MODULE 1

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.1
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of water at a reference
𝒎 temperature of 4°C.
𝝆=
𝑽
𝝆 𝜸
The density for air at standard atmospheric 𝑺= =
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
conditions, that is, at a pressure of 101.3 kPa and a
temperature of 15°C, is 1.23 kg/m3. For water, the
The density and specific weight of water do vary
nominal value of density is 1000 kg/m3.
slightly with temperature, as described below:
Specific weight is defined as weight per unit
𝑻−𝟒 𝟐
volume.
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 −
𝑾 𝒎𝒈 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝜸= = = 𝝆𝒈
𝑽 𝑽

where g is the local gravity. The units of specific

weight are N/m3. For water, the nominal value is
9800 N/m3.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY
𝒅𝒖
Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow, 𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
or the stickiness of a fluid. Consider Fig. 1 in which
the fluid particles move in the x-direction at different
𝑵
speeds, so that particle velocities 𝒖 vary with the y- where 𝝉 − shear stress
coordinate 𝒖 = 𝒖 𝒚 . 𝒎𝟐
𝝁 − viscosity 𝑵−𝒔
𝒎𝟐
𝒅𝒖
− velocity gradient or strain rate
𝒅𝒚

The concept of viscosity can also be illustrated by

considering a fluid within the small gap between two
concentric cylinders.
Figure 1. Shear stress in fluid.

We can define the viscosity 𝝁 of the fluid by the

relationship:

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY a) the two cylinders; b) rotating inner cylinder; c) velocity
distribution; d) the inner cylinder. The outer cylinder is fixed and
the inner cylinder is rotating.

The only stress that exists to resist the applied

torque for this simple flow is a shear stress, which is
observed to depend directly on the velocity gradient;
that is;
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁 Eq. 1
𝒅𝒓
where:
𝒖 − tangential velocity component
which depends only on 𝑟
𝒅𝒖
− velocity gradient
𝒅𝒚

For a small gap ( ℎ ≪ 𝑅 ) this gradient can be

approximated by using a linear velocity distribution in
the gap.
Figure 2. Shear stress in fluid between two concentric cylinders.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY Thus,
𝒅𝒖 𝝎𝑹
= Eq. 2
𝒅𝒓 𝒉
where:
𝒉 − is the gap width.
Thus, we can relate the applied torque 𝑇 to the
viscosity and other parameters by the equation

𝑻 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚

𝑻 = 𝝉 𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝒙 𝑹
𝝎𝑹
𝑻=𝝁 𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝒙 𝑹
𝒉
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝝎𝑳𝝁
𝑻= Eq. 3
𝒉

𝑳 − represents the length of the

rotating cylinder.
Figure 2. Shear stress in fluid between two concentric cylinders.
M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY
Newtonian Fluids – fluids with constant viscosity no matter the amount of shear applied for a constant
temperature. The shear rate is directly proportional to shear stress.

Figure 3. Velocity profile of a Newtonian fluid.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY
Non-newtonian fluid has viscosity which does not vary linearly with shear stress; viscosity can change when
under stress to either more liquid or more solid.
Pseudoplastics become less resistant to motion with increased strain rate.

(b) (c)

(a) Figure 4. Pseudoplastics: (a) Honey, (b) Paint, (c) Catsup.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY

Dilatants (quicksand, slurries) become more resistant to motion as the strain rate increases.

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Dilatants: (a) Liquid armor, (b) Walking on top of a dilatant.

MFLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY
Ideal plastics (or Bingham fluids) require a minimum shear stress to cause motion.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Bingham fluids: (a) Toothpaste, (b) Mayonnaise.

MFLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY

Figure 7. Classification of fluids according to viscosity.

MFLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY

Since the viscosity is often divided by the density in the derivation of equations, it has become
useful and customary to define kinematic viscosity to be

𝝁
𝒗= Eq. 4
𝝆

where:
𝒗 − is in 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.2
VISCOSITY Rearranging Eq. 3

EXAMPLE 1 𝑻𝒉
𝝁=
A viscometer is constructed with two 30-cm-long 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝝎𝑳
concentric cylinders, one 20.0 cm in diameter and
0.13(0.001)
the other 20.2 cm in diameter. A torque of 0.13 N-m =
is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 400 rpm 2𝜋 0.1 3 (41.89)(0.3)
(revolutions per minute). Calculate the viscosity.
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟔 𝑵 − 𝒔/𝒎𝟐
Solution
The applied torque is just balanced by a resisting
torque due to the shear stresses.
Given
𝑑
𝐿 = 30 𝑐𝑚 = 0.3 𝑚 𝑅 = = 10 𝑐𝑚
2
𝑑1 = 20.0 𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚 2𝜋
𝜔 = 400 𝑥 = 41.89 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑑2 = 20.2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.202 𝑚 60
𝑇 = 0.13 𝑁 − 𝑚 ℎ = (𝑑2 −𝑑1 )/2 = 0.1 𝑐𝑚
𝑁 = 400 𝑟𝑝𝑚
MFLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.3
COMPRESSIBILITY
The bulk modulus can also be used to calculate
All fluids compress if the pressure increases, the speed of sound in a liquid;
resulting in a decrease in volume or an increase in
density. A common way to describe the
𝜷
compressibility of a fluid is by bulk modulus of 𝒄= Eq. 5
elasticity B. 𝝆

Bulk modulus of elasticity, also called coefficient of

compressibility is defined as the ratio of the change This yields approximately 1450 m/s for the speed
in pressure to the relative change in density or of sound in water at standard conditions.
volume while the temperature remains constant. It
has the same units as pressure.

∆𝒑 ∆𝒑
𝑩= =
∆𝝆/𝝆 ∆𝑽/𝑽

The bulk modulus for water at standard conditions

is approximately 2100 MPa. To cause 1% change
in the density of water a pressure of 21 MPa (210
atm) is required.
M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.4
SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is a property that results from the
attractive forces between molecules.
Eq. 6

Similarly, the pressure force in the bubble

is balanced by the surface tension forces
on the two circumferences assuming the
bubble thickness is small.

Figure 8. Internal forces (a) a droplet, and (b) a bubble

Eq. 7
The pressure force 𝒑𝝅𝑹𝟐
in the droplet balances
the surface tension force around the circumference.
Hence

M FLUID
ECHANICS

SURFACE TENSION
Figure 5 shows the rise of a liquid in a clean glass
capillary tube due to surface tension.
Lesson 1.4
There are also cases when this angle is greater than
90° (e.g., mercury); such liquids have a capillary drop.
Equating the vertical component of the surface
tension force to the weight of the liquid column:

Eq. 8

where,

ℎ – capillary rise 𝜌 – density

Figure 9. Rise in a capillary tube. 𝐷 – diameter

The liquid make a contact angle 𝛽 with the glass 𝜌 – density
tube. Experiments have shown that this angle for
water and most liquids in a clean glass tube is zero.
M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.4
SURFACE TENSION
Solution
EXAMPLE 2
A 2-mm diameter clean glass tube is inserted in Eq. 8
water at 15°. Determine the height that the water
will climb up the tube. The water makes a contact
angle of 0° with the clean glass.
Take 𝜎 = 0.0741 𝑁/𝑚. 𝟒𝝈
𝒉=
𝜸𝑫
𝟒 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟏
=
𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒎

Figure 10. Surface tension example problem.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.5
VAPOR PRESSURE
When a small quantity of liquid is placed in a
closed container, a certain fraction of the liquid will
vaporize. Vaporization will terminate when the
equilibrium is reached between the liquid and
gaseous states of the substance in the container.
The pressure resulting from the molecules in the
gaseous state is called the vapor pressure.

The vapor pressure is different from one liquid to

another. For example, the vapor pressure of water
at 15°C is 1.70 kPa absolute, and for ammonia is
33.8 kPa absolute.

The vapor pressure is highly dependent on

temperature and pressure. At high elevations
where the atmospheric pressure is relatively low,
say 3000 m, boiling would occur approximately
Figure 10. Vapor pressure.
90°C.

M FLUID
ECHANICS
 Lesson 1.5
CAVITATION
Cavitation is the formation of vapor bubbles within
a liquid at low-pressure regions that occur in
places where the liquid has been accelerated to
high velocities, as in the operation of centrifugal
pumps, water turbines, and marine propellers.

Cavitation is undesirable because it produces

extensive erosion of the rotating blades, additional Figure 11a. Formation of vapor bubbles
noise from the resultant knocking and vibrations,
and a significant reduction of efficiency because it
distorts the flow pattern.

The cavities form when the pressure of the liquid

has been reduced to its vapor pressure; they
expand as the pressure is further reduced along
with the flow and suddenly collapse when they
reach regions of higher pressure.

Figure 11b. Erosion due to cavitation

MFLUID
ECHANICS