7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology

Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF RICE HULL – COAL CO-FIRING FOR PORTLAND CEMENT CLINKER
PRODUCTION
Daniel Joseph Marianoa, Jose Bienvenido Manuel M. Bionab, Jeremias A. Gonzagac
a&b
Mechanical Engineering Department, De La Salle University – Manila, 2401 Taft Avenue, 1004 Manila, Philippines
b
Center for Engineering and Sustainable Development Research, De La Salle University – Manila, 2401 Taft Avenue, 1004 Manila, Philippines

daniel_joseph_mariano@dlsu.ph
bionaj@dlsu.edu.ph
jeremias.gonzaga@dlsu.edu.ph

ABSTRACT fuel and raw material extraction and processing, hauling,

Co-firing coal with biomass is one way to reduce greenhouse
gas contribution from clinker production. A model was
developed to determine the optimum percentage mix of rice
hull for a cement plant in the Philippines that would provide
the minimum life impact while ensuring product quality and
economic viability. Results indicated that optimum
environmental benefits is obtained at 64% rice hull thermal
substitution. It is important however also to take into
consideration rice hull supply limitations and system
modification requirements.
Key words : Co-firing, Life Cycle Assessment, Optimization
I. INTRODUCTION
Cement manufacturing on the average produce
0.81 and contribute approximately 5% to the
total global Carbon emission based on IEA. Bulk of these
emissions are traced to clinker production which also accounts
for a major portion of energy use in cement production.
Efforts have been introduced to reduce fossil fuel use in the
industry including co-firing the kilns with biomass and other
municipal waste. A number of studies have looked at
optimization of co-firing blending percentage to reduce fossil
energy requirements and cost [1] [2] [3]. Limited studies have
looked at its over-all environmental benefits. It could be noted
that in clinker production, the fuel ash becomes part of the raw
material thus is critical in the raw mix design particularly in
ensuring proper clinker and mineralogical composition. The
nature and amount of alternative fuel blended thus also affect
raw material composition [4] influencing environmental
contributions of raw material extraction, preparation and
hauling. In addition, the environmental benefits or negative
effects of co-firing strongly depend also on fuel and raw
material logistical requirements. The economic aspects of co-
firing thus should also take into account not only variations in
fuel cost but also raw material cost. This study evaluated the
optimum viable rice hull-coal kiln co-firing ratio, and process
settings that would yield the maximum reduction in Life cycle
impacts ( ) while maintaining economic viability, and
acceptable product quality of a cement plant in the western
part of Metro Manila. The life cycle stages covered include
electricity generation emissions and on-site emissions. The
model utilizes the optimum raw mix design for each rice hull
thermal energy substitution ratio based on industry recognized
product quality constraints. Production cost covered power,
raw material and fuel cost.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Objective Function
As mentioned earlier, substituting a portion of the coal as
fuel in clinker production affect the raw meal design. To
ensure quality, values of key product parameters including
Lime Saturation Factor ( ), Silica Modulus ( ) and Alumna
Modulus ( ) would have to be within the acceptable range
provided by Aldieb and Ibrahim [5]. These parameters
together with the amount and composition of fuel ash dictates
the raw material composition of the clinker. In addition, the
resulting chemical oxide composition and clinker mineral
phase values would have to be within the range provided by
Aldieb and Ibrahim [5] and Carpio et al. [2]. In addition to the
resulting onsite emissions, the life cycle impact of clinker
production depends significantly on raw material and fuel
upstream impacts. Considering that raw material composition
is dictated by the key product parameters mentioned earlier,
the life impact may thus be expressed as a function of the said
process parameters and fuel mix as indicated in the
optimization model as follows:
Objective Function :
, , (1)
Subject to:
(2)
(3)
∑ 100% (4)
∑ 3600 (5)
(6)
(7)

978-1-4799-4020-2/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE

 7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines

(8) The emission inventories covered included Carbon

(9)
0 (10)
0 (11)
Dioxide (CO2), Sulfur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC), Particle matter of size less than 10
microns (PM10), Particle matter of size less than 2.5
microns (PM2.5), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide
(N2O).:

The product key parameters are defined as follows: The life cycle system boundary and stages covered
are provided by Figure 1 and Table 4 respectively.
• Lime Saturation Factor ( ) – Amount of CaO that is
not combined with SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3; Table 2 Process Parameters (P)

(12) d Description Min Max

. . . 1 Calcination Temperature (°C) 1300 1500
2 % Equivalent Alkaline 0.5 1
• Silica Modulus ( ) – The ratio of SiO2 to the total 3 SO3 and Cl 0 3.49
Al2O3 and Fe2O3: 4 % Liquid Phase at 1450°C 23 30
5 Coating Index 20 35
(13) 6 Aptitude of Sintering 100 117
7 Burnability Factor 110 120

• Alumina Modulus ( ) – Ratio of Al2O3 to Fe2O3:

Table 3. Raw Materials and Fuel Ashes Oxides
(14) Analyses (z)

stands for the thermal percentage of coal ( ) and rice

hull ( ). The acceptable range for the product parameters
mentioned earlier and process parameters are provided in
Table 1 and 2 respectively. The raw material determination
assumed the raw material and oxide composition provided in
Table 3.

B. Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle impact of clinker production is expected to be

mostly traced to combustion requirements of the rotary kiln.
The analysis was thus limited to energy and air emissions
taking into account Global Warming Potential (GWP),
Acidification Potential (AP), Photochemical Ozone Potential
(PCOP), Nutrient Enrichment Potential (NP), Human Toxicity
Potential (HTP), Abiotic (ADP) and energy resources depletion
(FFDP) impacts.

Table 1 Upper and Lower Limits of the independent variables (δv), Primary Clinker Mineral Phases (Ms), and Clinker Oxide
Composition (zck)
Limits Independent Variables (δv)a Primary Clinker Phases Portland Clinker Oxide Composition (zck)b z
(Ms) a
δ1 δ2 δ3 δβ1 δβ2 M1 M2 M3 M4 zc1 zc2 zc3 zc4 zc5 zc6 zc7 zc8
LSF SM AM Coal RH C3S C2S C3A C4AF SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O
U 95 3.2 2.5 100 100 70 30 10 15 24.25 6.78 4.64 70.14 6.5 2.07 0.33 1.76 100
L 80 1.9 1.5 - - 50 15 5 5 19.71 3.76 1.29 63.76 - 0.2 0.03 0.31 100
a
Provided by Aldieb and Ibrahim [5]
b
For k = {9, 10, 11, 12, and 13} assumed Lck and Uck equal to zero [2] .
 7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines

Table 4 Process Stages (y) combinations are initially determined using genetic algorithm
y Description and further refined by exhaustive grid search for faster
1 Material Extractions and convergence.
Preparations
2 Transportation III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3 Electricity Generation
4 On-site Emissions from The optimum rice hull thermal percentage substitution
Production and Material was found to be at 64% and yielded a 35.45% optimum
Movement reduction in life cycle impact. Beyond the optimal ratio, it is
probable to experience operational and quality disturbances
due to rice hull’s ash siliceous properties, thus violating
quality constraint.. Table 5 shows the final simulated δv, while
succeeding sub-sections presents discussion of environmental,
cost, process, and quality performance of the optimum mix
with the baseline respectively.

Figure 1 System Boundary

The emission inventories for the various stages were

derived from a number of sources. Upstream production
emissions for silica, clay and limestone based from NPI [6]
while that for copper slags could be traced from Wang [7].
Dust generation factors during mining, transport and crushing
of these minerals were provided by Brozel et. Al. [8] [9] [10].
Fuel and Power upstream emissions on the other hand were
based from Wang [11]. Ocean vessel and land base hauling
emissions factor during the transportation phase were derived
from Hickman et. Al. [12]. The actual raw material transport
requirements of the cement plant were considered in the
study.The kiln emission generation for the various rice hull
thermal substitution percentage were computed by prorating
biomass and coal combustion thermal specific emission
factors [11]. The impacts were modeled based on Danish
EDIP framework [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] .

C. Optimization Process

A Hybrid Optimization Algorithm was utilized to solve

the non-linear problem and identify the global optimum value.
It was a combination of Genetic Algorithm (GA) [18] and
Exhaustive Grid Search Algorithm. Figure 2 details the whole
optimization process. After the initial values for the key
product parameters ( see Eq. 12 to 14 ) and rice hull thermal Figure 2 Optimization Flowchart
percentage substitution are assumed, the optimum raw
material composition satisfying the constraints defined are
Table 5 Simulated Results of the variables, δv
determined to provide the least life cycle impact. Succeeding
Lime Saturation Silica Alumina % % Rice
iterations determines the life cycle impact corresponding to Factor Modulus Modulus Coal Hull
the optimum raw mix design for other key product parameter δ1 δ2 δ3 δβ1 δβ2
and rice hull thermal percentage substitution combinations and
89.90 3.0 1.5 36% 64%
compared with the previous iterations to arrive at the
combination with the least life cycle impact. The succeeding
 7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines

The optimum raw material and fuel composition relative to
pure coal combustion is provided in Table 6.
Table 6 Raw Material and Fuel Consumption – Uncalcined/Unignited
(Kg/KgC)
transportation phase eventually providing to provide an over-
all global warming impact reduction of 26%. It could be noted
that the acidification and nutrient enrichment impact potentials
decreased by 27.22% and 4.70% respectively.

Simulation Raw Material Consumption ( ) Fuel Consumption ( )

Limestone Clay Silica Copper Slag
Pure Coal 1.426 0.108 0.047 0.005 1.586a
64% Rice Hull 1.425 0.128 0.000 0.006 1.559a
a
Raw meal to clinker ratio
A. Environmental Impact Assessment
Figure 3 provides a snapshot of the environmental
performance of the optimum bend with 100% coal for the
various phases and impact areas. It could be noted that bulk of
the reductions are traced from the positive effects in the on-
site combustion phase with some improvements in the
material extraction and electricity production stages. The
increase in impacts during the material and fuel hauling phases
is insignificant compared to the mentioned improvements thus
the lower over-all impact for the 64% rice hull thermal
substitution ratio. As expected, the fossil energy resources
depletion potential exhibited the highest reduction at 53.27%.
The displacement of a big part of coal in the main kiln burner
and calciner combustion supersedes whatever additional fossil
energy required in the hauling of rice hull. It could be noted
that the low density of rice hulls leads to reduce vehicle load
factor thus the higher energy requirements.
The global warming reductions in the material extraction
and processing and on-site kiln combustion phases provided
was enough to negate the negative effects during the
100%
Indonesian Coal Rice Hull
0.126 0.000
0.045 0.178
This could be mostly attributed to improvements in the on-site
combustion phase. SO2 chemically reacts with the clinker
structure forming SO3 during calcinations process decreasing
acidification effects. Thermal NOx are produced when
combustion goes beyond 1400°C and increases proportionally
with temperature thereafter. The lower burnability factor (P7)
of rice hulls reduces combustion temperature thus the
reduction in nutrient enrichment. The Abiotic Resource
Depletion (ADP) decreased by 11.09%. The addition of rice
husk ash yielded a raw material requirement with lower
weighted ADP value. Rice husk co-processing influenced
ADP through raw meal to clinker ratio. Since the ratio
decreased, the displacement of Hi-Silica Mineral ore usage
with rice husk ash becomes more evident. This observation
also provided a significant correlation between raw material
cost and co-firing process. The Total PCOP decreased by
24.15% despite an increase of the impact during the
transportation phase. Bulk of the reduction is traced in the
avoided emissions during the extraction of the displaced coal.
Co-firing at the optimum mix resulted to a 12.71% increase in
Human Toxicity Potential. This is mostly traced from the
increased activity in the fuel hauling phase resulting to higher
PM10 and PM2.5 emissions.
The following variables were considered to have the major
impact on the co-firing ratio that maximizes the use of rice
hull:

50% Environmental Weighing Factor (Yu). Different weighting

factor were simulated and tested, but the result still decreased
0% upon the increase of rice husk thermal substitution. This was
GWP AP PCOP NP HTP ADP Fossil due to the impact of Global warming potential (GWP) and
-50% Energy fossil fuel resource depletion (FFDP) were the primary driver
that influenced lower environmental result.
-100%
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP, u=5). HTP was only
7.89% of the total, minimal compared with GWP and FFDP,
-150% however it was the only environmental impact category that
indicate a considerable negative impact relative to the
Material Extraction and Processing On-Site
Transportation Electricity Generation
increasing level of rice husk thermal substation. Therefore, the
Total following sensitivity analyses are done to provide possible
options to lower its implication.

Fig 3. Life Cycle Impact (LCIm) per environmental impact

category (u) in person-year/kgc

• Scenario1: Change of Rice hull source -
Transportation
From a distance of 169 Km (Main source), if the rice husk
source is transfer to nearby province with a distance of
77.35 Km from the reference cement plant, the simulated
HTP value decreased by 10.45% or a total of 1.36% in the
total overall weighted environmental impact at 64%
thermal substitution.
• Scenario2: Increase rice hull density via compression
Rice hulls have bulk density of about 9 lb. per cubic foot.
It can be compressed to 25 lb. per cubic foot without
destroying its flexibility. It shows that at 64% rice husk
substitution, if the rice husks are compressed before
delivery, then HTP value will lower by 9.8682%, while in
total weighted impact decreased by 1.73%, although
additional impact from the compression process needed to
be validated and ensure that its impact must be lower or it
will have no bearing at all.
Economic Feasibility
The cost aspect decreased by 19.08% (0.2727 PhP/KgC)
caused by the 29.10% reduction in Fuel Cost as shown in
Table 7. This was due to lower unit price of Rice husk
compared with imported fuel. Although minimal, the
reduction in Raw Material and Power cost with 7.46%
combined, was caused by the displacement of Silica Mineral
by the Rice Husk ash. Table 16 shows a minimal decline in the
raw material cost with 4.44% (); though rice husk ash contains
96.78% SiO2 by weight and served as a viable option for Hi-
Table 7. Clinker Production Cost Details (Php/kgc)
Cost Item Pure Coal 64% RH
Raw Material Cost 0.1648
Limestone 0.1174
Clay 0.0254
Hi-Silica 0.013
Copper Slag 0.0089
Fuel Cost 0.8711
Coal 0.8711
Rice Hull 0 0.304
Electricity Cost 0.3928
Total (PhP/KgC) 1.4287
Silica Mineral substitution, this was not enough, other
important minerals needed to produce clinker were not present
in the ash, thus in order to satisfy the predefined set of
constraints, the needed minerals were acquired from other raw
material components such that of Clay and Copper Slag. This
is evident in Table 12, wherein consumption of these
components increased by 17.90% and 14.19% respectively.
However, due to the huge specific Hi-Silica’s displacement,
the raw meal to clinker ratio still manage to decrease by
1.75%, which when translated to cost equivalent to
0.0073PhP/KgC reduction. The decreased in Power cost was
also relative the later observation. It reduced the specific
power consumption of Crushing and Raw Mill Facility by
7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines
3.97% (5.4782x10-4 KW-Hr/KgC), because Silica component
in rawmeal production was displaced by rice husk ash that
neither needed to be crushed nor grinded. The reduction in
Coal Mill operation caused by the lower coal demand
decreased the specific power consumption of Coal plant by
64% (1.6022x10-3KW-Hr/KgC). In general, the specific power
required declined by 3.02% compared with pure Indonesian
coal consumption. The yielded amount for Indonisian Coal
and Rice Husk were 0.3136 and 0.3040 PhP/KgC respectively.
Though, Table 13 shows an increased in the specific fuel
consumption for rice husk, but due of its low unitary price
compared with Indo coal, it still manages to provide positive
effect in of fuel cost, 29.10% reduction.
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The calculated optimum results equivalent to 64% of rice
husk thermal substitution over pure coal proved to be a
sustainable source of alternative energy, and provides
maximum environmental life cycle benefit. The simulated
result found to have no significant negative effect on cement
kiln stability and product quality due to predefined set of
environmental, process, cost and product quality constraints
that limits the dependent variables within the desirable
operating boundary.
It is important however to take into consideration rice hull
supply limitations and system modification requirements. The
un-interrupted supply of rice husk is required by the cement
plant in order to sustain the co-processing and avoid frequent
changes in raw meal mix design that will later affect the kiln
operation. Considering the variability of rice hull supply, plant
0.1574 to needs set a maximum target based on the minimum safety
0.1173 stock stored within its plant storage facility for a given period.
0.0299 It could be noted that the 64% substitution would entail a 571
0.000
MT safety stock for daily consumption which could take so
0.0102
0.6176
much space. The cement plants in the country were either
0.3136 installed or commissioned between 20 to 50 years ago. The
fuels used as the basis for the design of existing Calciner are
0.381 either BFO or coal which contains higher calorific value. A
1.1561 high substitution rate could possibly entail modifications in
the fuel feeding mechanism thus should be properly evaluated
for retrofitting time and incremental investment requirements.
It would be interesting to also simulate other municipal,
industrial or agricultural waste and by products to the system
and examine feasibility as alternative fuel or substitute
rawmaterial under the same objective function. [19], provided
significant number of options. A post study on the
environmental impact of compressing rice husk prior to
delivery will be a viable option to address the low bulk density
of the rice husk, thus decreasing the transportation
environmental impact. Multi-objective optimization presented
by [20] in Life cycle Assessment can be utilized if additional
objectives function will be defined. A detail study that aim to
determine the correlation between kiln power consumption
 7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
and raw meal mix, and the effect of raw meal oxides
composition to the rotation of kiln speed and its power
consumption. Look for alternative source of rice husk and
other municipal or agricultural waste with minimal distant
with respect to the manufacturing plant, and it is recommend
to use larger barge and trucks to transport this alternative
fuels. Improvement on the emission inventories for quarrying
operation and its energy usage is also recommended.
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Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
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7th IEEE International Conference Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology
Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM)
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) – Philippine Section
12-16 November 2014 Hotel Centro, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines