DU-LAS Dept.

2022

1.TRANGULATION METHOD

The horizontal positions of points is a network developed to provide accurate control for
topographic mapping, charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines, and for the surveys required for
the design and construction of public and private works of large extent. The horizontal positions
of the points can be obtained in a number of different ways in addition to traversing. These
methods are triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection, and satellite positioning.

The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one
side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed. Furthermore,
if the direction of one side is known, the directions of the remaining sides can be determined.

A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an

occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured at the
vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation stations. The side
of the triangle whose length is predetermined, is called the base line. The lines of triangulation
system form a network that ties together all the triangulation stations (Fig. 1.1).

1.2 Principle of triangulation

Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles and
the length L of the side AB, have been measured. Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at
the triangulation station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known.
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D by the
method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines. By sine rule in ∆ABC,
we have

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

It would be found that the length of side can be computed more than once following different
routes, and therefore, to achieve a better accuracy, the mean of the computed lengths of a side is
to be considered.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.3 Objective of triangulation surveys

The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of stations whose
relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established. More
detailed location or engineering survey are then carried out from these stations.
The triangulation surveys are carried out
(i) to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial
methods,
(ii) to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
(iii) to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations for
latitude, longitude and gravity, and
(iv) to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as :
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

1.4 Classification of triangulation system

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of accuracy desired,
triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or secondary, and third-
order or tertiary.

 First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to cover a
vast area like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation
system can be connected.
 A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order
triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country, or province.
 A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-order
triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for detailed
engineering and location surveys.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.5 Triangulation figures and layouts

The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic
quadilateral, and the polygon with a central station (Fig. 1.3).

The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :

1. Single chain of triangles

2. Double chain of triangles

3. Braced quadrilaterals

4. Centered triangles and polygons

5. A combination of above systems.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.5.1 Single chain of triangles

When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a
valley between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as
shown in Fig. 1.4. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only
four other stations, and does not involve observations of long diagonals. On the other hand,
simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route through which distances can
be computed, and hence, this system does not provide any check on the accuracy of
observations. Check base lines and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be provided
at frequent intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.

1.5.2 Double chain of triangles

A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 1.5. This arrangement is used for covering
the larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.

1.5.3 Braced quadrilaterals

A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed diagonals
shown in Fig. 1.6, is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced quadrilateral
consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and the best
arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides using
different combinations of sides and angles. Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.5.4 Centered triangles and polygons

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle and
polygon as shown in Fig. 1.7, is known as centered triangles and polygons.

This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is required
to be covered. The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with
central stations. Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is
not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow
due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are required.

1.5.5 A combination of all above systems

Sometimes a combination of above systems may be used which may be according to the shape of
the area and the accuracy requirements.

1.6 Layout of primary triangulation for large countries

The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large country
to cover the entire area.
1. Grid iron system
2. Central system.

1.6.1 Grid iron system

In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of triangles, which usually runs
roughly along meridians (north-south) and along perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west),

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

throughout the country (Fig. 1.8). The distance between two such chains may vary from 150 to
250 km. The area between the parallel and perpendicular series of primary triangulation, are filled
by the secondary and tertiary triangulation systems. Grid iron system has been adopted in India
and other countries like Austria, Spain, France, etc.

1.6.2 Central system

In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary triangulation extending in all
directions from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is generally laid at the center of the
country (Fig. 1.9). This system is generally used for the survey of an area of moderate extent. It
has been adopted in United Kingdom and various other countries.

1.7 Criteria for the selection of triangle

The under mention points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable layout of
triangle.

1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate equal.

3. Centered polygon should be regular.

4. The arrangement should be such that the computation can be done through two or more
independent routs.

5. The arrangement should be such that at least one rout and preferably two routes form well-
conditioned triangles.

6. Angle of simple triangle should not be less than 45 degree and in quadrilateral case no angle
should be less than 30 degree. In a case of centered polygon no angle should be less than 40
degree.

7. The side of the figure should be of comparable length. Mean very long line and very short line
should be avoided.

8. The layout should be such that it require least work to achieve maximum progress.

9. As far as possible, complex figure should not involve more than 12 conditions.

1.8 Type of Triangle

 A triangle is said to be well conditioned triangle when no angle in it is neither less than
30 nor greater than 120.

 If in triangle an angle is less than 30 or greater than 120 is called ill conditioned triangle.

 An equilateral triangle having each angle of 60 is an ideal triangle.

1.9 Strength of Figure

 The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation system to

maintain the computation within a desired degree of precision.

 It plays an important role in deciding the layout of triangulation system.

Satellite stations

 To insecure well-conditioned triangle or to have a good visibility, objects such as a

chimneys, flat pols, and towers lighthouse, etc. are selected as triangulation stations.

1.10 Routine of triangulation survey

The routine of triangulation survey, broadly consists of
(a) field work, and (b) computations.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

The field work of triangulation is divided into the following operations :

(i) Reconnaissance
(ii) Erection of signals and towers
(iii) Measurement of base line
(iv) Measurement of horizontal angles
(v) Measurement of vertical angles
(vi) Astronomical observations to determine the azimuth of the lines.

(vii) Computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the lengths of all sides and
coordinates for all stations

1.10.1 Reconnaissance

Reconnaissance is the preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered by triangulation,
and collection of relevant data. Since the basic principle of survey is working from whole to the
part, reconnaissance is very important in all types of surveys. It requires great skill, experience and
judgement. The accuracy and economy of triangulation greatly depends upon proper
reconnaissance survey. It includes the following operations:

1. Examination of terrain to be surveyed.

2. Selection of suitable sites for measurement of base lines.
3. Selection of suitable positions for triangulation stations.
4. Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations.
5. Selection of conspicuous well-defined natural points to be used as intersected points.
6. Collection of miscellaneous information regarding:
(a) Access to various triangulation stations
(b) Transport facilities
(c) Availability of food, water, etc.
(d) Availability of labor
(e) Camping ground.

Reconnaissance may be effectively carried out if accurate topographical maps of the area are
available. Help of aerial photographs and mosaics, if available, is also taken. If maps and aerial
photographs are not available, a rapid preliminary reconnaissance is undertaken to ascertain the
general location of possible schemes of triangulation suitable for the topography. Later on, main
reconnaissance is done to examine these schemes. The main reconnaissance is a very rough
triangulation. The plotting of the rough triangulation may be done by protracting the angles. The
essential features of the topography are also sketched in. The final scheme is selected by
studying the relative strengths and cost to various schemes.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

For reconnaissance the following instruments are generally employed:

1. Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.
2. Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
3. Steel tape.
4. Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.
5. Heliotropes for ascertaining intervisibility.
6. Binocular.
7. Drawing instruments and material.
8. Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.

1.10.2 Erection of signals and towers

A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a triangulation station so that it can be
observed from other stations whereas a tower is a structure over a station to support the instrument
and the observer, and is provided when the station or the signal, or both are to be elevated.

Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the observations are made to these signals
from other stations. The accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the degree of accuracy
of centering the signals. Therefore, it is very essential that the signals are truly vertical, and
centered over the station mark. Greatest care of centering the transit over the station mark will be
useless, unless some degree of care in centering the signal is impressed upon.
Before deciding the type of signal to be used, the triangulation stations are selected.

A signal should fulfil the following requirements :

(i) It should be conspicuous and clearly visible against any background. To make the signal
conspicuous, it should be kept at least 75 cm above the station mark.
(ii) It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
(iii) It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
(iv) It should be free from phase, or should exhibit little phase.

Classification of signals
The signals may be classified as under:
(i) Non-luminous, opaque or daylight signals
(ii) Luminous signals.

(i) Non-luminous signals

Non-luminous signals are used during day time and for short distances. These are of various
types, and the most commonly used are of following types.
(a) Pole signal: It consists of a round pole painted black and white in alternate strips, and is

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

supported vertically over the station mark, generally on a tripod. Pole signals are suitable up to a
distance of about 6 km.
(b) Target signal: It consists of a pole carrying two squares or rectangular targets placed at
right angles to each other. The targets are generally made of cloth stretched on wooden frames.
Target signals are suitable upto a distance of 30 km.

(c) Pole and brush signal: It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 m long with a bunch of
long grass tied symmetrically round the top making a cross. The signal is erected vertically over
the station mark by heaping a pile of stones, upto 1.7 m round the pole. A rough coat of white
wash is given to make it more conspicuous to be seen against black background. These signals
are very useful, and must be erected over every station of observation during reconnaissance.
(d) Stone cairn: A pile of stone heaped in a conical shape about 3 m high with a cross shape
signal erected over the stone heap, is stone cairn. This white washed opaque signal is very useful
if the background is dark.

(ii) Luminous signals

Luminous signals may be classified into two types :
(i) Sun signals
(ii) Night signals.
(a) Sun signals: Sun signals reflect the rays of the sun towards the station of observation, and are
also known as heliotropes. Such signals can be used only in day time in clear weather.

(b) Night signals: When the observations are required to be made at night, the night signals of
following types may be used.
1. Various forms of oil lamps with parabolic reflectors for sights less than 80 km.
2. Acetylene lamp designed by Capt. McCaw for sights more than 80 km.
3. Magnesium lamp with parabolic reflectors for long sights.
4. Drummond’s light consisting of a small ball of lime placed at the focus of the parabolic
reflector, and raised to a very high temperature by impinging on it a stream of oxygen.
5. Electric lamps.

1.10.3 Measurement of base line

The accuracy of an entire triangulation system depends on that attained in the measurement of the
base line and, therefore, the measurement of base line forms the most important part of the
triangulation operations. As base line forms the basis for computations of triangulation system it
is laid down with great accuracy in its measurement and alignment. The length of the base line
depends upon the grade of the triangulation. The length of the base is also determined by the
desirability of securing strong figures in the base net. Ordinarily the longer base, the easier it will
be found to secure strong figures. The base is connected to the triangulation system through a base
net. This connection may be made through a simple figure as shown in Fig. 1.35, or through a
much more complicated.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.10.4 Measurement of horizontal angles

The instruments used for triangulation surveys, require great degree of precision. Horizontal angles
are generally measured with an optical or electronic theodolite in primary and secondary
triangulation. For tertiary triangulation generally transit or Engineer’s transit having least count of
20" is used.

1.10.5 Methods of observation of horizontal angles

The horizontal angles of a triangulation system can be observed by the following methods:
(i) Repetition method
(ii) Reiteration method.

(i) Repetition method

It is for small angles, process is repeated for every angle reading.

(ii) Reiteration method or direction method

In the reiteration method, the triangulation signals are bisected successively, and a value is
obtained for each direction in each of several rounds of observations. One of the triangulation
stations which is likely to be always clearly visible may be selected as the initial station or
reference station.

1.10.6 Measurement of vertical angles

Measurement of vertical angles is required to compute the elevation of the triangulation stations.

1.10.7 Astronomical observations

To determine the azimuth of the initial side, intermediate sides, and the last side of the
triangulation net, astronomical observations are made.

1.11 Triangulation Adjustment

Before the length computation begin, it is necessary to make triangulation adjustments.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1.11.1 Adjustment of Chain of Single Triangles

When chain of single triangles are used, it is necessary to make the following adjustments.

A) Station adjustments: the sum of the angles around each point should exactly be 3600.
B) Figure adjustments: the sum of the angles in each triangle should exactly be 1800.
For the angles about a point the difference between the sum of measured angles and 3600 is
balanced equally between the numbers of angles.

In the same fashion the difference between the sum of the measured angles in each triangle and
180 is balanced equally between the angles.

Example
1. For the triangles shown, the measured angles are given. Make station and figure
adjustment to the angles.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

Solution

a) station adjustment
Station angle measured adjusted

1 41 16 10 41 16 05

A 2 53 36 20 53 36 15

3 265 07 45 265 07 40

 360 00 15 360 00 00

4 91 16 10 91 16 20

B 5 268 43 30 268 43 40

 359 59 40 360 00 00

6 35 07 00 35 06 50

C 7 78 42 30 78 42 20

8 246 11 00 246 10 50

 360 00 30 360 00 00

9 60 01 05 60 00 55

D 10 299 59 15 299 59 05

 360 00 20 360 00 00

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

b) Figure Adjustment

Triangle angle Angle value after Angle value after

station figure adjustment
adjustment

2 53 36 15 53 36 27

ABC 4 91 16 20 91 16 32

6 35 06 50 35 07 01

 179 59 25 180 00 00

1 41 16 05 41 16 18

ACD 7 78 42 20 78 42 34

9 60 00 55 60 01 08

 179 59 20 180 00 00

1.11.2 Adjustment of a quadrilateral

When a chain of quadrilaterals are used, there are two condition which must be satisfied.

a) Geometric condition: the sum of the interior angles must equal to (n-1)*1800 ; where n is the
sum number of sides of the figure.
b) Trigonometric condition: The sine of each angle must be proportional to the opposite side of
that triangle.
Consider the diagram below;

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

Let AD be the base line and angles a to h be measured angles.

A. Adjustment of quadrilateral by approximate method

a) Geometric condition
1) The sum of interior angles of a triangle should be 1800.
For ABC; a + b + c + d = 180

For BCD; c + d + e + f =180

For ABD; a + b + h + g =180

For ACD ; h + g + f + e = 180

2) The sum of interior angles of quadrilateral should be 3600.

a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 360

3) The sum of opposite angles ( at the intersection of the diagonal) should be equal.
a+b=e+f

c+ d = g + h

b) Trigonometric condition
Log { (sin a) ( sin c) ( sin e) ( sin g ) } – log{ ( sin b)( sin d)( sin f)( sin h)} = 0

Logsina + Logsinc + Logsine + Logsing = Logsinb + Logsind + Logsinf + Logsinh

This geometric condition to be satisfied for quadrilateral adjustment

Steps in the adjustment of quadrilaterals

1. Correct each of the eight angles so that their sum will be exactly 360.
2. Adjust the vertically opposite angles so that their sum should be equal.
3. Record the log sines for every alternate angles
4. For each angle record the tabular logarithmic sine difference for 1” opposite each
logarithm.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

5. Find the average required change (α ) in log sines by dividing the differences between the
sums by eight.
6. Find the average difference () for 1”.
7. The ratio of (α/) gives the number of seconds or arc to be applied as a correction. This
correction is added to each of the four angles whose sum of log sines is the smaller and
subtracted from each of the other four angles whose sum of log sines is the larger, and
thus the correct value of angles are obtained.
Example
1. Make the necessary adjustment for the following quadrilaterals.

Solution
Step 1. Diff. = 08” correction = 08”/8 = 1”

Step 2. b + c = 660 03’ 45’’

F + g = 660 03’ 37’’

= 08”/4 = 02” (angle f and g should be increased by 2” and angle b and c are
decreased by 2” )

a + h = 1130 56’ 18’’

d + e = 1130 56’ 20’’

02”/4 = 0.5” ( add 0.5” to a and h and subtract from d and e

step 3. compute the log sines for every alternative angles.

Log sin a = -0.203621777 log sin b = -0.395087669

Log sin c =-0.17182419 Log sind = -0.15152906

Log sin e = -02963892 log sin f = -0.195294325

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

Log sin g = -0.35152145 log sin h = -0.014645342

Step 4. Compute the logarithmic sine difference for 1”

Log sin (a + 1”) - Log sin a = 2.6*10-6

Log sin (c +1”) - Log sin c = 2.3*10-6

Log sin (e + 1”) - Log sin e =0.9*10-6

Log sin (g + 1”) - Log sin g = 4.3*10-6

Log sin (b + 1”) - Log sin b = 4.8*10-6

.etc

step 5

7.2434434 – 7.2433935 = 49.9 * 10-6

therefore α = (49.9 * 10-6 ) / 8 = 6.24 * 10-6

step 6

 = 20.2 * 10-6 / 8 = 2.53 * 10-6

step 7

 = 6.24/2.53 = 2.47”

Correction: add 2.47” to all angles whose sines of log sine is smaller ( i.e for angles a, c, e and g)
& vice-versa ( subtract 2.47” from b, d, f, and h )

Note : If the corrections are properly applied, the sum of the log sines of the corrected angles will
agree with in 1 or 2 in the last 7th decimal place.

2. TRILATERATION

A trilateration network, like triangulation, may consist of a series of single triangles, braced
quadrilaterals and center point polygons or combinations of these but, unlike triangulation, the
observed quantities are the distances not the angles.

With trilateration, the length of the sides of series of joined or overlapping triangles are measured
(usually with EDM equipment) and the angles are computed from the lengths. It has the following
advantages.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION

 DU-LAS Dept. 2022

1) It is more accurate than the other two types due to the fact that distances can be measured
more accurately than angles.
2) It is generally less expensive than triangulation.
3) More checks available.

In combined triangulation and trilateration systems, all sides and angles in the joined or
overlapping triangles are measured. This method provides the strongest control networks.

The methods used in trilateration computations are very similar to those used in triangulation and
proceed as follows.

1. Using the measured or calculated baseline length and all the measured lengths, the angles
in the network are calculated using the cosine rule. This is carried out by breaking down
all the figures into their constituent triangles and proceeding as follows.
2. In triangle ABC of figure below, the angles are given by:

These computed angles are adjusted by the method discussed in adjusting triangulation
systems.

3. The strength of the figure of the system is evaluated.

4. Starting at the baseline, all the lengths of the sides in the network are computed using the
adjusted angles. In addition the bearings of all the triangle sides throughout the network
are computed, again using the adjusted angles.
5. The computed bearings and distances obtained in (4) are used to calculate coordinates
throughout the network.
A disadvantage of trilateration is that, compared to triangulation, the number of geometric
conditions for adjustment is less than that for equivalent figures.

TRIANGULATION GEODETIC SURVEYING TRILATERATION