1946 crowd hardly demonstrated hostility against the government, police or
Europeans.
 What is most unique about the 1946 riot is that it was conducted in the most organised
manner. The League mobilised all its frontal organisations to make the 'Day' a success.
 Once the riot began the Chief Minister Huseyn Shahid Suhrawardi, accompanied by his
political aids, spent considerable time in the Police Control Room to allegedly shield Muslims
from police operations.
 On the other hand, Marwari merchants reportedly purchased arms and ammunitions from
American soldiers, which were later used during the riot. Acid bombs were manufactured
and stored in Hindu-owned factories long before the outbreak. Calcutta's Hindu blacksmiths
were mobilised to prepare spearheads and other weapons.

Aftermath
The riots completely ramshackled the city life. Food and other essential supplies became scarce,
hyperinflation prevailed, and epidemics threatened the metropolis. Calcutta came to be divided into
'communal zones', Hindus and Muslims avoiding each other's areas. For one whole year Calcutta
remained a scene of constant communal clashes.

 Communalism at the popular level provided a new turn to India's institutional politics. The
Muslim League warned that civil wars on the Calcutta scale would occur in other parts of the
country unless its proposal for the Partition of India was accepted and the Congress suffered
a setback and its leadership, excepting Gandhi and Badshah Khan, accepted Partition of the
country along religious lines as the 'only alternative'. The turn that events had taken
afterwards made a peaceful solution through an agreement between the Congress and the
Muslim League a far cry.

June 3 Plan

The June 3 plan was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The British government proposed a plan
announced on June 3, 1947, that included these principles:
 44

 Principle of the partition of British India was accepted by the British Government
 Successor governments would be given dominion status
 autonomy and sovereignty to both countries
 can make their own constitution

Background:
• The last viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten was advised by Lord Clement Attlee to hand over the
power by 1st June 1948.
• When Mountbatten reached India, he faced problems by the conflicting demands of the two top
parties of India.
• Muslim League wanted partition and Congress wanted the country to stay unified.
• When all actions to keep the country unified failed, Mountbatten worked out a partition plan.
• Congress and the Muslim League both gave their approval to the plan.
• On 3rd June 1947, the plan was issued after the approval of the British Government.

The Act's most important provisions were:

 On the midnight of 14 and 15 August 1947, India will be divided into two different states.
• Government of India Act 1935 will be modified and adopted as a temporary constitution for India
and Pakistan.
• A boundary commission will be set up to demarcate the boundaries of India and Pakistan.
• Financial and military assets will be divided among India and Pakistan.
• Sindh Legislature will be given a right to vote for Pakistan.
• The NWFP’s future will be decided by a referendum.
• In Bengal and Punjab, the Muslim members in the legislative assembly will be given a right to vote
for Pakistan i.e. they can join Pakistan.
• The future of Balochistan will also be decided by taking appropriate measures.
• The princely state rulers will be given an option to join India or Pakistan or remain independent.
 Establishment of the office of Governor-General in each of the two new countries, as
representatives of the Crown.
 Termination of British suzerainty over the princely states, with effect from 15 August 1947, and
recognised the right of states to remain independent or accede to either dominion.
 Abolition of the use of the title "Emperor of India" by the British monarch (this was subsequently
executed by King George VI by royal proclamation on 22 June 1948)..

Independence Act 1947

• On 15 July 1947, the British Government passed the Indian Independence Act.
• The Act stated the partition of two dominion independent states by the names of India and
Pakistan to be established by 15 August.
• Both the dominions will be able to pass any Act or Bill.
• The Government of India Act 1935 will be the temporary constitution of both dominions until
replaced.
• The Princely States will be given the right to join either of the dominions.

Radcliffe Commission

 The Radcliffe Line was the boundary demarcation line between

the Indian and Pakistani portions of the Punjab and Bengal provinces of British India.
 45

 The demarcation line was published on 17 August 1947 upon the Partition of India. Today its
western side still serves as the Indo-Pakistani border and the eastern side serves as
the India-Bangladesh border.
 Radcliffe Award was the outcome of an official plan announced by Lord Mountbatten on 3
June 1947 regarding the partition of India into two separate sovereign states - India and
Pakistan.
 The demarcation of the boundary between Muslims and non-Muslim areas was not done till
14th August 1947.`
 Sir (Later Viscount) Cyril John Radcliffe was called upon to chair the Boundary Commissions
in India.
 Radcliffe’s team comprises of four assistants; two nominated by Congress and two by
Muslim League.
 On 16th August 1947, the decision of the boundary commission is known as Radcliffe Award
or Boundary Award was announced.
 According to the June 3 plan, the Bengal Legislative Assembly was to divide itself into two
parts, one comprising of the representatives of the Muslim majority districts and the other
of the Hindu majority ones.
 On 20 June, these two provisionally partitioned units met to vote on the issue of partition.
The majority of the representatives of the Hindu majority districts voted in favour of the
partition of Bengal while those of the Muslim majority districts voted against it. On the basis
of this vote the rationale for partition into East Bengal and West Bengal was found.
 Significantly, it was only after this vote that the Boundary Commission was set up to
determine the final border between East Bengal and West Bengal.
 Radcliffe had to counter some pressures while making his award. He had to appear even
handed to all sides, while keeping in mind the imperatives of British policy for the future of
the subcontinent.
 The Radcliffe award led to discontent both among Hindus and Muslims. While the Muslims
in Murshidabad and Navadwip were furious to find themselves in West Bengal, Hindus in
five southern thanas of Jalpaiguri expressed bitterness against their inclusion in East Bengal.
Calcutta was given to India even though it was surrounded by Muslim areas. Ferozpur and
Gurdaspur both had Muslim majority but were also given to India in Punjab. Ferozpur was
originally awarded to Pakistan by Radcliffe and the Muslim League had the evidence that this
decision was reverted because Radcliffe was pressurized.
 The Radcliffe Award's decisions made the Muslim League disappointed.

Partition of India

 Partition of India, 1947 latest major change in the political geography of Bengal. Although,
Bengal had undergone many changes over time but all these changes and transfigurations
had aroused little public curiosity until the partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon in 1905.
 The measure stirred so much public controversy that it had to be annulled in 1911 in order
to keep the imperial control undiminished.
 Within 36 years from the annulment of the first partition of Bengal, in the year 1947 the
province came to be divided into two halves along the same geographical lines mainly on
communal consideration.
 The carving up of India in line with Jinnah's two-nation theory effected the second partition
of Bengal. The Hindu-majority West Bengal became a part of the Indian Union, with the
Muslim-majority East Bengal a part of Pakistan.
 It may be noted that the Hindus by and large opposed the 1905-partition and most Muslims
rendered their support to it; but it was the Hindus, especially the Hindu Mahasabha, who
 46

proposed the partition of Bengal in 1947 and Muslim leadership first opposed and later
accepted the proposal sullenly.
 HS Suhrawardy, chief minister of Bengal, made a last moment attempt to transcend the
limits and keep Bengal united with the status of an independent state. However, his move
for a United Independent Bengal floundered.
 The British Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946) that envisaged a loose Indian federation under
the three-tier A, B, C formula is generally perceived as the best device to avoid the
disastrous consequences of partition through keeping India together, but the prospect was
swamped by the waves of communalism.
 Published on 3 June, thus known as the 3 June plan, it laid down elaborate procedures for
partition and transfer of power. These included, among other things, (a) holding of notional
system of voting by the members of the Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority areas of the
Bengal Legislative Assembly sitting separately (similar procedure to be followed in the case
of the Punjab); (b) referendum in the Surma Valley of Assam ie, the Sylhet district in the
North-East and the North West Frontier Province in the North-West to determine their
future; (c) and a Boundary Commission to demarcate the adjoining areas between the
proposed states.
 On 15 July 1947, the Indian Independence Act of the British Parliament stipulated that the
British rule in India would come to an end on 15 August 1947. It also stipulated that the
partition of India into two sovereign dominions would be known as the Hindu majority state
of Indian Union and Muslim majority state of Pakistan.

Partition of Bengal 1947

 Within 36 years from the annulment of the first partition of Bengal, in the year 1947 the
province came to be divided into two halves along the same geographical lines mainly on
communal consideration. The carving up of India in line with Jinnah's two-nation theory
effected the second partition of Bengal.
 The Hindu-majority West Bengal became a part of the Indian Union, with the Muslim-
majority East Bengal a part of Pakistan.
 It may be noted that the Hindus by and large opposed the 1905-partition and most Muslims
rendered their support to it; but it was the Hindus, especially the Hindu Mahasabha, who
proposed the partition of Bengal in 1947 and Muslim leadership first opposed and later
accepted the proposal sullenly.
 HS Suhrawardy, chief minister of Bengal, made a last moment attempt to transcend the
limits and keep Bengal united with the status of an independent state. However, his move
for a United Independent Bengal floundered.
 Indeed there was increased Hindu alienation under Muslim dominated coalition rule in
Bengal in the years between 1937 and 1947. The resultant Hindu fear of Muslim domination
in undivided Bengal outside the Indian Union whether a third Dominion or a part of Pakistan,
and the Indian Muslim fear of perpetual Hindu domination over them in an Akhanda (united)
India might explain the 1947 communal divide including the partition of Bengal.
 At the 2 June (1947) Leaders' Conference, the partition plan as presented by Lord
Mountbatten was agreed on by the 'seven big', namely Nehru, Patel and Kripalani
(Congress), Jinnah, Liaquat and Abdur Rob Nishtar (Muslim League) and Baldev Singh (Sikh).
 Published on 3 June, thus known as the 3 June plan, it laid down elaborate procedures for
partition and transfer of power.
 As per the plan, on 20 June the issue of Bengal partition was decided upon by the members
of the Assembly.
 47

 Several rounds of voting were held. On the question of joining the 'present constituent
Assembly' (ie, the Indian Union), the division of the joint session of the House stood at 126
votes against the move and 90 votes in favour. Then the members of the Muslim-majority
areas (East Bengal) in a separate session passed a motion by 106-35 votes against
partitioning Bengal and for joining a new Constituent Assembly (ie, Pakistan) as a whole. This
was followed by the separate meeting of the members of the non-Muslim-majority areas
(West Bengal) who by a division of 58-21 voted for partition of the province. It must be
mentioned that a single majority vote in favour of partition by either notionally divided half
of the Assembly would have decided the division of the province under the rule.
 On 15 July 1947, the Indian Independence Act of the British Parliament stipulated that the
British rule in India would come to an end on 15 August 1947.
 It also stipulated that the partition of India into two sovereign dominions would be known as
the Hindu majority state of Indian Union and Muslim majority state of Pakistan. The
Parliament also appointed a chairman for the Boundary Commission which was to be
consisted of the chairman and two nominees each from India and Pakistan. Practically, it was
the chairman of the commission who completed the boundary on papers in haste within
fifteen days.
 Consequent upon this, the Boundary Commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe made up the
matter of territorial demarcation between the two newly created states. The power was
finally officially transferred to Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August respectively, under the
Indian Independence Act, 1947.
 The Partition of India radically changed the political map of the subcontinent.
 Behind the bare fact of creation of two new countries of Pakistan and India, there took place
a huge displacement of people. Muslims tended to migrate to Pakistan and the Hindus to
India. So a huge refugee problem hit both states.
 The politics of tension and mistrust of the pre-independence period grew even more serious.
 At the same time, the two states seemed to have started two different journeys in the
making of post-colonial history.
 48

Background to independence
 In a speech given at Allahabad to a League session in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a
state for Muslims in British India. Iqbal's influence gave Jinnah a deeper appreciation for
Muslim identity.
 Choudhary Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state "Pakistan" in
the Indus Valley, with other names given to Muslim-majority areas elsewhere in India.
 The Lahore Resolution (sometimes called the "Pakistan Resolution", although it does not
contain that name), based on the sub-committee's work, embraced the Two-Nation
Theory and called for a union of the Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest of British
India, with complete autonomy. Similar rights were to be granted to the Muslim-majority
areas in the east, and unspecified protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces.
The resolution was passed by the League session in Lahore on 23 March 1940.
 In September 1944, Jinnah and Gandhi (released from prison), met formally at the Muslim
leader's home in Bombay. Two weeks of talks resulted in no agreement.
 The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue: Pakistan. Speaking
in Ahmedabad, Jinnah echoed this, "Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us." In the
December 1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the League won every seat
reserved for Muslims. In the provincial elections in January 1946, the League took 75% of the
Muslim vote, an increase from 4.4% in 1937.
Lord Mountbatten
 In 1947, Mountbatten became the viceroy of India it was also announced that Britain would
transfer power in India not later than June 1948.
 By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. However, the Congress
insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be
divided.
 Mountbatten was not favourably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to
his staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument.
 On the other hand, Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in the subcontinent,
they would turn control over to the Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting
Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy.
 The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of
the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central
government.
 On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British
would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue
in the existing constituent assembly or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal
and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, and on the
partition.
 A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces.
 On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Baldev Singh made the formal
announcement by radio. Jinnah concluded his address with "Pakistan Zindabad " (Long live
Pakistan), which was not in the script.
 On 4 July 1947, League asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British
king, George VI, that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan's first governor-general.
 This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions
—he would be India's first post-independence governor-general—but Jinnah felt that
Mountbatten would be likely to favour the new Hindu-majority state because of his
closeness to Nehru.
 49

All India Muslim League

Reasons for the Formation of Muslim League:

• In 1898, the Indian National Congress demanded the Hindi language to be declared as the official
language.
• The Hindu extremists led by Arya Samaj wanted Muslims to be converted to Hinduism forcefully.
• The ever-increasing tension and differences between the Muslims and Hindus.
• The impulsive and extreme reaction of Hindus on the partition of Bengal decision.
• In 1906, the president of the National Congress refused to accept Muslims as a prominent group in
India.
• The success of Simla Deputation in 1906.
• 1906 at 20th session of the Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka, Muslim League was
formed.
• It was chaired by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk.

Aims and Objectives of the Muslim League:

• To protect the interests and rights of the Muslims of India by presenting their needs to the British
Government respectfully.
• To promote a loyal relationship between the Muslims and the British Government to remove any
misconceptions regarding the Government's decisions and actions.
• To protect Muslims from the feelings of hostility towards other communities without any
prejudice.
• To counter the growing influence of the National Congress.

The Morley-Minto Reforms-1909

Background:
• The Morley-Minto Reforms is the famous name given to 1909 Indian Councils Act.
• Lord Morley, Head of Indian office announced that the government wants to introduce new
reforms for India.
• These new reforms will allow the locals of India to have more power in the legislative affairs.
• A committee was established to propose a report of reforms.
• The committee submitted the report, after Lord Minto and Lord Morley's approval, the British
parliament passed the Act of 1909.

Importance & Reforms:

• The members were increased to 60 for the Imperial Council.
• The members of the Central Executive Council increased to 60.
• The members of the Provincial Council increased to 50 and 30, in big and small provinces
respectively.
• Separated electorates for the Muslims.
• The Indians were given more advisory power, but they didn't receive any power to change the law.
 50

World War I

Background:
• It lasted from 1914 to 1918.
• It brought with its great political change in India.
• The British opened their minds for self-government in India.
• The British also agreed that Indians should have greater power in the Government.
• The process of British to handover India was slow and resulted in frequent protests.

Impact of the WWI on the Sub-Continent:

• In 1911, to avoid making political situations worse in India, the British realized they need to give
more power to the Indians.
• After 1913, the Muslim League joined hands with Congress to demand self-government sharing
their common anger towards the British.
• The great power in Europe was preparing for war and Britain could not afford to upset the Indians.
• In 1913, Muhammad Ali Jinnah emerged as a great Muslim leader and spokesperson.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an idealist i.e. he believed that Muslims and Hindus can work together.
He was a member of Congress and Muslim League both.
• Britain was engaged terribly in World War I by 1916.
• At that time, the Indians contribution to the war was enormous, both in the form of men and
weapon.
• Many Indians supported Britain in the war and believed that it was the right time to make
demands for their rights.

The Lucknow Pact 1916

Background:
• When the Muslim League was formed, one of its major objectives was forming a friendly
relationship with the British.
• The reversal of the Partition of Bengal changed that objective and decided to work with the
National Congress to put pressure on the British government.
• In 1916, Muhammad Ali Jinnah persuaded the Muslim League and Congress to meet in Lucknow.
• In the Lucknow session, Jinnah represented the Muslim League and Mahajan represented
congress.

Demands of the Lucknow Pact:

• The Congress admitted that Muslims has the right for separate electorate for Provincial Legislative
Councils.
• The Congress also agreed for Muslims to have one-third seats in the council.
• The Congress made concession that if three-fourth of the community’s members did not give their
support then no Act will be passed.
• Both parties also demanded the increase of seats of the Council.
• They demanded the autonomy of all provinces.
• They demanded the protection of the rights of minorities.

Importance of the Lucknow Pact:

• It brought the Muslim League and National Congress to work together.
• It made the Hindus accept first time, that there should be separate electorates for Muslims.
• The Muslims realized that their chances of success will increase if they stand with Congress.
• It put pressure on Britain to make concessions for the Indians.
 51

The Rowlatt Act-1918 & Amritsar Massacre-1919

Background:
• After the Lucknow Pact in 1916, both Hindus and Muslims started working together for self-
government in India.
• It was a brief period of Hindu-Muslim unity.
• The British Government formed a committee under Justice Sidney Rowlett to investigate their
activities secretly.
• In April 1918, Rowlett presented his report to the British Government.

Rowlatt Act 1918:

• In the Imperial Legislative Council, the British Government introduced a bill, named as ‘Rowlatt Bill’
that gave great and boundless power to the police and administration.
• The Rowlett Bill give authority to the Government to put anyone under house arrest without giving
a definite reason, the accused cannot get a lawyer and will not have any right to appeal.
• All the 23 non-official members in the Imperial Legislative Council voted against the bill even the
officials who were loyal to the British Government.
• Even then, the bill was passed and decreed as ‘Rowlatt Act’.
• Following this Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council as a protest.

Amritsar Massacre 1919:

• As a result of the Rowlett Act Gandhi also initiated his non-violence movement and strikes started
all over India.
• The Governor of Punjab, Sir Michael O’Dwyer who hated Indians and believed in British dominance
by force banned all protests and public meetings.
• The Government even banned leaders of Amritsar, Dr. Satyal and Dr. Saifuddin from making
speeches to handle the political unrest in Punjab.
• Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew were later arrested.
• In April 1919, a large crowded gather to demand the release of their leaders and the police opened
fire to disperse them.
• General Dyer ordered to leave for Amritsar, he followed his order and left with 2 armed vehicles,
710 sepoys, and 475 soldiers.
• On April 13, 1919, he tortured around the city and announced that if any public meeting or
procession will be done against the orders then the force will be used against them.
• General Dyer received news that at Jallianwala Bagh, a meeting is held without wasting time he
reached there 90 men and asked them to open fire.
• The troops kept firing for fifteen minutes straight that left 1200 injured and 379 dead at the spot.
• Dyer believed Jallianwala Bagh meeting was a conspiracy to overthrow the British government but
the Hunter community concluded that neither the Jallianwala Bagh meeting or any other public
gathering in Amritsar has to do anything to overthrow the government.
• After the Amritsar massacre, martial law was imposed all over Punjab.
 52

Montague–Chelmsford Reforms (The Government of India Act) - 1919

Background:
• In 1917, Lord Montague, State Secretary carried a fact-finding tour of India along with Lord
Chelmsford, the Indian Viceroy.
• For this, they held meetings with government and non-government people.
• They both prepared a report and presented it to the British Parliament.
• The report was approved and became the Act of 1919, commonly known as Montague–
Chelmsford Reforms.
• The Indians were not happy with the Act 1919 and oppressed it.

Main Features of the Act 1919:

• There will be two houses in the National Parliament i.e. Legislative Assembly and Council of State.
• There will be 144 seats (103 will be elected) in the Legislative Assembly.
• The two houses can discuss the budget and pass new laws.
• The viceroy will be appointed by the British Government and have a veto power to pass new laws
and cancel any decisions.
• A system of Dyarchy will be introduced to all provinces.
• Only 2% of Indians will be allowed to vote depending upon their wealth.
• New reforms will only be introduced after every ten years.
• There will be separate electorates for Muslims and Hindus.

Non-Cooperation Movement

• In 1920, Gandhi launched the Non-cooperation Movement.

• The main causes for the launch of the movement were as follows:

a) Rowlatt Act.
b) Amritsar Massacre.
c) Disappointment from Montague Reforms.

• It was a mass movement in which lawyers gave up their practice and British clothes were set to
fire.
• There was opposition against the British all over and jails were filled with political leaders.
• The widespread violence made Gandhi call of the campaign.

Communalism After WWI

• Post WWI the relation between Hindus and Muslims improved.

• After the end of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Hindu beliefs gained more exposure and
influence.
• In 1877, Arya Samaj founded by Dayanand Saraswati to pure Hinduism.
• In 1932, Pandit Mohan Malavia won elections of 1923 under the name of ‘Swaraj Party' formed a
political party, Hindu Mahasabha.
 53

Delhi Proposals 1927

• In 1927, a conference for all Muslims was called in Delhi by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• In this conference, the future of constitutional reforms and separate electorates was discussed.
• After discussion, a proposal was made that is famous as, ‘Delhi Proposals'.
• The proposal demanded the separation of Sindh from Bombay with full provisional status.
• In Punjab and Bengal, more reserved Muslim seats were demanded.
• One-third seats in the central legislature were demanded, for the Muslims.
• If these demands were accepted only then Muslims would have given up their right for separate
electorates.

Khilafat Movement

Background:
• The Lucknow Pact made Hindus and Muslims of India work together in matters of the
constitutional and political issues.
• However, the Hindu-Muslim unity came to its conclusion during the Khilafat Movement.
• At the start of WWI, the Ottoman Empire of Turkey held the seat of Khilafat.
• The Turks stand beside Austria and Germany to fight against Russia, Britain, and France.
• The British wanted Indian Muslims to join in the fight alongside them and promised them that they
will protect the Khalifa and the Ottoman Empire.
• As a result, thousands of Muslims joined the army.
• But the Turkish side lost the war and Muslims became concerned about the Khalifa and the
Ottoman Empire.

Reasons for the Rise of the Khilafat Movement:

• After the Turkish side lost, Britain captured the Ottoman Empire including Madinah and Makkah.
To protect these places the movement was launched.
• The Khalifa (Caliph) of Turkey was dethroned.
• The British wanted to end the Ottoman Empire and force Turkey to be treated like a normal
country.
• The British forgot their promise to treat Turkey better.
• The Muslims of India were grieve stricken because Turkey was the last great power left to them.
• They believed, if Britain destroyed Turkey then Muslims will become like Jews, people without a
country of their own.

The Khilafat Committee and its Objectives:

• In 1919, the Khilafat Committee was established to launch the Khilafat Movement.
• Maulana Shaukat Ali was decided as the General Secretary of the Khilafat Movement.
• The National Congress also gave their support to the movement.

Objectives:
• Following were the main objectives of the movement:

- To protect the holy places of Muslims.

- To defend the Khalifa.
- To protect the Ottoman Empire.

1st Khilafat Conference:

• The first Khilafat Conference was held on November 1919 at Delhi.
 54

• Gandhi also attended the Khilafat Conference.

• A resolution was passed that demanded Muslims of India to adopt the non-cooperation policy to
fulfill their religious duty.

2nd Khilafat Conference:

• The second Khilafat Conference was held in December 1919 at Amritsar.
• National Congress and the Muslim League also attended the second Conference.
• It was decided that all three of them must work together to oppose the plans of the British to end
the Ottoman Empire.

Khilafat Delegation:
• In 1919, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Johar, the Khilafat Delegation left for England to
discuss their concerns with Lloyd George, the Prime Minister.
• However, the Lloyd George refused any arguments regarding the Khalifa and Ottoman Empire and
the Movement failed without achieving its goal.

Failure of the Khilafat Movement:

• The demands and arguments made by the Khilafat Delegation were rejected.
• Under British policy of repression, around 30,000 supporters were arrested.
• The Ali brother, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Muhammad Ali were arrested.
• After the incident of Chauri Chaura, Gandhi also withdrew his support from the Khilafat
Movement.
• In 1924, under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal Turks announced the end of Khilafat, it came as a
blow to the Indian Muslims.

Hijrat Movement

Background:
• The Hijrat Movement was launched by the influence of the Khilafat Movement.
• In 1920, suggestions were made by Jamiyat-al-Ulema-i-Hind for Hijrat Movement.
• The Ulema explained that when the land became unsafe Muslims have two options, either to stand
up and do Jihad or to migrate to a safe place.
• This Fatwa was singed by around 925 renowned Muslims.
• In Delhi, after the Fatwa, a central office was established and Nazims were appointed to motivate
Muslims for migration.

Failures of the Hijrat Movement:

• After the launch of Hijrat Movement, hundreds of Muslim families in Sindh and NWFP sold their
properties and home to migrate to Afghanistan.
• However, Afghanistan being a poor country was unable to accept this large crowd of migrants.
• In August 1920 alone, around 1800 people migrated to Afghanistan.
• At the start, Afghans welcomed the Indian Muslims, but they had to close their frontiers because
of the shortage of food for refugees.
• The refugees in Afghan face miserable conditions and many hardships, some even came back to
their homeland.
• The Khilafat Movement also failed, and the Muslims were India have once again faced criticism
from Hindus.
 55

Gandhi & the Non-Cooperation Movement

Background:
• Gandhi was a man, who did not believe in violence.
• He launched the non-cooperation movement to protest the British.
• However, his movement lost its momentum and was leading towards violence.

Chauri-Chaura Incident:
• In February 1922, the riot became intense between the protestors of Non-Cooperation Movement
and police at Chauri-Chaura.
• The hostile protestors set the police station on fire that burnt 22 policemen alive.
• The Chauri-Chaura incident made Gandhi very upset and he immediately called off the movement.
• The sudden end of the non-cooperation movement also harmed the Khilafat Movement.

Simon Commission 1927-1930

Background:
• The Government of India Act of 1919 proposed for reforms after every ten years.
• In 1927, Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State India wanted an early reform.
• To prepare a report for new reforms, he sent a seven-member commission under the leadership of
Sir Simon John.
• The reason for an early reform was linked with his fear of giving too much power to the Labour
government if took a seat in the office.
• Lord Birkenhead faced opposition in the commission because he was suggesting entirely British
commission with no Indian representation.
• Moreover, Sir John Simon, also wanted the reforms to move forward with a slow speed.
• But Lord Birkenhead explained that if they give seats to the Indians, they will gain power and there
will be no decision will come to an agreement.
• Lord Birkenhead also appointed other members after careful consideration making sure the
Indians are not given too much favor and to stall their self-government demands further.

Recommendations by the Simon Commission:

• The National Congress boycotted the Simon Commission because of no representation by the
Indians.
• Many from Muslim League also boycotted it, however, a section led by Mian Muhammad Shafi
fully cooperated with the commission.
• In 1930, the commission completed its work and made the following recommendations:
- The report suggested the abolition of the Diarchy System.
- Separated electorates for Muslims were announced.
- Muslims demand for the separation of Sindh and reforms for NWFP was postponed but not
rejected.
- Muslims demand for one-third seats in Central Legislative was rejected.

• The recommendations made by the Simon Commission enraged Congress and they launched the
Civil Disobedience Movement against it.
• The Muslim League made sure to not get involved in the movement.
• Nehru and Gandhi were arrested.
 56

The Nehru Report 1928

Background:
• In response to the recommendations made by the Simon Commission, in 1928 a committee was
set up under the leadership of Motilal Nehru by All Parties Conference.
• The Congress boycott the Simon Commission and welcomed them with black flags.
• The Muslim League was divided into two sections.
• The President of Muslim League, Muhammad Shafi decided to cooperate with the commission.
• In contrary, another section of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah participated in the
boycott.

• The Muslim League and Congress worked together, the goal of this committee was to come up
with constitutional reforms that are suitable for both Muslims and Hindus so that they can represent
the proposal to the British Government.

The Proposal by Nehru Committee:

• The right to vote for every man and woman.
• An All-India Parliament should be established with two houses.
• No extra seats for Muslims.
• India should be given the status of a colony with self-government.
• Muslims can have one-fourth seats in the Central Legislature.
• There will be religious liberty with no need for separate electorates for Minorities.
• NWFP should be given full provisional status.
• Hindi should be made the official language of India.

Muslims League’s Response:

• In the proposal by the Nehru Committee, the Muslims were completely ignored.
• Therefore, Muhammad Ali Jinnah suggested four main changes to be made to make the proposal
acceptable for Muslims also:
- Reserved seats for Muslims based on population in Punjab and Bengal.
- One-third seats for Muslims in the Central Parliament.
- Sindh and NWFP to be given full provisional status.
- The provinces should have the residuary power.

• The Nehru Committee rejected these proposed changes by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• This reaction came as a transitional phase for Jinnah as he was an idealist who believed Hindu-
Muslim unity.
 57

Jinnah’s 14 Points 1929

Background:
• In 1929, in response to the Nehru Report, Muhammad Ali Jinnah proposed his famous ‘14 points’.

Fourteen Points:
• The residuary power will be given to the provinces and the future constitution will be federal.
• All provinces shall be granted autonomy of uniform measures.
• There shall be an adequate and effective representation of minorities in all legislature and elected
bodies of the country.
• The separate electorate will continue.
• Sindh will be separated from Bombay and shall be treated will all provisional rights.
• There shall be one-third seats for the Muslims in the Central Legislative.
• Full religious liberty shall be given to all the communities.
• The NWFP and Balochistan shall be given full provisional rights.
• The boundary changes shall not affect the Muslim minorities in Bengal, Punjab, and NWFP.
• Muslims shall have equal job opportunities in the governmental sector.
• No cabinet shall be formed whether provisional or central without one-third representation by the
Muslims.
• The Muslim rights including their culture, language, education, and religion must be protected by
the constitution and their charity must receive proper grants.
• The Central Legislative shall not make any changes to the constitution without the agreement of
the State constituting India.
• No law can be passed regarding any religious community unless on-third people of that group's
legislature vote in agreement.

Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address 1930

Background:
• Following Jinnah’s fourteen points, the Muslims of India became confident and fully aware of their
distinct identity as a nation.
• Besides Jinnah, many other Muslim leaders stand up and asked for a separate nation.
• In 1930, Allama Muhammad Iqbal in his presidential address at Allahabad gave the clearest
explanation about the Indian Muslims' feelings.

The Address:
• He discussed the political conditions in the subcontinent.
• In his address, Iqbal explained why Islam is a major formative factor and a complete code of life in
the lives of Indian Muslims.
• He justified why Muslims must be considered as a separate nation with arguments.
• He addressed that to maintain peace, the Muslim majority states must be given the same
privileges as the Hindu majority areas to practice their cultural and religious values with full
freedom.
• He proposed that Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan, and Punjab must be group together and given a
separate national status within or outside the British Empire.

Importance:
• The demand for a separate nation was the t time made from the platform of the Muslim League.
• Iqbal was the first Muslim leader to make a demand for a separate nation for Muslims.
 58

• His address inspired and motivated Muslims who feared their rights to practice their religion and
culture.
• In 1934, Chaudhry Rahmat Ali proposed the stan scheme making Iqbal’s views as the basis.
• In 1940, it also became the basis for Pakistan resolution.

The Round Table Conferences 1930 – 1932

Background:
• In 1930, the Simon Commission report was received with resentment by both Hindus and Muslims.
• Under the leadership of Gandhi, Congress started a Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Muslim League split into two, the section led by Quaid-e-Azam also boycotted the commission.
• The British organized three Round Table Conferences in 1930, 1931 and 1932 to discuss
constitutional reforms in India.
• The main aim of these Conferences was to discuss the Simon Commission report and to resolve the
constitutional issues of India.
• However, these conferences failed to achieve much success in resolving constitutional problems.

First Round Table Conference:

• It was held on November 12, 1930, at London.
• Congress did not attend this conference as its leaders were in jail on account of the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
• Around 89 members attended the conference.
• The prominent Muslim delegates in the conference were Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Maulana
Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Sir Agha Khan, Sir Muhammad Shafi, and Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq.
• In this conference, the representative government for provinces and the Federal System of
government for India was successfully accepted contrary to Congress' demands of ‘Unitary Form' of
government.
• In comparison, this conference was more successful than the other two.

Second Round Table Conference:

• On September 7, 1931, the Second Round Table Conference was held in London.
• Congress attended this congress on Lord Irwin’s invitation to Gandhi.
• Gandhi declared that only the National Congress has the right to speak on behalf of the Indian
people.
• Gandhi also emphasized that there are no minority problems in India.
• However, Muslims and other minorities’ leaders disagreed with him.
• The second conference did not achieve much success because of Congress’ attitude and minorities
problems remained unresolved.
• The only success that it achieved was that Sindh, Orissa, and NWFP will have full provincial status.

Third Round Table Conference:

• The Third Round Table Conference was short and did not achieve anything of significance.
• It was held in November in London.
• The Labour Association, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Congress were absent from it.
 59

The Communal Award 1932

• The British Government gave the Indian leadership time to come up with a solution to resolve
communal issues, but they failed.
• In 1932, Ramsay MacDonald, the Prime Minister of Britain introduced his scheme to resolve the
issues termed as the ‘Communal Award’.
• Ramsay’s Communal Award retained separate electorates for Muslims.
• However, the seats in the Muslim majority areas such as Punjab and Bengal were reduced.
• Both the Muslim League and Congress were unhappy with the scheme but Muslim League despite
its shortcomings accepted it.

The Government of India Act 1935

Background:
• After the Round Table Conferences failed to achieve a successful outcome, a joint committee was
established to propose a new set of reforms.
• Under the leadership of Lord Linlithgow, the committee spent one and a half year to complete the
bill.
• The bill was then discussed in the House of Commons and the House of Lords for 43 and 13 days
respectively.
• In July 1935, after approval, it was enforced as the Government of India Act 1935.

Main Features:
• A federal system for the government was promised for India.
• Full-spectrum powers remained for the Governor-General concerning finance, legal and
legislature.
• In the Central Legislature without Governor General’s agreement and consent, any finance bill
cannot be placed.
• The Federal Legislature will comprise of two houses i.e. Federal Assembly and Council of State.
• The Council of State will have 260 members, 104 to be nominated by the princely states and 156 to
be elected.
• The Federal Assembly will have 375 members, 250 to be elected and 125 to be nominated by the
princely states.
• Advisors were placed to help the Secretary of State instead of the Indian Council.
• The Secretary of State cannot interfere in the Governor General’s matters and work.
• The Diarchy system in the provinces was dropped.
• Full provincial status, authority, and power were given to provinces.
• Orissa and Sindh were declared as provinces.
• Separate electorates for minorities remained.
• In the Central Legislature, one-third seats were reserved.
• The Reserve Bank of India was established.
• The Federal Court was established in the Center.
 60

1937 Elections

Background:
• In 1936 – 1937, the British Government announced to hold the provincial assemblies’ elections.
• Both the Muslim League and Congress despite their rejection to the Government of India Act 1935
decided to compete in the elections.
• Congress achieved a clear victory in five provinces and the results came as a shocking blow for the
Muslim League.
Reasons for Muslim League’s Defeat:
• It was the first major election of Muslim league as a mass party and it has lack of funds.
• On the contrary, Congress was old and known political party with enough funds.
• Muslims League failed to have any connection between the masses and the high-class society.
• The leaders of Muslim league became over-confident after the provincial status given in the
Government of India Act 1935 and did not consider Congress a threat in Muslim majority provinces.

Congress Rule 1937 -1939

Background:
• After winning the elections, Congress leaders adopted a dictatorship attitude to impose their will
on Muslims.
• All Congress ministries were formed because the Muslim League rejected their unfair demands.
• They took offices in eight provinces including NWFP and Bengal.

Steps Taken by Congress:

• Congress started imposing its will on minorities as soon as it took the offices.
• The Muslims were forbidden to slaughter ‘mother cow’ and were not allowed to eat beef.
• Hindi was announced as the official language of India.
• Azaan was banned, and during prayer intended noisy processions were passed.
• Mosques were also attacked during the prayer time.
• Congress adopted Bande Matram as the national anthem and insisted on the commencement of
the day with this song i.e. uses inappropriate remarks regarding Islam and Muslims.
• Widdia Mandir Policy was introduced in the educational institutes that were intended to convert
students to Hinduism.
• During the Congress rule, the Muslims faced many hardships, their homes were set on fire and
women and children were abducted.
• Even a Muslim mass contact campaign was initiated that was focused on removing the Muslim
League and winning the Muslim masses over to Congress.

Quit India Movement

Background:
• In 1939, World War II broke out.
• Lord Linlithgow, the viceroy announced India at war with Germany.
• The National Congress was disappointed at the sudden decision and refused to cooperate.
• On 8 Aug 1942, Congress announced the ‘Quit India’ Movement.
• The National Congress demanded an independent state of India immediately.
 61

The Aftermath:
• On 9 Aug 1942, Congress was declared an unlawful body and all of its leaders were arrested.
• Following the arrest, violence broke out all over India.
• Many Indian leaders including Sapru, Jayaker and Bhai Permanand, the vice president of
Mahasabha condemned Gandhi's action and the ‘Quit India’ movement.
• On 10 Aug, the President of Mahasabha adviced his followers to stop participating and supporting
the ‘Quit India’ Movement.
• Majlis-e-Ahrar declared ‘Quit India’ movement unnecessary at the present critical state.
• The Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah also condemned the movement.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared the movement as a ‘blackmail' to threaten the British government
to win their demands as well as to pressurize them to ignore the rights of Muslims completely.
 62

The Cripps Mission 1942

Background:
• The war already broke out and the British Government needed full support from India.
• However, the two major parties, the Congress and the Muslim League and their conflicting
demands made it difficult.
• In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps was sent by Britain to handle the situation by proposing new
constitutional reforms.

Key Points:
• Cripps’ constitutional declaration proposed the following:

- After the conclusion of the war, general elections in the provinces will be initiated.
- Status of Dominion will be given to India after the war.
- Provinces can opt-out from the proposed Indian Federation.

• The proposal was rejected by both parties and it achieved nothing.

The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944

Background:
• On 17 July 1944, Gandhi wrote a letter to Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• In this letter, he expressed his desire to meet Jinnah.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah after discussing with his party agreed to meet with Gandhi.
• On 19 September 1944, the famous Gandhi-Jinnah Talks started in Bombay.

Key Points:
• Gandhi told Jinnah, that he had not come to represent Hindus or the Congress.
• The talks began on 19 and ended on 24th of the same month.
• The real purpose of Gandhi was to convince Jinnah that the whole idea of a separate state is
absurd.
• However, Jinnah stayed firm on his belief that the Muslims are a separate nation by any definition,
and they deserve a separate state.
• On this, Gandhi proposed that first all power must be handed over to the Congress when India is
free then based on the will of the people of the Muslim majority areas they will be declared as a
separate state.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah did not accept his proposal and talks ended without achieving any goal.
 63

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Biography:
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Karachi.
• His father's name was Jinnah Poonja.
• He acquired his early education from Sindh Madrasa.
• In 1892, he moved to London for further studies.
• On his return to India, he started his practice at Bombay High Court and developed an interest in
politics.
• In 1906, Jinnah started his political career with the National Congress.
• He was elected in the Imperial Legislative Council in 1910.
• In 1913 he bid farewell to Congress and joined the All India Muslim League.
• In his starting years as a political leader, he strongly believed in Muslim-Hindu unity.

Jinnah as an Advocate of Hindu-Muslim Unity:

• Jinnah always wanted Muslims and Hindus to join hands in the movement towards freedom.
• He was an active member of both the National Congress and the Muslim League.
• He was the man that brought both the partied together for the Lucknow Pact.
• He received the title of “Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity” after the historic agreement signed
in 1916 by both the parties.
• It was only after the Nehru Report’s violation of the Lucknow Pact that gave Jinnah the ultimate
realization of the distinction of Muslims as a separate nation.

Role of Jinnah in the Muslim League:

• Jinnah joined League in 1913.
• Till 1920, Jinnah represented League and Congress both.
• In 1927, the Muslim League under the leadership of Jinnah boycotted the Simon Commission
because it had no Indian member.
• In 1928, Jinnah took a stand against Nehru Report and asked him to make the amendments to
make it acceptable by Muslims.
• After Congress rejected Jinnah's suggestion of amendments in the Nehru Report, Jinnah proposed
his famous 14 points to protect the Indian Muslims' rights.
• In 1931 - 1932, Jinnah attended the first two Round Table Conferences and spoke for the rights of
Muslims.
• In 1934, he became disappointed by Indian politics and stayed in England.
• On Liaquat Ali Khan and Allama Iqbal's requests, he returned to India and was elected as the
president of the Muslim League.
• Muslim League experienced a terrible defeat in the general elections of 1936-1937, Jinnah
responded to the defeat with optimism and launched a mass contact to let the common people of
India what Muslim League stands for.
• In 1939, Jinnah asked the Muslims to celebrate "The Day of Deliverance" because the tyrant rule of
Congress came to its end.
• In 1940, the Pakistan Resolution was passed under the leadership of Jinnah.
• Jinnah plays a significant role in Cripps's mission, Simla Conference and the Cabinet Mission to
speak for the rights of Muslims by making all schemes by British and Hindus to undermine the
Muslims of India.
• In 1945 - 1946 general election, Muslim League experienced a tremendous victory in Muslim
majority states.

Relation of Jinnah with Gandhi, Nehru & Congress:

• Gandhi used to call Jinnah, a man committed to his cause and a respectful friend.
 64

• In 1915, hen Gandhi arrived in India, Jinnah went to Bombay to greet his friend.
• Gandhi played a great role in Jinnah’s political path.
• The equation of Nehru and Jinnah was not a positive one and the Nehru Report turned out to be
the final nail in it.
• In 1944, M. Asif wrote in his jail diary, the name of Jinnah was enough to turn Nehru’s expressions
tense.
• Nehru himself wrote a letter to Gandhi after Jinnah’s 14 points that he would rather retire to a
South Sea Island than listen to the 14 points.
• In the starting two decades of the twentieth century, Jinnah became a prominent leader in the
National Congress.
• In 1920, Jinnah resigned from Congress when the party started following a campaign ‘Satyagraha’.

LORD WAVELL & THE SIMLA CONFERENCE 1945:

 In March 1944, Lord Wavell flew London to consult future policy of British Government in
India.
 Wavell proposed that an Executive Council should be set up to govern India under the
present constitution, until a new constitution could be agreed on.
 Wavell proposed that it would contain equal number of Muslims & Hindus & be entirely
India. Apart from the viceroy & a member controlling defense.
 Wavell called a conference to discuss the proposals in Simla in June 1945.
 The conference had the leaders of Congress, the Muslim League, the Scheduled castes, Sikhs
& other important groups.
 Jinnah, liaqat Ali khan & khwaja Nazimuddin led the league delegation .Gandhi led the
congress group but president was Abul Kalam , to prove that congress was also representing
Muslims. CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF SIMLA CONFERENCE:
 Jinnah pointed that as Sikhs & scheduled castes on the council are bound to vote with Hindu,
which would mean a permanent Muslim minority in council.
 Jinnah also objected to the congress suggestion that it could also nominate Muslims &
pointed that League had won every by – election for the last two years & was the
undisputed voice of the Muslims.
 Lord Wavell could see no solution so closed the conference on 14 July.
 65

Chauri Chaura Incident and Aftereffects

The Chauri Chaura Incident brought an abrupt end to the Non-Cooperation Movement. Read here to
know about the reasons for violence, the effect on Gandhi, and the suspension of the movement.

On February 04, 1922, a group of non-cooperation movement participants clashed with local
authorities, attacked police officers, and burnt police stations, which unfortunately led to the death
of 22 police officers and three civilians. This incident occurred at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur
region of Uttar Pradesh, then known as the United Provinces.

About the Chauri Chaura Incident

Mahatma Gandhi introduced the Non-Cooperation Movement in September 1920 as a peaceful and
non-violent struggle. It was launched to motivate Indians to relinquish their government jobs and
titles and refuse to indulge in any activity that sustained the British government. Students were
asked not to attend government schools or colleges. People began rejecting all goods made in Britain
and took to wearing Khadi. They even refused to pay taxes. The aim was to establish self-
government or swaraj. The Non-Cooperation Movement saw massive participation in the entire
country, and the British were unprepared to combat this movement.

However, the Chauri Chaura incident of 1922 precipitated a chain of events that abruptly ended the
Non-Cooperation Movement. On February 02, 1922, the locals were found to protest against the rise
in meat prices. Many were beaten, and a few leaders were sent behind bars at the Chauri Chaura
police station. This incident led to a different protest against the police. On February 04, around
2,500 people walked towards the Chauri Chaura market, intending to shut down a liquor shop.
Police fired several rounds in the air to disperse the agitated crowd. However, the crowd lost control
and started throwing stones at the police.

When things got out of control, a sub-inspector ordered shots to be fired into the crowd, killing
three people. This angered the crowd further and forced the police to retreat and take shelter in the
police station. The protesting mob then set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen who had
taken refuge inside. Following this gruesome incident, the British imposed martial law around the
town and arrested hundreds of citizens. The Chauri Chaura incident shocked Gandhi and prompted
him to undergo a five-day fast. A week after the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi decided to call off
the Non-Cooperation Movement on February 12. Many of his closest associates, including
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru, disagreed with Gandhi’s decision. Gandhi believed that people
were yet not ready for a non-violent movement and that adequate training needed to be given to
the masses.

The 1922 Chauri Chaura incident and Gandhi’s decision gave a deep insight into his ideologies and
commitment to non-violence.
 66

Why Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement

Gandhi had repeatedly warned that he did not want any violent protest in any part of the country.
First, non-violence was a matter of principle for him. Second, if violence occurred anywhere, the
government could easily use it as an excuse to launch a massive attack on the movement as a whole.
The authorities would also justify the repression.Gandhi took responsibility for withdrawing the Non-
Cooperation Movement, and the Indian National Congress called an end to it. Gandhi protected the
movement from likely repression by the government and the people from demoralisation.

By the second half of 1921, the movement had shown clear signs of being on the ebb.The movement
had already gone on for over a year, but the government was in no mood for negotiations. Chauri
Chaura presented an opportunity to retreat with honour before the internal weaknesses of the
movement became apparent enough to force surrender or make the retreat look like a rout.

Impact on the freedom struggle

Gandhi was arrested immediately after the withdrawal of the movement. Britishers used a hard-
handed approach to deal with the participants and leaders. The Congress was on the verge of
splitting, with a faction demanding re-entry to the legislative councils. However, Gandhi’s efforts
paid off by retaining both Pro-Changers and No-Changers within the Congress.

Chauri Chaura Incident – Quick facts

What led to the Chauri Chaura Gandhi’s non-cooperation and non-violent doctrine led to the Chauri
incident? Chaura incident.

Where is Chauri Chaura? Chauri Chaura lies in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.

How many people were 33 people were arrested, and 19 were hanged to death.
arrested after the Chauri-
Chaura incident? How many
were hanged?

Write one major fallout of the Gandhi withdrew the non-cooperation movement in February 1922,
Chauri Chaura Incident. and many national leaders were arrested.
 67

Khilafat Movement General Secretary. Congress also supported this movement under Abdul Kalam
Azad. This movement was launched to pressurize the British into keeping their promises. 1st Khilafat
Conference On Nov, 1919 It held in Delhi. Gandhi was also present at the Conference. A resolution
was also passed asking the Muslims as religious duty to adopt the policy of non - cooperation with
the British. 2nd Khilafat Conference In December 1919 it held in Amritsar. At the same time both
Congress and Muslim League were also meeting the city. It was agreed that all three organizations
should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkish Empire. A delegation was also sent
to ask fair treatment with Turkey , but they said Germany had justice! Turkey will also have justice
and a treaty of severs was introduced which contained splitting up of ottoman empire, but later was
replaced with treaty of Lausanne. Non - Cooperation Policy In August 1920 a full scale Non -
Cooperation Movement was launched in with the collaboration with Gandhi. Indians were asked to
give up Government. Services, renounce title and boycott courts of law and British goods, walk out
of schools and colleges. Gandhi assured the people that if this movement would be in a united,
disciplined and non - violent fashion, they would attain Self - Rule within a year. It was completely a
mass movement. Hijrat Movement In 1920 Abdul Kalam Azad gave a call for Hijrat Movement and
urged the Muslims to migrate to a place where they can freely practice their religion, they called
India as ‘ Dar - ul - Harb’. Nearly 18000 Muslims after selling their land and properties, migrated to
Afghanistan. Many of them had to return due to no entry at border and were disappointed them.
This caused a large impact on Khilafat Movement. Chaura - Chauri Incident Muhammad Ali Wasim
The non - cooperation movement was leading to violence In February 1922 at Chaura - Chauri in a
village near UP a trouble began between the police and the civilians. They put fire to the police
station where 22 policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi was so upset that he immediately called of non
- cooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat Movement. Gandhi was
not with heart at Muslims from start he just wanted to bring up his non-co-operation movement
Treatment of Turkey 1920, The Treaty of Sevres: British announced. The treaty indicated that
Ottoman Empire was to be split up. Arabia will be independent and Turkey’s land was to be given to
Greece. The Turkish rebelled against this treaty of Sevres, so The Treaty of Lausanne replaced it in
1923. Some if the land was gained, but Turkey never regained the control of Muslim territories in
Middle East. End of Khilafat Movement  Gandhi called of his support which weakened Hindu -
Muslims Unity  1922, Sultan was deprived of powers  1924, Kamal Atta Turk became the new
Khalifa, he exiled Muhammad IV (last Sultan). He also abolished the Khilafat. It no longer matters
what Indian Muslims or British wanted. Failure of Khilafat Movement  Chaura - Chauri incident in
Feb 1922, Gandhi called of his support and withdrawal Khilafat Movement.  Muslims leaders of the
movement were arrested in 1922 with the arrest of leaders the movement lost its momentum.  It
was first movement in which Hindus and Muslims worked together, their unity was probably always
resulted in failure.  Hijrat Movement at critical stage was another blow for Muslims.  Mustafa
Kamal Ata Turk Pasha who exiled Khalifa, Muhammad Vl and abolished Khilafat and established
nationalist government of Turkey Consequences This was the movement for which Hindu - Muslims
both worked together, it healed their relations Muhammad Ali Wasim Muslims realized they have
political power. It also brought some disadvantages. Non - Cooperation Policy: Damaged British
Hijrat Movement: Was Economic Misery to Muslims It failed in the end!
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Allahabad Address (1930) The annual session of the Muslim league was held at ALLAHABAD in 1930,
which was presided over by Allama Iqbal. In the address Iqbal discussed the political situation of the
Subcontinent. He was fully convinced that the Muslims of India would ultimately have to establish a
separate homeland, as they could not live with the Hindus in the united India. He viewed that
Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and NWFP should be group together to make a separate state Iqbal's
address further clarified the 'Two Nation Theory' and demanded a separate homeland for the
Muslims. It was the first occasion when a demand for a separate homeland was made from the
Muslim League platform. Importance of Allahabad Conference  Allama Iqbal was the 1st Mu slim
leader to suggest partition of the subcontinent in keeping with the two - nation theory. He has,
therefore been called ‘The father of the ideology of Pakistan’  His views acted as an inspiration to
many Muslims who were uncertain about how to defend their religion and culture. Iqbal gave them
a clear cut objective, as he set out a goal for Muslims to work towards a separate homeland. 
Allama Iqbal was also the inspiration for other Muslims leaders. In 1934 Chaudhry Rehmat Ali’s
Pakistan scheme was built up on his ideas. They were also to be the basis of Jinnah’s Pakistan
Resolution in 1940.  Iqbal Poetry was source of inspiration for Muslims of India
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ELECTIONS (1937) Government wanted to hold elections in (1936-1937) Muslim league and INC
wanted to contest to deliver their message to Indians. The results of the election were shocking for
the Muslims league, which could not get mentionable support from the voters. Congress achieved a
big victory and managed to get clear majority in five provinces and formed coalition in few other
provinces (Bombay, Bengal and N.W.F.P) to form its ministries on the eight provinces. Reasons for
the defeat of Muslim League i. It was the 1st major election of the Muslim League as a mass party. ii.
Congress was the oldest, richest and best organization political party where as Muslim iii. L eague
was middle class organization with insufficient funds. iv. There was no link between the masses and
the leaders of Muslims League who belonged to the high class society so it was quite ‘image
problem’. v. As the provincial autonomy was guaranteed according to the act of 1935, so this thing
made Muslims League leaders overconfident and no fear or threat of Hindu domination in the vi.
Muslims majority provinces. Formation of ministries Congress took offices in 8 provinces. The
congress was also reluctant in sharing the power with the Muslims League and laid down degrading
conditions for the Muslim League to be included in the ministry. The Muslim League rejected these
terms and pure Congress ministries were formed. Rule of Congress (1937 – 1939) i. The congress
began it rule by imposing its will on the Muslim minorities in the provinces under its rule. ii. The
Muslims were forbidden to eat beef. iii. Severe punishments were awarded to those who
slaughtered the ‘mother cow’. iv. Hindi was imposed as the official language in all the provinces. v.
Azan was banned and organized attacks were made on the Muslims who were busy Muhammad Ali
Wasim in worship in the mosques. vi. Noisy processions were passed near the mosques at prayer
times. vii. Pigs were pushed into the mosques and Azan was interrupted. Bande Matram It was a
song in which degrading remarks were used against the Muslims and it says to expel Muslims from
subcontinent. It was compulsory for everyone to daily recite before commencing of day. Vidiya
Mander scheme This educational policy aimed at converting the nonMuslims to Hindus. It was made
compulsory to bow in front of Gandhi picture. This scheme was introduced by Dr. Zakir Hussain
Wardha Scheme an education scheme was launched by Gandhi, It was introduced in all Congress
education ministries.  Spinning Cotton by hand was made a part of the school curriculum 
Teaching was to be in Hindi.  No religious education.
 70

Partition of India 3RD JUNE PLAN (PARTITION PLAN 1947)

Lord Mountbatten was appointed a s the last viceroy of India and he was told by the prime minister,
lord Clement Attlee to hand over the power to the Indian by 1st June 1948. Attlee had deliberately
set a short time span for arrangement to be made. He feared that if more time were given, there
would only be more disagreement. When Mountbatten reached India, he faced problems like
Muslim League wanting partition and congress opposing it and he had very short time. In March
1947 there were riots and killing between Muslims and Hindus in Punjab. Soon the trouble spread to
other provinces. After negotiations, he had worked out a partition plan. The Congress met on 1 st
may 1947 and gave its acceptance of the partition plan and Muslim League also gave its approval.
Mountbatten got approval from the British Government and the plan was issued on 3rd June 1947.
The main characteristics of the plan were:  India would be divided into 2 different states on the
midnight of 14 and 15 August 1947  Government of India act 1935 would be modified to adopt as
the temporary Muhammad Ali Wasim Constitution for both India and Pakistan.  Boundary
Commission would be set up to demarcate the boundary between India and Pakistan.  Military and
Financial assets would be divided between India and Pakistan.  Legislature of Sindh would be given
chance to vote Pakistan.  Referendum would be adopted to decide NWFP future.  Muslims
members in the legislative assembly of Bengal and Punjab were given chance to vote for Pakistan.
Which means they can join Pakistan.  Appropriate measures would be adapted to decide the
future of Baluchistan.  · Rulers of Princely states would be given option to join Pakistan or India or
remain independent. RADCLIFFE AWARD (1947) The issue which was not solved on 14th August was
the boundary between Muslims and non - Muslims areas. Lord Mount batten had appointed Sir Cyril
Radcliffe to head a boundary Commission to establish new borders, particularly in Bengal and
Punjab. Radcliffe had four assistance, two nominated by the Muslim league and two by Congress.
The decision of the boundary Commission (known as Boundary reward on Radcliffe award) was
announced on 16th August 1947. The Muslim League was disappointed to hear that Calcutta was
given to India, even though the Muslim areas surrounded it. In Punjab both Ferozpur and Gurdaspur
were given to India. Again the Muslims were disappointed by this decision. Ferozpur had a Muslim
majority and Pakistani had evidence to suggest the Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but
had been forced b Mount batten to change his mind. Gurdaspur also had a Muslim majority. By
awarding it to India the Indian now had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between India
and Pakistan became inevitable. Jinnah told people of Pakistan that the awards were Wrong and
unjust and perverse. However, the partition had been take place two days earlier. INDEPENDENCE
ACT OF 1947 The British Government passed the Indian independence acts on 15 July 1947. The act
ordered that from 15 August two independent dominions be established by the names of India and
Pakistan. These dominions have complete freedom to pass any act or b ill and the Government of
India act 1935 was to be the provincial constitution until replaced. The princely states were given the
option to join one or either of the country.