Volume 3

Issue 1

Jul-10

Half yearly

CONTENTS
S.No 1 2 3 Title Direct Torque Control Method of Induction Motor Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter Modern Power Semi-Conductor Devices Page No. 2 10 15

Direct Torque Control Method of Induction Motor

S. Swathi, M.Tech Power electronics, Mr. B. S. Krishna Varma department of EEE, GRIET. eee.swathi48@gmail.com
Abstract Among all control methods for induction motor drives, Direct Torque Control (DTC) seems to be particularly interesting being independent of machine rotor parameters and requiring no speed or position sensors. The DTC scheme is characterized by the absence of PI regulators, coordinate transformations, current regulators and PWM signals generators. Inspite of its simplicity, DTC allows a good torque control in steady state and transient operating conditions to be obtained. However, the presence of hysteresis controllers for flux and torque could determine torque and current ripple and variable switching frequency operation for the voltage source inverter. This paper is aimed to analyze DTC principles, control strategies . 1. INTRODUCTION The history of electrical motors goes back as far as 1820, when Hans Christian Oersted discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. One year later, Michael Faraday discovered the electromagnetic rotation and built the first primitive D.C. motor. Faraday went on to discover electromagnetic induction in 1831, but it was not until 1883 that Tesla invented the A.C asynchronous motor. Currently, the main types of electric motors are still the same, DC,AC asynchronous and synchronous, all based on Oersted, Faraday and Tesla's theories developed and discovered more than a hundred years ago. Since its invention, the AC asynchronous motor, also named induction motor, has become the most widespread electrical motor in use today. At present, 67% of all the electrical energy generated in the UK is converted to mechanical energy for utilization. In Europe the electrical drives business is worth approximately $1.0 Billion/ Annum. These facts are due to the induction motors advantages over the rest of motors. The main advantage is that induction motors do not require an electrical connection between stationary and rotating parts of the motor. Therefore, they do not need any mechanical commutator (brushes), leading to the fact that they are maintenance free motors. Induction motors also have low weight and inertia, high efficiency and a high overload capability. Therefore, they are cheaper and more robust, and less prove to any failure at high speeds. Furthermore, the motor can work in explosive environments because no sparks are produced. Taking into account all the advantages outlined above, induction motors must be considered the perfect electrical to mechanical energy converter. However, mechanical energy is more than often required at variable speeds, where the speed control system is not a trivial matter. The only effective way of producing an infinitely variable induction motor speed drive is to supply the induction motor with three phase voltages of variable frequency and variable amplitude. A variable frequency is required because the rotor speed depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field provided by the stator. A variable voltage is required because the motor impedance reduces at low frequencies and consequently the current has to be limited by means of reducing the supply voltages. Before the days of power electronics, a limited speed control of induction motor was achieved by switching the three-stator windings from delta connection to star connection, allowing the voltage at the motor windings to be reduced. Induction motors are also available with more than three stator windings to allow a change of the number of pole pairs. However, a motor with several windings is more expensive because more than three connections to the motor are needed and only certain discrete speeds are available. Another alternative method of speed control can be realised by means of a wound rotor induction motor, where the rotor winding ends are brought out to slip rings. However, this method obviously removes most of the advantages of induction motors and it also introduces additional losses. By connecting resistors or reactances in series with the stator windings of the induction motors, poor performance is achieved. At that time the above described methods were the only ones available to control the speed of induction motors, whereas infinitely variable speed drives with good performances for DC motors already existed. These drives not only permitted the operation in four quadrants but also covered a wide power range. Moreover, they had a good

efficiency, and with a suitable control even a good dynamic response. With the enormous advances made in semiconductor technology during the last 20 years, the required conditions for developing a proper induction motor drive are present. These conditions can be divided mainly in two groups: The decreasing cost and improved performance in power electronic switching devices. The possibility of implementing complex algorithms in the new microprocessors. However, one precondition had to be made, which was the development of suitable methods to control the speed of induction motors, because in contrast to its mechanical simplicity their complexity regarding their mathematical structure (multivariable and non-linear) is not a trivial matter. It is in this field, that considerable research effort is devoted. The aim being to find even simpler methods of speed control for induction machines. One method, which is popular at the moment, is Direct Torque Control. Historically, several general controllers has been developed: 2. SOME COMMON CONTROL SCHEMES FOR INDUCTION MOTOR (IM): IM control techniques can be divided into scalar and vector control. Scalar control is based on relationships valid in steady-state. Amplitude and frequency of the controlled variables are considered.

as a scalar control and acts by imposing a constant relation between voltage and frequency. The structure is very simple and it is normally used without speed feedback. However, this controller doesnt achieve a good accuracy in both speed and torque responses, mainly due to the fact that the stator flux and the torque are not directly controlled. Even though, as long as the parameters are identified, the accuracy in the speed can be 2% (except in a very low speed), and the dynamic response can be approximately around 50ms . 2.2. Vector Controllers: In these types of controllers, there are control loops for controlling both the torque and the flux . The most widespread controllers of this type are the ones that use vector transform such as either Park or Ku. Its accuracy can reach values such as 0.5% regarding the speed and 2% regarding the torque, even when at stand still. The main disadvantages are the huge computational capability required and the compulsory good identification of the motor parameter 2.3. Field Acceleration method: This method is based on maintaining the amplitude and the phase of the stator current constant, whilst avoiding electromagnetic transients. Therefore, the equations used can be simplified simplified saving the vector transformation, which occurs in vector controllers. This technique has achieved some computational reduction, thus overcoming the main problem with vector controllers and allowing this method to become an important alternative to vector controllers . 2.4. Direct Torque Control (DTC): A new technique for the torque control of induction motors was developed and presented by I. Takahashi as Direct Torque Control (DTC). The principle of Direct Torque Control (DTC) is to directly select voltage vectors according to the difference between reference and actual value of torque and flux linkage. Torque and flux errors are compared in hysteresis comparators. Depending on the comparators a voltage vector is selected from a table.

Figure 2.1. Control schemes of IM

In vector control amplitude and position of a controlled space vector is considered. These relationships are valid even during transients which is essential for precise torque and speed control. 2.1. Scalar controllers: Despite the fact that "Voltage-Frequency" (V/f) is the simplest controller, it is the most widespread, being in the majority of the industrial applications. It is known

Advantages of the DTC are low complexity and that it only need to use of one motor parameter, the stator resistance. No pulse width modulation is needed; instead one of the six VSI voltage vectors is applied during the whole sample period. All calculations are done in a stationary reference frame which does not involve the explicit knowledge of rotor position. The DTC hence require low computational power when implemented digitally. The system possess good dynamic performance but shows quite poor

performance in steady-state since the crude voltage selection criteria give rise to high ripple levels in stator current, flux linkage and torque. 2.5. Direct Self Control: Direct Self Control (DSC) is very similar to the DTC scheme presented above. It can be shown that the DSC can be considered a special case of the DTC .Some of the characteristics of DSC are: 1. Inverter switching frequency is lower than in the DTC scheme. 2. 2.Excellent torque dynamics both in constant flux and in field weakening regions Low switching frequency and fast torque control over the whole operating range makes DSC preferable over DTC in high power traction systems. 3. INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL: A dynamic model of the machine subjected to control must be known in order to understand and design vector controlled drives. Due to the fact that every good control has to face any possible change of the plant, it could be said that the dynamic model of the machine could be just a good approximation of the real plant. Nevertheless, the model should incorporate all the important dynamic effects occurring during both steady-state and transient operations. Furthermore, it should be valid for any changes in the inverters supply such as voltages or currents .Such a model can be obtained by means of either the space vector phasor theory or two-axis theory of electrical machines. Despite the compactness and the simplicity of the space phasor theory, both methods are actually close and both methods will be explained.

In the stationary reference frame, the equations can be expressed as follows:

Similar expressions can be obtained for the rotor:

The required transformation in voltages, currents, or flux linkages is derived in a generalized way. The reference frames are chosen to be arbitrary and particular cases, such as stationary, rotor and synchronous reference frames are simple instances of the general case. R.H. Park, in the 1920s, proposed a new theory of electrical machine analysis to represent the machine in d q model. He transformed the stator variables to a synchronously rotating reference frame fixed in the rotor, which is called Parks transformation. He showed that all the time varying inductances that occur due to an electric circuit in relative motion and electric circuits with varying magnetic reluctances could be eliminated. We know that per phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor is only valid in steady state condition. Nevertheless, it does not hold good while dealing with the transient response of the motor. In transient response condition the voltages and currents in three phases are not in balance condition. It is too much difficult to study the machine performance of the machine by analyzing with three phases. In order to reduce this complexity the transformation of axes fro 3 to 2 is necessary. Another reason for transformation is to analyze any machine of n number of phases, an equivalent model is adopted universally, that is d q model.

Figure 3.1. Cross section of symmetrical 3-phase machine

By using parks transformation we can write the

torque expression

Voltage equations: The stator voltages will be formulated in this section from the motor natural frame, which is the stationary reference frame fixed to the stator. In a similar way, the rotor voltages will be formulated to the rotating frame fixed to the rotor.

Te

dr represents d-axis component w.r.t rotor qr- represents q-axis component w.r.t rotor

3 p Lm ( 22 LL r s

dr

qs

qr

ds

ds- represents d-axis component w.r.t stator qs- represents q-axis component w.r.t stator The torque controlled by controlling d-axis ,q-axis flux linkages. Flux expression is given by
s

(Vs is rs) dt

where Vs is one of the voltage vectors produced by the inverter If resistive drop is neglected
s

Vs dt =

s0

+ Vs t

4. DTC USING SPACE VECTOR MODULATION: Direct torque control (DTC) is one method used in variable frequency drives to control the torque (and thus finally the speed) of three-phase AC electric motors. This involves calculating an estimate of the motor's magnetic flux and torque based on the measured voltage and current of the motor. Stator flux linkage is estimated by integrating the stator voltages. Torque is estimated as a cross product of estimated stator flux linkage vector and measured motor current vector. The estimated flux magnitude and torque are then compared with their reference values. If either the estimated flux or torque deviates from the reference more than allowed tolerance, the transistors of the variable frequency drive are turned off and on in such a way that the flux and torque will return in their tolerance bands as fast as possible. Thus direct torque control is one form of the hysteresis or bang-bang control.

Figure 4.1. DTC-SVM of Induction Motor

This control method implies properties of the control:

the following

Torque and flux can be changed very fast by changing the references High efficiency & low losses - switching losses are minimized because the transistors are switched only when it is needed to keep torque and flux within their hysteresis bands The step response has no overshoot

No coordinate transforms are needed, all calculations are done in stationary coordinate system No separate modulator is needed, the hysteresis control defines the switch control signals directly There are no PI current controllers. Thus no tuning of the control is required The switching frequency of the transistors is not constant. However, by controlling the width of the tolerance bands the average switching frequency can be kept roughly at its reference value. This also keeps the current and torque ripple small. Thus the torque and current ripple are of the same magnitude than with vector controlled drives with the same switching frequency. Due to the hysteresis control the switching process is random by nature. Thus there are no peaks in the current spectrum. This further means that the audible noise of the machine is low The intermediate DC circuit's voltage variation is automatically taken into account in the algorithm (in voltage integration). Thus no problems exist due to dc voltage ripple (aliasing) or dc voltage transients Synchronization to rotating machine is straightforward due to the fast control; Just make the torque reference zero and start the inverter. The flux will be identified by the first current pulse Digital control equipment has to be very fast in order to be able to prevent the flux and torque from deviating far from the tolerance bands. Typically the control algorithm has to be performed with 10 30 microseconds or shorter intervals. However, the amount of calculations required is small due to the simplicity of the algorithm. The current and voltage measuring devices have to be high quality ones without noise and with low-pass filtering, because noise and slow response ruins the hysteresis control In higher speeds the method is not sensitive to any motor parameters. However, at low speeds the error in stator resistance used in stator flux estimation becomes critical The direct torque method performs very well even without speed sensors. However, the flux estimation is usually based on the integration of the motor phase voltages. Due to the inevitable errors in the voltage measurement and stator resistance estimate the integrals tend

to become erroneous at low speed. Thus it is not possible to control the motor if the output frequency of the variable frequency drive is zero. However, by careful design of the control system it is possible to have the minimum frequency in the range 0.5 Hz to 1 Hz that is enough to make possible to start an induction motor with full torque from a standstill situation. A reversal of the rotation direction is possible too if the speed is passing through the zero range rapidly enough to prevent excessive flux estimate deviation. 4.1. Schematic of Direct Torque Control of IM using space vector modulation:
3 ph

voltage is applied across the stator terminals of the Induction motor. The accelerating voltage vector, which possess maximum rate of change of torque angle is impressed on induction motor. The DTC requires the flux and torque estimations, which can be performed as it is proposed in schematic, by means of two different phase currents and the state of the inverter. 4.1.1. Sector Division: The air gap of induction motor is divided into 6 sectors each sector spacing for 60. The sector diagram is as shown in Figure.

supply
s

+
*

Voltage E
Vector
Te

SA
SB Sc

Figure 4.3. Sector division

Inverter

*r +
_ r G
* Te

table
H
Te

4.1.2. Switching Logic Selection Table: The switching logic selection table or voltage selection table , which consists of flux error (dF )& torque error (dT) .The air gap is divided into 6sectors , each spanning for 60 starting from 30 to+30 so on all the sectors are divided and denoted as 01..........06 Depending upon the flux error, torque error & the sector in which the stator flux is present that desired amount of voltage will be chosen and applied to the induction motor in order to obtain desired speeds. The flux error d can take two different values 1& -1 and torque error dT can take three different values 1, 0, -1. Considering the direction of induction motor in anticlockwise and depending upon the flux increase or decrease and torque increase or decrease will decide the desired amount of voltage. The way to impose the required stator flux is by means of choosing the most suitable Voltage Source Inverter state. If the ohmic drops are neglected for simplicity, then the stator voltage impresses directly the stator flux in accordance with the following equation:

+
_

S(K) Te Te
Estimator Motor Single computation

Figure 4.2. Schematic of DTC-SVM of IM

In figure possible schematic of Direct Torque Control is shown. As it can be seen, there are two different loops corresponding to the magnitudes of the stator flux and torque. The reference values for the flux stator modulus and the torque are compared with the actual values, and the resulting error values are fed into the two level and three-level hysteresis blocks respectively. The outputs of the stator flux error and torque error hysteresis blocks, together with the position of the stator flux are used as inputs of the look up table. The position of the stator flux is divided into six different sectors. The stator flux modulus and torque errors tend to be restricted within its respective hysteresis bands .It can be proved that the flux hysteresis band affects basically to the stator-current distortion in terms of low order harmonics and the torque hysteresis band affects the switching frequency . The principle of DTC to control the flux and torque directly. The appropriate voltage vector is selected from the voltage selection table based on torque and flux errors. Based on the voltage vector selected the switching states of 3 Phase bridge inverter are chosen, The corresponding

Decoupled control of the stator flux modulus and torque is achieved by acting on the radial and tangential components respectively of the stator flux-linkage space vector in its locus. These two components are directly proportional (Rs=0) to the components of the same voltage space vector in the same directions. Figure 4.4 shows the possible dynamic locus of the stator flux, and its different variation depending on the VSI states chosen. The possible global locus is divided into six different sectors signaled by the discontinuous line.
Table 2. Lookup table for DTC

FD: Flux decreases. FI: Flux increases. TD: Torque decreases. TI: Torque increases.

4.1.3. Three Phase Inverter Switching Modes: Induction motor stalor terminals are fed from 3 F Bridge Inverter. The Bridge inverter employed here is voltage source inverter with 6 switches. ft contains 3 arms each arm includes 2 switches. The arms are labeled as a, b, c. Arm 'a includes 1,4, arm a includes 1,4, arm b includes 3,6 & c includes 5,2. The stator voltage of induction motor is modeled as Vs(Sa, Sb, Sc).The status of switches Sa;Sb,Sc are obtained from the 3-phase Inverter and the inverter chosen for the project is bridge inverter with 6switches. Based on conducting modes of Sa,Sb,Sc the desired voltage is chosen and applied to the induction motor.

Figure 4.4. Stator Flux vector locus

In Accordance with figure .the general table can be written. It can be seen from table 3.1, that the states Vk and Vk+3 , are not considered in the torque because they can both increase (first 30 degrees) or decrease (second 30 degrees) the torque at the same sector depending on the stator flux position. The usage of these states for controlling the torque is considered one of the aims to develop in the present thesis, dividing the total locus into twelve sectors instead of just six.

Table 1. Selection table for DTC being k as a sector number

The sectors of the stator flux space vector are denoted from S1 to S6. Stator flux modulus error after the hysteresis block can take just two values. Torque error after the hysteresis block can take three different values. The zero voltage vectors V0 and V7 are selected when the torque error is within the given hysteresis limits, and must remain unchanged.

Figure 4.5. Voltage Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor

4.1.4. Flux control:

s

(Vs is rs) dt

where Vs is one of the voltage vectors produced by the inverterIf resistive drop is neglected

Vs dt =

s0

+ Vs t

Hence the tip of flux vector moves in the direction of the applied voltage vector with a velocity proportional to the amplitude of the non-zero voltage vector. Application of zero voltage vector freezes the flux vector.

dynamic performance features, many of which are obtained without the need for an encoder or tachometer to monitor shaft position or speed: Torque response: - How quickly the drive output can reach the specified value when a nominal 100% torque reference step is applied. For DTC, a typical torque response is 1 to 2ms below 40Hz compared to between 10-20ms for both flux vector and DC drives fitted with an encoder. With open loop PWM drives the response time is typically well over 100ms. In fact, with its torque response, DTC has achieved the natural limit. With the voltage and current available, response time cannot be any shorter. Even in the newer sensorless drives the torque response is hundreds of milliseconds. Accurate torque control at low frequencies, as well as full load torque at zero speed without the need for a feedback device such as an encoder or tachometer. With DTC, speed can be controlled to frequencies below 0.5Hz and still provide 100% torque right the way through to zero speed. Torque repeatability: - How well the drive repeats its output torque with the same torque reference command. DTC, without an encoder, can provide 1 to 2% torque repeatability of the nominal torque across the speed range.This is half that of other open-loop AC drives and equal to that of closed-loop AC and DC drives. Motor static speed accuracy: - Error between

Figure 4.6. Flux and Torque control

4.1.5. Torque control:

Te = 3 P/4 (Lm/sLsLr) { =3 P/4 (Lm/sLsLr)

dr qs -

qr ds}

sin

Torque Control is achieved by controlling , i.e., by accelerating or decelerating s with respect to r The angular speed of the stator flux can be modified, in each cycle period, by an opportune choice of the inverter configuration. The tangential component of the applied voltage vector determines the instantaneous angular speed of the stator flux in a stator reference frame. The effect on the flux magnitude of a particular voltage vector depends on the position of the flux within the sector. The effect on the torque of a particular voltage vector depends on the position of the flux within the sector and the rotor angular speed.

speed reference and actual value at constant load. For DTC, speed accuracy is 10% of the motor slip, which with an 11kW motor, equals 0.3% static speed accuracy. With a 110kW motor, speed accuracy is 0.1% without encoder (open-loop). This satisfies the accuracy requirement for 95% of industrial drives applications. Dynamic speed accuracy: - Time integral of speed deviation when a nominal (100%) torque speed is applied. DTC open-loop dynamic speed accuracy is between 0.3 to 0.4%sec. 5.1. Practical benefits of DTC: Fast torque response: - This significantly reduces the speed drop time during a load transient, bringing much improved process control and a more consistent product quality. Torque control at low frequencies: - This is particularly beneficial to cranes or elevators, where the load needs to be started and stopped regularly without any jerking. Also with a winder, tension control can be achieved from zero through to maximum speed.

5.BENEFITS OF DTC TECHNOLOGY: There are many benefits of DTC technology. But most significantly, drives using DTC technology have the following exceptional

Compared to PWM flux vector drives, DTC brings the cost saving benefit that no tachometer is needed. Torque linearity: - This is important in precision applications like winders, used in the paper industry, where an accurate and consistent level of winding is critical. Dynamic speed accuracy: - After a sudden load change,the motor can recover to a stable state remarkably fast. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We acknowledge our special thanks to our guide Mr. B.S.KRISHNA VARMA, Associate professor in Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his constant encouragement, valuable guidance and help in the successful completion of the project. We express our deep sense of gratitude to the Head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dr.P.M SARMA for his constant encouragement, constructive suggestions and Inspirations for successful completion of the project. REFERENCES [1] P. Tiitinen, The next generation motor control method, DTC direct torque control, Proc. of Int. Conf on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy System for Industrial Growth, N. Delhi, India, pp. 37-43, 1996 [2] T. G. Habetler,. F. Profumo, M. Pastorelli and L. M. Tolbert, Direct torque control of induction machines using space vector modulation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 1045-1053, 1992. [3] Y. Li, J. Shao,. and B. Si, Direct torque control of induction motors for low speed drives considering discrete effect of control and dead time timing of inverters, in Conf. Rec. IEEEIAS Annual Meeting, pp. 781-788, 1997. [4] J. K. Kang. and S. K. Sul, Torque ripple minimization strategy for direct torque control of induction motor, in Conf. Rec. IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting, pp. 438-443, 1998

[5] S. Mir, M. E. Elbuluk and D. S. Zinger, Fuzzy Implementation of direct self control of Induction motors, IEEE Trans Ind. Appl., Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 729-735, 1994. [6] I. G. Bird. and H. Zelaya De La Parra, Fuzzy logic torque ripple reduction for DTC based:

Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter

Mahesh Babu M.Tech (PE)
Abstract: This paper presents a cascaded H-Bridge multilevel inverter. Among the multilevel converter topologies, cascaded multilevel H-Bridge inverter is promising one which is an alternative for grid-connected photovoltaic/wind-power wind power generator ,flexible alternating current systems and motor drive application. A method is presented showing that a cascade multilevel inverter can be implemented using only a single DC power source and capacitors. A standard cascade multilevel inverter requires DC sources for 2+1 levels. Without requiring transformers, the scheme proposed here allows the use of a single DC power source (e.g., a battery or a fuel cell stack) with the remaining 1 DC sources being capacitors. In this paper we are getting 9-level phase voltage waveform with 4-dc sources, as the number of level increases we can get stair case waveform i.e nearly sinusoidal (ac) and harmonics are reduced.

1. INTRODUCTION

semiconductor switches depends only upon the rating of the dc voltage sources to which they are connected.

Numerous industrial applications have begun to require higher power apparatus in recent years. Some medium A multilevel converter has several advantages over a conventional two level converter that uses high switching frequency pulse width modulation (PWM). The attractive features multilevel converter can be briefly summarized as follows. 1. Staircase waveform quality: Multilevel

voltage motor drives and utility applications require medium voltage and megawatt power level. For a medium voltage grid, it is troublesome to connect only one power semiconductor switch directly. As a result, a multilevel power converter structure has been introduced as an alternative in high power and medium voltage situations. A multilevel converter not only achieves high power ratings, but also enables the use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic, wind, and fuel cells can be easily interfaced to multilevel converter system for a high power application.

converters not only can generate the output voltages with very low distortion, but also can reduce the dv/dt stresses; therefore

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems can be reduced. 2. Input current: Multilevel converters can draw input current with low distortion.

The concept of multilevel converters has been introduced since 1975. The term multilevel began with the three-level converter. Subsequently, several multilevel converter

3.

Switching frequency: Multilevel converters can operate at both fundamental switching

frequency and high switching frequency PWM. It should be noted that lower switching frequency usually means lower switching loss and higher efficiency.

topologies have been developed. However, the elementary concept of a multilevel converter to achieve higher power is to use a series of power semiconductor switches with several lower voltage dc sources to perform the power conversion by synthesizing a staircase voltage waveform. Capacitors, batteries, and renewable energy voltage sources can be used as the multiple dc voltage sources. The commutation of the power switches aggregate these multiple dc sources in order to achieve high voltage at the output; however, the rated voltage of the power

Unfortunately, disadvantages. number of

multilevel

converters

do

have

some

One particular disadvantage is the greater power semiconductor switches needed.

Although lower voltage rated switches can be utilized in a multilevel converter, each switch requires a related gate drive circuit. This may cause the overall system to be more expensive and complex.

voltage that can be spanned by summing multiple voltage Plentiful multilevel converter topologies have been levels also increases. The output voltage during the positive half-cycle can be found from Vao Where SFn is the switching or control function of nth node and it takes a value of 0 or 1. Generally, the capacitor terminal voltages E1,E2,..all have the same value Em. Thus, the peack output voltage is Vao(peak) = (m-1)Em = Vdc. To generate an output voltage with both positive and negative values, the circuit topology has another switch to produce the negative part Vob so that Vab = Vao +Vog = Vao-Vbo. The multilevel inverters can be classified into three types. 1. 2. This chapter reviews state of the art of multilevel power converter technology. Fundamental multilevel converter structures and modulation paradigms are discussed including the pros and cons of each technique. Particular concentration is addressed in modern and more practical industrial applications of multilevel converters. A procedure for calculating the required ratings for the active switches, clamping diodes, and dc link capacitors including a design example are described. Finally, the possible future developments of multilevel converter technology are noted. A cascaded multilevel inverter consist of a series of H-bridge (single-phase, full-bridge) inverter units. The general function of this multilevel inverter is to synthesize a desired voltage from several separate dc sources (SDCSs), which may be obtained from batteries, fuel cells, or solar cells fig(1) shows the basic structure of a single phase cascaded inverter with SDCSs. Each SDSCS is connected to an H-bridge inverter. The ac terminal voltages of different level inverters are connected in series. 2. TYPES OF MULTILEVEL INVERTERS The general structure of the multilevel converter is to synthesize a near sinusoidal voltage from several levels of dc voltages, typically obtained from capacitor voltage sources. As the number of levels increases, the synthesized output waveform has more steps, which produce a staircase wave that approaches a desired waveform. Also, as more steps added to the waveform, the harmonic distortion of the output wave decreases, approaching zero as the number of levels increases. A s the number of levels increases, the Unlike the diode-clamped or flying-capacitors inverter, the cascaded inverter does not require any voltage-clamping diodes or voltages-balancing capacitors. A single-phase structure of a 9-level cascaded inverter is illustrated in . Each separate dc source (SDCS) is 3. Diode-clamped multilevel inverter; Flying-capacitors multilevel inverter; Cascade multilevel inverter.

proposed during the last two decades. Contemporary research has engaged novel converter topologies and unique modulation schemes. Moreover, three different major multilevel converter structures have been reported in the literature: cascaded Hbridges converter with separate dc sources, diode clamped (neutral-clamped), and flying capacitors (capacitor

clamped). Moreover, abundant modulation techniques and control paradigms have been developed for multilevel converters such as sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), selective harmonic elimination (SHE-PWM), space vector modulation (SVM), and others. In addition, many multilevel converter applications focus on industrial medium-voltage motor drives , utility interface for renewable energy systems , flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) , and traction drive systems .

3. CASCADED MULTILEVEL INVERTER

connected to a single-phase full-bridge, or H-bridge, inverter. Each inverter level can generate three different voltage outputs, +Vdc, 0, and Vdc by connecting the dc

source to the ac output by different combinations of the four switches, Sa1, Sa2, Sa3, and Sa4. To obtain +Vdc, switches Sa1 and Sa4 are turned on, whereas Vdccan be obtained by turning on witches Sa2 and Sa3. By turning on Sa1 and Sa2 or Sa3 and Sa4, the output voltage is 0. The ac output of each of the different full-bridge inverter levels are connected in series such that the synthesized voltage waveform is the sum of the inverter outputs. The number of output phase voltage levels m in a cascade inverter is defined by m = 2s+1, where s is the number of separated sources. An example phase voltage Fig 2: Output wave form of 9-level phase voltage.

waveform for an 9-level cascaded H-bridge inverter with 4 SDCSs and 4 full bridges is shown in Figure(1) The phase voltage van = v1 + v2 + v3+ v4

Fig3.The connection diagram of Y-configured 9-level converter using cascaded inverter with 4 SDC capacitors..

A 9-level phase voltage cascaded inverter needs four SDCSs and four full bridges. Controlling the conducting angels at different inverter levels can minimize the harmonic distortion of the output voltage. Fig1. Single-phase multilevel cascaded The output voltage of the inverter is almost is sinusoidal, and it has less than 5% total harmonic distortion (THD) with each of the H-bridges switching only at fundamental frequency. If the phase current is, as shown in fig (2), is sinusoidal and leads or lags the phase voltage van by 90, the average charge to each dc capacitor is equal to zero over one cycle. Therefore, all SDCS capacitor voltages can be balanced. H-Bridge Inverter

The major advantages of the cascaded inverter can be summarized as follows: 1. Compared with the diode-clamped and flyingcapacitors inverters, it requires the least number of components to achieve the same number of voltage levels. 2. The number of possible output voltage levels is more than twice the number of dc sources (m = 2s + 1). 3. Optimized circuit layout and packing are possible because each level has the same structure and there are no extra clamping diodes or voltagebalancing capacitors. This will enable the

with appropriate control techniques and thus the efficiency of the system can be improved. The most common applications of multilevel converters include (1).Reactive Power compensation. (2).Back-to-back intertie and (3).Variable speed drives. 5. FEATURES OF MULTILEVEL INVERTERS A multilevel inverter can eliminate the need for the step-up transformer and reduce the harmonics produced by inverter. Although the multilevel inverter structure was initially introduced as a means of reducing the output waveform harmonic content. The key features of a multilevel structure follow: 1. The output voltage and power increase with number of levels. Adding a voltage level involves adding a main switching

manufacturing process to be done more quickly and cheaply. 4. Soft-switching techniques can be used to reduce switching losses and device stresses.

The major disadvantage of the cascaded inverter is as follows: 1. It needs separate dc sources for real power conversions, applications. 4. APPLICATIONS There is considerable interest in applying voltage sources inverters in high-power applications such as in utility systems for controlled sources of reactive power. In the steady state operation, an inverter can produce a controlled reactive current and operates as a static volt-ampere reactive (VAR) compensator (STSTCON). Also, these inverters can reduce the physical size of the compensator and improve its performance during power system contingencies. The use of a high-voltage inverter makes 6. 5. 4. thereby limiting its 3. 2.

device to each phase. The harmonic content decreases as the number of levels increases and filtering requirements are reduced. With additional voltage levels, the voltage waveform has more free-switching angles, which can be pre selected for harmonic elimination In the absence of any PWM techniques, the switching losses can be abided. Increasing output voltage and power does not require an increase in rating of individual device. Static and dynamic voltage sharing among the switching devices is built into the structure though either clamping diodes or capacitors. The switching devices do not encounter any voltage-sharing problems. For this reason, multilevel inverters can easily be applied for high-power applications such as large motor drives and utility supplies.

possible direct connection to the high-voltage (e.g,13kv)distribution system, eliminating the distribution

transformer and reducing system cost. In addition, the harmonic content of the inverter waveform can be reduced

7.

The fundamental output voltage of the inverter is set by the dc by bus voltage Vdc, Which can be controlled through a variable dc link.

[1] J. Rodriguez, J. S. Lai and F. Z. Peng, Multilevel Inverters: Survey of Topologies, Transactions Controls, on and

Applications,

IEEE

Industry

Applications, vol. 49, no. 4, Aug. 2002, pp. 724-738. [2] J. S. Lai and F. Z. Peng, Multilevel Converters-A new

6. CONCLUSION Multilevel converters can be utility interface

Breed of Power Converters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol.32,pp. 509-517, May/June 1996. [3] L. M. Tolbert, F. Z. Peng, and T. Habetler, Multilevel Converters for Large Electric drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat.,vol.35,pp. 36-44, Jan./Feb. 1999. [4] R. H. Baker and L. H. Bannister, Electric Power

systems and motor drives. These converters offer a low output voltage THD, and a high efficiency and power factor. Using this we are getting harmonics less sinusoidal waveform The main advantage of multilevel converters includes the following: 1. They are suitable for high-voltage and highcurrent applications. 2. They have higher efficiency because the devices can be switched at a low frequency. 3. Power factor is close to unity for multilevel inverters used as rectifiers to convert ac to dc. 4. 5. No EMI problem exists. No charge unbalance problem results when the converters are in either charge mode [5] A. Nabae, I. Takahashi, and H. Akagi, A New Neutralpoint Clamped PWM inverter, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-17, pp. 518-523, Sept./Oct. 1981. Converter, U.S. Patent 3 867 643, Feb. 1975.

(rectification) or drive mode (inversion).

The multilevel converters require balancing the voltage across the series-connected dc bus capacitors. Capacitors tend to overcharge or completely discharge, at which condition the multilevel converter reverts to a three-level converter unless an explicit control is devised to balance the capacitor charge. The voltage-balancing technique must be applied to the capacitor during the operations of the rectifier and the inverter. Thus, the real power flow into a capacitor must be the same as the real power flow out of the capacitor, and the net charge on the capacitor over one cycle remains the same.

REFERENCES

Modern Power Semi-Conductor Devices

Vicharapu Bharat Kumar (09241D4301), Department of Electrical Technology, GRIET, Hyd. vbk209@gmail.com

Abstract- This paper presents information about various modern power semi-conductor devices available
and used extensively in various converter circuits (ac-ac, ac-dc, dc-dc, dc-ac). Due to its superior advantages such as high power rating and its usefulness in eliminating commutation circuit in DC-DC converters, IGBT is universally adopted in almost all converter circuits over other semiconductor devices. So, IGBTs basic structure, principle of operation, advantages and their characteristic are briefly discuss along with its application in Boost Chopper (DC-DC Converter).

I.

Introduction

Electrical power is processed by power electronics to make it suitable for various applications, such as DC and AC regulated power supplies, Electro chemical Process, heating and lighting control, electrical machine drives etc The processing involves conversion (dc-ac, ac-dc, dc-dc and ac-ac) and control using power semi conductor switches. By using Power Electronics, we can achieve a high level of productivity in Industry and product quality enhancement that cannot be possible by using NonPower Electronic methods. Hence these devices constitute the heart of Modern Power Electronics. Power Semiconductor Devices are indeed most complex, delicate and fragile element in conversion from one form of energy to another or usable form. A Power Electronic engineer needs to understand the device thoroughly for efficient, reliable and cost effective of a converter. Hence in further chapters we would deal with various power semi conductor devices and their application in brief. The age of modern power electronics stared by the invention of the thyristor since then we have seen the gradual emergence of other power semiconductor devices such as:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Triac GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor) BJT (Bipolar Power Transistor) MOSFET ( Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) SIT (Static Induction Transistor) SITH (Static Induction Thyristor) MCT ( MOS controlled Thyristor)

The last four devices which appeared in the 1980s can be defined as Modern Power Semiconductor Devices and these are reviewed briefly in further chapters.

II.

IGBT

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a minority-carrier device with high input impedance and large bipolar current-carrying capability. Many designers view IGBT as a device with MOS input characteristics and bipolar output characteristic that is a voltage-controlled bipolar device. To make use of the advantages of both Power MOSFET and BJT, the IGBT has been introduced. Its a functional integration of Power MOSFET and BJT devices in monolithic form. It combines the best attributes of both to achieve optimal device characteristics [2]. The IGBT is suitable for many applications in power electronics, especially in Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) servo and three-phase drives requiring high dynamic range control and low noise. It also can be used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), and other power circuits requiring high switch repetition rates. IGBT improves dynamic performance and efficiency and reduced the level of audible noise. It is equally

suitable in resonant-mode converter circuits. Optimized IGBT is available for both low conduction loss and low switching loss.

III.

Basic Structure of IGBT

The basic schematic of a typical N-channel IGBT based upon the DMOS process is shown in Figure 1. This is one of several structures possible for this device. It is evident that the silicon cross-section of an IGBT is almost identical to that of a vertical Power MOSFET except for the P+ injecting layer. It shares similar MOS gate structure and P wells with N+ source regions. The N+ layer at the top is the source or emitter and the P+ layer at the bottom is the drain or collector. It is also feasible to make Pchannel IGBTs and for which the doping profile in each layer will be reversed. IGBT has a parasitic thyristor comprising the four-layer NPNP structure. Turn-on of this thyristor is undesirable.

through (PT) IGBTs. The presence of this buffer layer can significantly improve the performance of the device if the doping level and thickness of this layer are chosen appropriately. Despite physical similarities, the operation of an IGBT is closer to that of a power BJT than a power MOSFET. It is due to the P+ drain layer injecting layer) which is responsible for the minority carrier injection into the N--drift region and the resulting conductivity modulation.

Equivalent circuit model of an IGBT Based on the structure, a simple equivalent circuit model of an IGBT can be drawn as shown in Figure 2. It contains MOSFET, JFET, NPN and PNP transistors. The collector of the PNP is connected to the base of the NPN and the collector of the NPN is connected to the base of the PNP through the JFET. The NPN and PNP transistors represent the parasitic thyristor which constitutes a regenerative feedback loop. The resistor RB represents the shorting of the base-emitter of the NPN transistor to ensure that the thyristor does not latch up, which will lead to the IGBT latchup. The JFET represents the constriction of current between any two neighboring IGBT cells. It supports most of the voltage and allows the MOSFET to be a low voltage type and consequently have a low RDS(on) value. A circuit symbol for the IGBT is shown in Figure 3. It has three terminals called Collector (C), Gate (G) and Emitter (E).

Schematic view of a generic N-channel IGBT

IGBT Circuit Symbol Some IGBTs, manufactured without the N+ buffer layer, are called non-punch through (NPT) IGBTs whereas those with this layer are called punch-

IXYS has developed both NPT and PT IGBTs. The physical constructions for both of them are shown in Figure 4. As mentioned earlier, the PT structure has an extra buffer layer which performs two main functions: (i) avoids failure by punch-through action because the depletion region expansion at applied high voltage is restricted by this layer, (ii) reduces the tail current during turn-off and shortens the fall time of the IGBT because the holes are injected by the P+ collector partially recombine in this layer The NPT IGBTs, which have equal forward and reverse breakdown voltage, are suitable for AC applications. The PT IGBTs, which have less reverse breakdown voltage than the forward breakdown voltage, are applicable for DC circuits where devices are not required to support voltage in the reverse direction.

IV.

IGBT Operation Modes

Forward-Blocking and Conduction Modes

When a positive voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal with gate shorted to emitter, the device enters into forward blocking mode with junctions J1 and J3 are forward-biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased. A depletion layer extends on both-sides of junction J2 partly into Pbase and N-drift region. An IGBT in the forward-blocking state can be transferred to the forward conducting state by removing the gate-emitter shorting and applying a positive voltage of sufficient level to invert the Si below gate in the P base region. This forms a conducting channel which connects the N+ emitter to the N-drift region. Through this channel, electrons are transported from the N+ to the N- drift. This flow of electrons into the N- drift lowers the potential of the N-drift region whereby the P+ collector/ N-drift becomes forward biased. Under this forward-biased condition, a high density of minority carrier holes is injected into the N- drift from the P+ collector. When the injected carrier concentration is very much larger the background concentration, a condition defined as a plasma of holes builds up in the N- drift region. This plasma of holes attracts electrons from the emitter contact to maintain local charge neutrality. In this manner, approximately equal excess concentrations of holes and electrons are gathered in the N- drift region. This excess electron and hole concentrations drastically enhance the conductivity of

NPT type IGBT

PT-type IGBT

N- drift region. This mechanism in rise in conductivity is referred to as the conductivity modulation of the N-drift region.

Forward-Biased Safe Operating Area (FBSOA)

The FBSOA is an important characteristic for applications with inductive loads. It is defined by the maximum collector-emitter voltage with saturated collector current. In this mode, both electrons and holes are transported through the drift region, which is supporting a high collector voltage. The electron and hole concentrations in the drift region are related to the corresponding current densities by:

Reverse-Blocking Mode
When a negative voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal shown in fig, the junction J1 becomes reverse-biased and its depletion layer extends into the N- drift region. The break down voltage during the reverse-blocking is determined by an open-base BJT formed by the P+ collector/ N- drift/ P- base region. The device is prone to punch-through if the N-drift region is very lightly-doped. The desired reverse voltage capability can be obtained by optimizing the resistivity and thickness of the N-drift region. The width of the Ndrift region that determines the reverse voltage capability and the forward voltage drop which increases with increasing width can be determined by

Where V sat,n and V sat,p are the saturated drift velocities for electrons and holes, respectively. The net positive charge in the drift region is given by, Lp= minority carrier diffusion length Vm= maximum blocking voltage 0 = Permittivity of free space

Safe Operating Area (SOA)

The safe operating area (SOA) is defined as the current-voltage boundary within which a power switching device can be operated without destructive failure, For IGBT, the area is defined by the maximum collector-emitter voltage Vce and collector current Ic within which the IGBT operation must be confined to project it from damage. The IGBT has the following types of SOA operations: forward-biased safe operating area (FBSOA), reverse-biased safe operating area (RBSOA) and short-circuit safe operating area (SCSOA). This charge determines the electric field distribution in the drift region. In steady-state forward blocking condition, the drift region charge is equal to ND. In FBSOA, the net charge is much larger because the hole current density is significantly larger than the electron current density. The breakdown voltage limit in the FBSOA is defined by

Reverse-Biased Safe Operating (RBSOA)

The RBSOA is important during the turn-off transient. The current which can be turned-off is limited to twice the nominal current of the IGBT. This means a 1200A IGBT is able to turn-off a maximum current of 2400A. The maximum current is a function of the peak voltage which appears between collector and emitter during turn-off. The peak value of VCE is the sum of the DC link voltage and the product of L dIC / dt where L is the stray inductance of the power circuit. The relation between maximum IC and VCE can be seen in the RBSOA

Short-Circuit Safe Operating Area (SCSOA)

A very important requirement imposed on the power switching device, when used in motor control applications is that be able to turn-off safely due to a load or equipment short circuit. When a current overload occurs, collector current rises rapidly until it exceeds that which the device can sustain with the applied gate voltage. The key to survivability for the power device is to limit the current amplitude to a safe level for a period of time that is sufficiently long to allow the control circuit to detect the fault and turn the device off.

RBSOA of IGBT In this mode, the gate bias is at zero or at a negative value thus the current transport in the drift region occurs exclusively via the holes for an n-channel IGBT. The presence of holes adds charge to the drift region, resulting to the increase in the electric field at the P-base/N drift region junction. The net charge in the space charge region under the RBSOA condition is given by

A circuit diagram for SCSOA test is shown in Figure 12. The short-circuit inductance value determines the mode of operation of the circuit. When it is in the range of uH , the operation is similar to normal switching of inductive load. When IGBT is turned on, VCE drops to its saturation voltage. The IGBT is saturated and IC is increasing with a dIc/dt of Vcc/Lsc. It is not allowed to turn-off the IGBT from the saturation region at a collector current higher than 2 times rated current because this is an operation outside the RBSOA. In case of short-circuit; it is necessary to wait until the active region is reached. The IGBT must be turnedoff within 10 us to prevent destruction due to overheating.

V.

Characteristic of IGBT

Output Characteristics
VI. The plot for forward output characteristics of an NPT-IGBT is shown in Figure 5. It has a family of curves, each of which corresponds to a different gateto-emitter voltage (VGE). The collector current (IC) is measured as a function of collector-emitter voltage (VCE) with the gate-emitter voltage (VGE) constant.

where Jc is the total collector current. The avalanche breakdown voltage for RBSOA is given by:

A large gfs is desirable to obtain a high current handling capability with low gate drive voltage. The channel and gate structures dictate the gfs value. Both gfs and RDS(on) (on-resistance of IGBT) are controlled by the channel length which is determined by the difference in diffusion depths of the P base and N+ emitter. The point of intersection of the tangent to the transfer characteristic determines the threshold voltage (VGE(th)) of the device.

Switching Characteristics
The switching characteristics of an IGBT are very much similar to that of a Power MOSFET. The major difference from Power MOSFET is that it has a tailing collector current due to the stored charge in the N--drift region. The tail current increases the turnoff loss and requires an increase in the dead time between the conduction of two devices in a halfbridge circuit. The Figure 8 shows a test circuit for switching characteristics and the Figure 9 shows the corresponding current and voltage turn-on and turnoff waveforms. IXYS IGBTs are tested with a gate voltage switched from +15V to 0V. To reduce switching losses, it is recommended to switch off the gate with a negative voltage (-15V).

A distinguishing feature of the characteristics is the 0.7V offset from the origin. The entire family of curves is translated from the origin by this voltage magnitude. It may be recalled that with a P+ collector, an extra P-N junction has been incorporated in the IGBT structure. This P-N junction makes its function fundamentally different from the power MOSFET.

Transfer Characteristics
The transfer characteristic is defined as the variation of ICE with VGE values at different temperatures, namely, 25oC, 125 oC, and -40oC. A typical transfer characteristic is shown in Figure 6. The gradient of transfer characteristic at a given temperature is a measure of the transconductance (gfs) of the device at that temperature

Switching time test Circuit of IGBT The turn-off speed of an IGBT is limited by the lifetime of the stored charge or minority carriers in the N--drift region which is the base of the parasitic PNP transistor. The base is not accessible physically thus the external means can not be applied to sweep out the stored charge from the N--drift region to improve the switching time. The only way the stored charge can be removed is by recombination within the IGBT. Traditional lifetime killing techniques or an N+ buffer layer to collect the minority charges at turn-off are commonly used to speed-up recombination time.

Source Current Waveform

VIII.

Conclusion:

VII.

Application of IGBT in Boost Chopper

This paper present brief idea of various modern power semi-conductor devices available and IGBT is taken as example for its good features and explained in detailed the basic structure, operation principle, safe area operations and its characteristics such as output characteristics, transfer characteristics, switching characteristics are discussed along with waveforms. It also have application of IGBT in Boost chopper.

IX.

References

B. Jayant Baliga, Power Semiconductor Devices PWS Publishing Company, ISBN: 0-534-94098-6, 1996. Vinod Kumar Khanna, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): Theory and Design IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience IXYS, Power Semiconductors Application Notes, 2002 IXYS Corporation, 3540 Bassett Street, Santa Clara CA 95054, and Phone: 408-982-0700 Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland, William P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design John Willey & Sons, Inc. Ralph E. Locher, Abhijit D. Pathak, Senior Application Engineering, IXYS Corporation, Use of BiMOSFETs in modern Radar Transmitters IEEE PEDS 2001-Indonesia Ralph Locher, Introduction to Power MOSFETs and their Applications Fairchild Semiconductor, Application Note 558, October 1998.

The Switch used in the above circuit is IGBT, The main purpose for using IGBT over SCRs and other switching devices is because it is set to ON when supplied is given, when supply is taken off the switch will be OFF automatically without any Forced Commutation. Where as in SCRs since the supplied is DC which does not vary with time and phase once SCR is set to ON it wont get turned off when the supply is taken off it will remain in ON state forever since a negative pulse is given to gate. Hence need Forced Commutation circuit.