Final Cs revision notes

Dr. Nihal Gabr

 1. Topic 1 Page 1

1. Definitions of seven life processes

• Movement : change in place or position

• Respiration : chemical reaction , break down of food mainly glucose to
release energy .
• Sensitivity: ability to detect a stimulus ( change in the environment) and
carrying a response.
• Growth : Permanent increase in number and size of cells as well as dry
mass
• Reproduction : making more of the same kind .
• Nutrition : its the ability to make or OBTAIN nutrients to provide energy for
growth and development .
• excretion : removal of
Toxic metabolic waste product
Or substances found in excess
Out of the body .

2. Labels and function of animal cells / liver cells :

1. Nucleus : Controls cell activities, contain DNA, control cell division

2. Cytoplasm : Site of chemical reactions
3. Vesicles : Transport materials around the cell / out of the cell
4. Cell membrane : • Made from proteins and fats
• To keep the cell content inside
• AND controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell
5. Mitochondrion : Site of aerobic respiration to release energy
6.endoplasmic reticulum : Organelle where ribosomes are attached to for
protein synthesis
 Page 2

Vesicles

Cytoplasm

Cell membrane

3. Labels and function of plant cells :

1. Chloroplast : Contains chlorophyll to trap light energy for photosynthesis where light
energy is converted into chemical energy stored in glucose
2. Cell wall : gives support and strength
Prevent the cell from bursting , help keeps the cell turgid…made from
cellulose ..high tensile strength non stretchable
3. Vacuole : Contains water and some salts and sugars
Press out wards on cell wall
Keeping the cell turgid

4 . Light microscope vs electron microscope

Light microscope : has lower magnification and resolution ….so shows less details
Electron microscope : has higher magnification and resolution showing more details
 Page 3
5.specialised animal cells

1.Red blood cell

1.Biconcave providing large surface area so more

molecules can diffuse at the same time for faster
gas exchange / diffusion
2. No cell organelles ( but still have cytoplasm ) :
more space to have more haemogloboin to
transport more oxygen
3. Flexible ; squeeze themselves through tiniest
capillary
throat
2. Ciliated epithelium
p
1.Goblet cells secrete mucus , sticky
&
&

S
-↑ &

to trap dust and bacteria

2. Then cilia beats to sweep mucus
Goblet cells

out of the lungs back to the throat

w
3. Sperm

1. Flagellum L for swimming

2. Middle part : full of mitochondria to provide energy for the movement
3. Head has a nucleus ( genetic material ) and acrosome with
hydrolytic /. Digestive enzymes to digest in the jelly coat around the
egg to help penetrate the egg
 Page 4
4. Egg

1. Nucleus …haploid with half the number of chromosomes

2. Dense cytoplasm with large foof storage for the early development of
the embryo
3. jelly coat , protective layer and harden after fertilisation to prevent any
further entry of the sperm
4. Large in size to provide large surface area exposed to pserm to increase
chance of pentration and fertilsation

3 Sperm
Smaller in size
Has no food storage
Egg
Larger in size
Has large food
Has flagellum storage
Has acrosome No flagellum
Mobile /motile No acrosome
Many produced per Non mobile
ejaculation One per month

*
6.specialised plant cells

Root hair cell

Function : is absorption of water and minerals
Adaptation :
1. Cytoplasmic extension to provide large surface area so more water and
minerals are absorbed from soil
2. Large number of mitochondria ..for aerobic respiration , to provide energy
for active uptake of minerals
3. Thin cell wall …shorter diffusion distance
4. Concentrated vacuole to allow water absorption by osmosis
 Page 5
Topic 2 movement in and out of cell

1. Definition for diffusion

Movement of substances from area of high concentration to area of low

concentration due to random movement of molecules

2. Factors affecting diffusion

1.Thickness of the membrane

2. Temperature ….increase kinetic energy ..so molecules move faster
3. Surface area …..more molecules can diffuse at same time
4. Concentration gradient …difference between two areas
5. Size of molecules ( starch / proteins / sucrose don’t diffuse through cell
membrane as they are large ) …( glucose / amino acids …small molecules that
can diffuse )

3. Definition for osmosis

Movement of water molecules from area of higher water potential to area

of lower water potential through a partially permaeble membrane

1. effect on Animal cell

Gain water ……..burst
Lost water ….shrink
In solution of same water potential …equilibrium ..remain the same

2. Effect on plant cell

Gain water….turgid
Lost water ….flaccid / plasmolysed
Equilibrium …remain the same
 Topic 3 biological molecules Organic compounds ….C, H, O Page 6

1. Definition for macromolecules :

Macromolecules : large molecules with large molecular mass

2. Examples of biological molecules and food test , importance , solubility , fate

of excess

Carbohydrates Proteins Fats/ lipids

Name

Elements C, H, O C, H,O , N C, H, O

Small unit Glucose Amino acids 3 Fatty acids

and 1 glycerol
un
us
un

Food test Starch ..iodine solution

Proteins …buriet
Reducing sugar ..Benedict’s test Ethanol emulsion test

Importance Source of energy from For growth and tissue Source of stored
respiration repair energy
Needed for Formation of some 1. Thermal
1. Cell division protein molecules insulation
2. Movement ( muscle 1. Enzymes 2. Electrical
contraction) 2. Antibodies insulation
3. Nerve impulse transmission 3. Some hormones such 3. Protect vital
4. Formation of large biological as insulin organs
molecule

Excess amino acids

Excess Excess glucose stored in Stored ..gain weight
Broken down
liver and muscles as Build up on walls of
In liver by arteries increasing risk
glycogen
deamination of heart disease .
producing urea
In plants stored as starch
 Page 7 Carbohydrates Proteins Fats/ lipids

Solubility
Glucose …….soluble Amino acids ……soluble
Maltose …..less soluble Protein …….insoluble Insoluble
Starch / glycogen …..insoluble

3. Definition of Balanced diet

Daily intake of all nutrients i the correct amount to provide the needed amount of
energy for growth and development according to age , gender and physical
activity .

4. Why males need more carbs / energy intake than females

1. More physical activity

2. More muscles ( more muscle to fat ratio)
3. Higher metabolic rate

5. Why females need more iron than males

Replace the lost blood in monthly periods

6. Why pregnant women need more calcium

To build her baby’s bones and teeth and maintain the strength of her bones
More iron to make haemoglobin

7. Why children needs more protein than adults

Need protein for growth and tissue repair yet for adults
they only need proteins tissue repair
8. Mal nutrition definition and examples : Page 8

Eating too much or too little for a specific nutrient

1. Deficiency of vitamin C: scurvy and bleeding gums

2. Defeciency of vitamin D : less absorption of calcium into bones , weak
fragile bones , rickets in children , fatigue , muscle cramps , stunt
growth .
3. Deficiency of iron : anaemia …..pale skin , shortness of breath , lack
of energy ( iron is needed to make haemoglobin )
4. Deficiency of calcium : weak bones and teeth , poor clotting rickets in
children , and fragile bones

Eating too much fats

1. Obesity ….due to high fat in take

Energy input > energy output

3. Coronary Heart Disease…..increase in saturated fat intake …increasing

blood cholesterol level ….
Topic 4 enzymes
Page 9

1. Definition for enzymes

Protein molecules , that act as a biological catalyst that speed up

chemical reaction without itself being changed

2. Mechanism of action
Substrate
• They are protein molecules
Specific shape of
• Act as a biological catalyst
active site
• speed up chemical reaction
• By lowering activation energy
• Having a specific shape of active site
• Complementary to substrate
• So fit together ( by lock and key mechanism )
• Forming Enzyme substrate complex
• Then product leave the active site unchanged
• Cataylse wither break down ( hydrolysis ) or building up of new molecules

3. Factors affecting enzyme activity

1 . Temperature A….gradual increase with increasing temperature as

-
Rate of reaction Peak / maximum / optimum in kinetic energy of molecules , increase in frequency
Maximum number of ESCs
of collision , increase frequency of successful
collision , increasing ESCs
ion ase ase
re
inc l inc

e
as
re
K. dua

B….maximum activity as its the optimum temperature

re
inc
a

Steep decrease
Gr
E
llis

C ….enzymes starts to denature , losing shape of

Co

Enzyme starts to denature

wat active site becoming no longer complementary to
C
substrate so no ESCs .
Temperature
2. PH Page 10

Peak / maximum / optimum

Rate of reaction

Stee
Stee

:
1 acti
se in
crea
p de

vity

p
d ec r
ease
in ac
tivit
y
PH

Describe : '
Each enzyme has its optimum pH
At pH 7 its shows maximum activity
As we move far above or below the optimum there is a steep
decrease in the enzyme activity

Explain

As pH change far away from the optimum , enzyme starts

to denature losing shape of active site becoming no longer
complementary ………so no enzyme substrate complex .
At pH =7 maximum as it was optimum
Near the optimum enzyme was still active

3. Surface area

Smaller cubes have larger surface area exposed to enzymatic activity

Topic 5 photosynthesis

1.Balanced equation

6CO2 + 6 H2O …………………………………….C6H12O6+ 6O2

2. Definition
Its the process the involves by which the plant make organic compound
( carbohydrate ) from inorganic substance ( CO2 and water) using light energy
Where light energy is converted into chemical energy stored in glucose

Palisade Mesophyll

Spongy Mesophyll

Air spaces
Guard cells

3. Why leaf is considered as organ :

Leaf considered as organ as its made up of different tissues that work to
perform a group of functions …….example
Xylem vessels ….transport of water and minerals
Palisade mesophyll for trapping light and carrying photosyntheis
 4. Describe the process of photosynthesis

CO2……diffuse down concentration gradient into the leaf through stomata , then
through air spaces of spongy mesophyll , into chloroplast of mesophyll cells .

H2O ..absorbed by root from soil through root hair cells by osmosis , then moves up
in the stem in xylem vessels to enter mesophyll cells of leaf by osmosis .

Light energy ..absorbed by chlorophyll in chloroplast used as a source of energy

Where the light energy is converted into chemical energy stored in glucose

5. Why oxygen diffuse out of the leaf

Oxygen produced from photosynthesis

Higher concentration of oxygen in the leaf than outside in atmosphere
Diffuse out down its concentration gradient

6. Importance of glucose

1. Transported as sucrose in phloem ( soluble and less reactive )

2. Glucose is used in respiration to release energy for growth and active
transport
3. Glucose used to make cellulose in cell wall
4. Glucose condensed and stored as starch
5. Glucose react with nitrogen from nitrates ti form amino acids to form
proteins and making some protein molecules such as enzymes and part
of cell membrane
 7. Adaptation of leaf parts

1. Upper epidermis
A) its role in photosynthesis : Transparent to allow passage of light to reach
palisade mesophyll to be absorbed by chlorophyll in chloroplast for
photosynthesis .
B) Prevent entry of pathogens
C). Produce a waxy material called cuticle to reduce water loss

2. Palisade mesophyll
A) its role in photosynthesis
• Packed with large number of chloroplast for maximum absorption of light
energy that contains chlorophyll
• absorbing light energy to be converted to chemical energy stored in
glucose
• arranged close together to absorb more light
• arranged in columns to allow light to pass through minimum number of cell
walls
• Chloroplast arranged at the edge for maximum absorption
• Found below the upper epidermis for more light to reach them

3. Spongy mesophyll :
A) its role in photosynthesis
Loosely packed with large air spaces for diffusion of gases for gas exchange

B) Surrounded by a film of water , that absorbs excess heat and evaporates

to saturate the air spaces then water vapour diffuse out of the leaf through
stomata by transpiration .
C) . Water layer help dissolve gases to allow diffusion of gases into cells .
4. Importance of stomata :
1. Allow gas exchange
By allowing diffusion of CO2 into the leaf for photosynthesis
Oxygen into leaf for respiration
2. Allow diffusion of water vapour out of leaf to cool down the plant by
transpiration

5. Importance of guard cells

1. Control opening and closing of stomata
2. + add function of stomata

6. Xylem vessels
Transport water and minerals and support the plant

7. Phloem
transport sucrose and amino acids to other parts of plant .

8. Importance of minerals

Nitrates. And magnesium

Source of nitrogen to make amino acids …to make proteins ….for grow and
form some protein molecules such as enzymes and part of cell membrane
Deficiency of nitrates

Stunt / poor growth

Thin stem
Pale yellow leaves
Magnesium
To. Make chlorophyll to absorb light for photosynthesis
Where light energy is converted into chemical energy
Stored in glucose / starch

Deficiency
Leaves become pale yellow

9. Investigations of factors affecting photo rate

Independent :light intensity / temp/ carbon dioxide concentration

Controlled variables :
A) temperature by thermostatic water bath and heat shield
B) CO2 conc.: HCO3- of same volume
C) plant species /age /size of leaves

Why use tank of water ? ' Acting as a heat shield to absorb excess heat from the lamp and avoid

over heating thus maintaining a constant temperature

Dependent: measure volume of oxygen gas produced in unit time using a gas syringe

Why CO2 concentration should be kept constant ?

CO2 concentration is a controlled variable
As it has an effect on the rate of photosynthesis
To have fair test and valid comparison
Topic 6 animal nutrition

1. Definitions

1. Ingestion : Taking in food through mouth

2.Mechanical digestion : Involves the break down of large food PIECES into
smaller ones with no chemical change . To increase surface area for faster
enzymatic activity
3.Chemical digestion : Involves the break down of large insoluble food
molecules into small soluble ones by ENZYMES, that can be absorbed into
blood
4. Absorption : Movement of small soluble food molecules from walls of small
intestine into blood
5.Assimilation : Movement of digested food molecules into cell and become
part of cell
Example :
Glucose ..respiration
Excess glucose …stored as glycogen
Amino acids ..protein molecules such as enzymes

6. Egestion : Removal of undigested food out of the body in form of faeces

through anus

2. Examples of mechanical digestion

1.Chewing and grinding food by teeth

2. Mixing food with saliva by tongue
3. Churning action of stomach
 3. Examples of Chemical digestion

APL Where they work

S
Amylase
Lipase
Starch into maltose / glucose
Simple sugars Lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
Protease
Mouth Proteins into amino acids Small intestine
Small intestine
Trypsin
Pepsin
Small intestine
Stomach

Bile produced by liver

4. Labels of digestive system Stored in gall bladder

1. Mouth

Mechanical by teeth and tongue

Chemical ( SALIV'A ) ….contains water , mucus ,
salivary AMYLASE

Peristalsis 2. Stomach
Mechanical ( churning action of stomach walls )

Chemical ( GASTRIC JUICE ) contains

1. HCL ..provide acidic pH optimum for
pepsin
2. HCL lower pH denature enzymes of
bacteria to kill bacteria
3. PEPSIN
3. Small intestine
Mechanical ( BILE JUICE ) emulsification
Chemical ( pancreatic juice )
1. Na HCO3 neutralise acid coming from stomach
Increase pH to provide optimum pH for trypsin , lipase and amylase
2. APL ( amylase, trypsin , lipase)
3. Absorption of digested food molecules into blood

4. Large intestine

More water is reabsorbed

Form faeces for egestion

H
Parts of alimentary Juice
Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion PH
canal

Teeth
Amylase
Mouth Saliva
And tongue 7
Starch ….maltose / glucose

Stomach
Protease ( pepsin) 2
Churning of
Proteins ….amino acids Gastric
the stomach
HCL
walls

8/9
Small intestine APL • Bile juice
Bile juice , • Pancreatic
Amylase
emulsification juice
Protease ( trypsin )
Lipase

Large -absorb water back to blood + form faeces from undigested food

intestine to be egested from anus

Topic 7 plant transport

1. Transport system in plant ( vascular bundle ) :

A) xylem vessels : transport water and minerals
For support
B) phloem : transport sucrose and amino acids from leaf as a source to other
parts of the plant

2. Arrangement of vascular bundles in plant parts

Xylem
Phloem -
-

=
:
B

0
-
Root L Xylem Phloem
Leaf

Phloem
Xylem

Stem

3. Explain how water from soil reaches the xylem in root :

Soil …root hair cells …cortex ……xylem

1.Water moves by osmosis from soil where there is higher water potential into the
root where there is lower water potential through ROOT HAIR CELLS through a
partially permeable membrane .
2. then water Moves down water potential gradient across the cortex by
OSMOSIS
3. Enter the xylem vessels through pits ( non lignified part of walls of xylem )

4. What causes the water to move up in xylem vessels ?

Water vapour diffuse out of the leaf by transpiration

Lower pressure / water potential in xylem vessels
So water will move from high to ,low water potential
 5. Definition of transpiration

So transpiration is :
• Evaporation of water surrounding the mesophyll cells
• Water vapour Saturate the air spaces of spongy mesophyll
• Followed by diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf
• Through stomata

6. Factors affecting transpiration rate Water vapour diffuse out of leaf

Light intensity

Increase in light intensity , - increase opening of stomata ( to allow more CO2 to

diffuse in
-so more water vapour diffuse out of leaf ..
-increasing transpiration rate

Temperature

• increase in temperature increase rate of transpiration

1.Increase water evaporation so increase in concentration gradient
2. + increase in kinetic energy of molecules
So more water vapour diffuse out of the leaf by transpiration

Wind speed

Increasing wind speed , -so more water vapour molecules move away from the
stomata ..
-thus keeping steep concentration gradient -so more water vapour will diffuse out

Humidity

Dry air ….incresae concentration gradient

Wet air ( more humid ) decrease gradient so decrease transpirtaion
 7. Investigate effect of different light intensity on rate of water
uptake

Independent …changeable variable

Dependent … measurable
Controlled variables ..keep constant ( same )

Explain why water uptake is not equal to water lost ?

• solvent to transport minerals
• Some water is needed in photosynthesis
• Keeps the cell turgid
• Medium for enzymes / metabolic reactions
• Used in hydrolysis( break down of bonds ) in chemical reactions

Independent …light intensity

Dependent ….distance travelled by air bubble
Controlled variables :
1.Temperature using a thermostatic water bath
2. Wind speed
3. Humidity using a humidifier
4. Plant species
5. Number and size of leaves
Why we need to keep temperature constant :
• its a variable that affects the results ( rate of water uptake )
• So we keep it constant , to only one changeable variable ( light intensity )
• To have a fair test and valid comparison

Topic 8 animal transport

Topic 9 gas exchange

Topic 10 tropism

Topic 11 reproduction in flowers

Topic 12 reproduction in human

1. Labels of male and female reproductive systems

Oviduct

of

Sperm duct
 1. Testes : produce sperm cells and testosterone
2.Scrotum : protect the testes from physical damage , keep the testes at cooler
temperature than body by 2 - 3 C to allow development of sperm
3.Sperm duct : transport the sperm cells from testes to urethra by peristalsis
4. seminal vesicle and prostate gland : they produce seminal fluid ( provide
nutreints for the sperm to stay alive and medium for swimming of sperm ,
alkaline pH to neutratlise acidity of the vagina )
where the sperm together with seminal fluid called semen
5. Urethra : carry both semen and urine out of the body but there are rings of
muscles close during sexual inter course to ensure that there is no chance for
urine and semen to get mixed , never get out at same time .
6.Penis introduce the semen inside the female vagina during sexual inter course

Female :
2. Menstrual cycle
Cycle that is repeated every 28 days involving changes in ovary and uterus lining

Immature egg….then follicle is formed around an egg …so egg

matures and leaves the ovary to the oviduct by mid of cycle to
be ready for fertilisation

M
Menstruation
Building
up / repair
uterus
lining
Second half of cycle
( last two weeks )
Maintain thickness of
uterus lining to be ready
for implantation

4 14
Ovulation

During first 4 to 6 days ..menstruation..uterus lining break and shed out

through the vagina carrying unfertilised egg out .

Second week there will be repair to uterus lining lining to be ready for
implantation

By mid of cycle ovulation occurs where

the egg leaves ovary into oviduct

Second half of cycle ( last two weeks ) Maintain thickness of

uterus lining to be ready for implantation
3.. steps of fertilsation

Sperm reach the egg in the oviduct , where acrosome release enzymes that
dissolve the jelly coat surrounding egg , once the head enter , the jelly coat
harden to prevent further entry of any other sperm , then male and female
nuclei fuse together to form a zygote

4.. placenta formation

1.Allow exchange of susbtaces between fetus and mother , such as oxygen

and glucose from mother to fetus and waste products such as urea and
CO2 from fetus to mother.
2. .Prevent mixing of blood as they might have different blood groups .
3. Reduce risk of pathogen transmission .
4. Transfer antibodies from mother to fetus ( passive immunity)

5. Zygote vs embryo

One cell
Ball of cells
Diploid
All cells are diploid

6... role of umbilical cord

1.Join the fetus to placenta

2.Contain blood vessels ( arteries and veins) to take away CO2 and urea from
fetus to mother
And deliver the O2 and glucose from the mother to fetus
6... amniotic sac
Secrete amniotic fluid

1. Support and protect the fetus

1. Mechanical shock absorber
2. Prevent temperature fluctuation
3. Provide sterile environment for fetus and collect fetal wastes
1. Allow fetus to practice movement

5. For moisture

7.... HIV

How HIV affect the immune system

1.HIV destroy the T lymphocytes over a long period of time

2. So less stimulation to other types of White blood cells
3. So less antibodies production
4. Less phagocytosis
5. weakening immune system
6. So leaving the person more prone to other infections

Transmission

1. Unprotected sexual intercourse

2. Through breast feeding
3. Mother to fetus through placenta
4. Blood transfusion of contaminated blood
5. Sharing needles/ syringes / razors

Methods of prevention
1. Use condoms to prevent mixing of body fluids
2. Avoid sharing needles , use disposable plastic syringes
3. Avoid breast feeding incase of infected mother
4. Abstinence of sexual intercourse
5. Checking or heating blood