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The effects of industrial pre-frying and domestic cooking methods on the

nutritional compositions and fatty acid profiles of two different frozen
breaded foods

Article in LWT · October 2010

DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2010.03.013

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 LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

The effects of industrial pre-frying and domestic cooking methods on the

nutritional compositions and fatty acid profiles of two different frozen
breaded foods
J.M. Miranda a, *, B. Martínez a, B. Pérez b, X. Antón b, B.I. Vázquez a, C.A. Fente a, C.M. Franco a,
J.L. Rodríguez c, A. Cepeda a
a
Laboratorio de Higiene Inspección y Control de Alimentos, Dpto. de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela,
Facultad de Veterinaria, Pabellón 4 P.B., Campus Universitario 27002-Lugo, Spain
b
Clavo Congelados, S. A. Caldas de Reis. 36650, Pontevedra, Spain
c
Dpto. de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002-Lugo, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study was carried out to determine the effects of manufacturer pre-frying in olive and sunflower oil,
Received 10 September 2008 as well as domestic cooking methods (deep-frying in olive and sunflower oil and baking) on the prox-
Received in revised form imate compositions and fatty acid profiles of tuna pasties and ham nuggets. The pre-frying processes
16 March 2010
reduced moisture and carbohydrates and increased ash, fat and protein content in both pre-fried
Accepted 18 March 2010
products. During cooking, the frying processes caused a reduction in moisture content and an increase in
fat content in relation to pre-fried samples, while baking did not modify the proximate composition. The
Keywords:
fatty acid profiles of products during both the pre-frying and frying processes became similar to those of
Breaded
Frying
the culinary fat used. Thus, the frying processes reduced the proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and
Baking increased the proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in the foods when olive oil was used,
Fatty acids whereas increased the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in products fried in sunflower
oil. The fatty acid profiles of fried samples tended to be more similar to the frying fat than to the pre-
frying fat, whereas the fatty acid profiles identified during the pre-frying process for baked products
were not significantly modified. Thus, samples pre-fried in olive oil and subsequently baked showed the
best proportion of fat content and PUFA/SFA, MUFA þ PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 ratios of the tested products.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The growing tendency to spend less time on food preparation
has led to a great demand for time-saving “ready-to-heat”
frozen products. Thus, breaded foods are very popular today, and
their consumption has increased in recent years both in high-
convenience consumer societies and in developing countries
(Varela, Salvador, & Fisman, 2008). When breaded foods are
prepared, there are significant changes in their macronutrient
compositions (Weber, Bochi, Ribeiro, Victório, & Emanuelli,
2008). At present, these products are often commercially pre-
fried, as deep-fat frying is the most common way to prepare
breaded frozen foods. During frying, the culinary fat or oil
becomes an important ingredient of the fried food because
water is lost and oil penetrates into the food (Ramírez & Cava,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 982252231x22454; fax: þ34 982254592.
E-mail address: josemanuel.miranda@usc.es (J.M. Miranda).
2005; Varela & Ruiz-Rosso, 2000). Thus, the high amount of
culinary fat absorbed during the frying process can, in some
cases, 1/3 of the total weight of the final food product (Mellema,
2003), dramatically change the fatty acid profile of the food
(Ramirez, Morcuende, Estévez, & Cava López, 2005).
In developed Western countries, people’s eating habits are
currently characterised by an excess intake of calories and saturated
fatty acids (SFAs). Diet with this type of fatty acid consumption
have been linked to many diseases common in developed countries,
such as obesity and coronary heart disease (Mata, Alonso, & Mata,
2002; Mellema, 2003; Ramírez & Cava, 2005). Consequently,
there has been a growing movement over the last decade to
reduce the fat content of deep fried products (Altunakar, Sahin, &
Sumnu, 2004; Mellema, 2003; Salvador, Sanz, & Fiszman, 2005).
According to the recommendations of scientific authorities and
nutritional organisations including the World Health Organisation
(WHO, 2003), dietary fat intake should ideally account for
between 15% and 30% of total diet energy, and no more than 10% of

0023-6438/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.03.013
1272 J.M. Miranda et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276
caloric intake should be from SFAs. Additionally, it was also rec-
ommended that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which may
help prevent coronary heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes
and cancer (Haak, Sioen, Raes, Van Camp, & De Smet, 2007; Weber
et al., 2008), should represent 6e10% (n-6, 5-8%; n-3, 1e2%) of total
diet energy, where around 10e15% should be from mono-
unsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). Additionally, health agencies and
professional organisations have issued recommendations to
reduce the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio of the diet (Garg, Wood, Singh, &
Moughan, 2006; Simopoulos, Leaf, & Salem, 1999; WHO, 2003).
This n-6/n-3 ratio is strongly correlated with mortality caused by
cancer and cardiovascular, inflammatory and autoimmune
diseases (Hoz, D`Arrigo, Cambero, & Ordóñez, 2004), and it was
reported that the greatest risk factor for arteriosclerosis and
ischemic heart disease is not hypercholesterolemia or high
cholesterol intake but a high n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (Okuyama &
Ikemoto, 1999). In most industrial western societies, this ratio is
currently about 15e20:1 (Simopoulos, 2002), whereas nutritional
experts recommend an n-6/n-3 ratio of less than 4:1 (Valencia,
Ansorena, & Astiasarán, 2006).
It was reported that it is possible to improve health status and
well-being to reduce the risk of disease through modifications in
one’s diet and/or dietary components (Jiménez-Colmenero, 2007).
In this sense, nutritional authorities have persistently recom-
mended a reduction in dietary saturated fatty acids and an increase
in dietary MUFAs and PUFAs by increasing the consumption of
foods rich MUFAs and PUFAs. Nevertheless, the unwillingness of
consumers to change dietary habits suggests that in order to
facilitate changes in eating habits, it is necessary to establish
recommendations for cooking the most common foods (such as
breaded frozen foods) using methods that will help consumers
adhere to the nutritional recommendations.
The aims of the present work were to evaluate how the type of
culinary fat used for pre-frying and the cooking method (baking
and deep frying in olive or sunflower oil) affects the proximate
composition and fatty acid profiles of two different breaded frozen
foods and to determinate which cooking method will better
influence the final proximate compositions and fatty acid profiles of
cooked foods.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample collection and cooking procedures
Pre-cooked, frozen and breaded fish-based (tuna pasties) and
meat-based (ham nuggets) foods from three different fabrication
lots were elaborated by a local industry (Clavo congelados, Ponte-
vedra, Spain).
In the case of tuna pasties, breading (50% of total weight) was
prepared with margarine, salt, sugar, wheat meal and water, while
content (50% of total weight) was prepared with egg white, pepper,
onion, salt, sugar, sunflower oil, tomato, tuna, water, wheat meal,
citric acid (E-330) and sodium hydrogen carbonate (E-500ii).
With respect to ham nuggets, breading (20% of total weight) was
prepared with corn flour, grated bread, salt and wheat meal, while
content (80% of total weight) was prepared with cured ham,
dextrose, food red 7 (E124), margarine, onion, powdered hydro-
genated milk, salt, sugar, water and wheat meal.
After preparation, samples were divided into two groups and
pre-fried in an industrial fryer (Movilfrit FA6, Barcelona, Spain). The
oils employed were olive oil with a maximum acidity value of 1
(palmitic acid 10.2%, palmitoleic acid 1.2%, stearic acid 2.6%, oleic
acid 77.6% and linoleic acid 6.5% as major fatty acids) (Oliterra,
Aceites Toledo, Toledo, Spain) or refined sunflower oil (palmitic
acid 6.6%, stearic acid 4.5%, oleic acid 23.4% and linoleic acid 60.8%
as major fatty acids) (Donsol, Aceites Toledo, Toledo, Spain) at
175e180  C for 25 s. After pre-frying, samples were allowed to
reach the room temperature and were frozen at 21  C the same
day. After this, each of the two groups of pre-fried samples was
divided into three groups depending on the final cooking protocol:
deep fried in olive oil, deep fried in sunflower oil, or baked in
a conventional oven.
Deep frying was performed by placing three pasties or nuggets
at a time in olive or sunflower oil in a 3 L deep fryer (Movilfrit FA6)
at 175e180  C, 3 min 30 s (tuna pasties) or 4 min (ham nuggets).
Fresh oil was used for all pre-frying and frying processes (three
frying operations, one for each lot fabricated), and oil quality
(measured as total polar compounds content) was controlled with
a Testo 925 instrument (Testo, Lenzkirch, Germany). The remaining
oil from the food surface was removed by manually shaking the
aluminium basked that contained the samples.
Conventional baking was performed in a pre-heated oven,
225  C for 10 min before samples were introduced. Three pasties or
nuggets were cooked at a time at 225  C, with a little decrease in
the oven temperature at the moment of introducing the samples,
with convection for 12 min (tuna pasties) or 11 min (ham nuggets)
in a conventional oven (Balay 3HT503XP, Barcelona, Spain).
Temperatures of the fryers and the ovens were measured by
their own thermometers and an external calibrated thermometer
(Testo 925) equipped with two different probes: an immersion-
penetration probe (type K 0628 1292) employed to measure the
temperature of the deep fryers, and a robust air probe (type K 0602
1793) used for the oven.
Both raw, pre-fried and cooked products were allowed to cool to
room temperature, were homogenised by a mincer (Moulinex
A320R1, Alenqon, France) and were subsequently stored at 21  C
prior to chemical analysis.
2.2. Chemical analysis
Chemical analyses were carried out in raw and pre-fried prod-
ucts and subsequently it was developed a general factorial design
with pre-fried and cooked products (21  31) with 9 replicates
(3 different lots in triplicate) for a total of 54 experiments for each
food type. Analysis of the proximate compositions of raw, pre-fried,
and cooked breaded tuna pasties and ham nuggets was performed
for moisture, protein, fat, ash, carbohydrate, and energy contents.
Moisture was defined as the weight loss after 4 h at 60  C, followed
by 12 h at 105  C in an oven (Selecta Digiheat, Barcelona, Spain)
(based on method 950.46). The crude protein (N  6.25) was
determined by the Kjeldahl nitrogen procedure (method 981.10).
Fat content was determined by petroleum ether 40e60  C
according to the Soxhlet extraction (method 991.36). The ash
content was determined by calcination in a muffle furnace at 550  C
(method 920.153) (AOAC, 2002). Carbohydrate and energy contents
were determined according to the method described by Allison and
Senti (1983).
Lipid extracts were obtained from 3 g of sample according to the
Bligh and Dyer (1959) method. Fatty acid composition was deter-
mined by gas chromatography. Boron trifuoride/methanol was
used for the separation of fatty acid methyl esters (Morrison &
Smith, 1964), which were dissolved in hexane. A HewlettePack-
ard 6890 Series gas chromatograph fitted with a capillary column
DB-WAX (30 m  0.25 mm i.d. and 0.25 mm film thickness) and
a flame ionisation detector was used. The temperatures of the
injection port and the detector were 230 and 250  C, respectively.
The carrier gas was hydrogen, 1.7 mL/min. The sample volume was
1 mL. Fatty acid methyl esters were identified by comparison of the
retention times of the peaks in the sample with those of standard
pure compounds (Sigma, St Louis, USA) run previously. Tricosanoic
 J.M. Miranda et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276 1273

Table 1
Compositions of raw, pre-fried, and cooked tuna pasties prepared by different methods (mg/100 mg of total matter).

Parameter R PO PS POFO POFS POB PSFO PSFS PSB

Moisture 56.35  1.24a 51.88  1.46b 50.77  1.67b 45.91  1.34c 46.11  1.89c 48.98  2.22b 49.38  2.04b 49.85  1.86b 50.34  1.46b
Ash 1.94  0.02b 2.22  0.09a 2.21  0.07a 2.18  0.09a 2.11  0.10a 2.19  0.13a 2.09  0.11a 2.24  0.08a 2.19  0.06a
Protein 4.71  0.26b 4.82  0.42b 5.15  0.23a 5.12  0.21 a
5.00  0.23a,b
4.86  0.14 b
4.54  0.17b 4.85  0.07b 4.80  0.13b
Carbohydrate 35.74  1.17a 27.07  1.34c 27.42  1.33c 29.24  1.48b 28.32  1.34b,c 28.77  1.43b,c 27.41  1.33c 26.72  1.85c 28.40  1.15b,c
Fat 1.26  0.23c 13.81  1.76b 14.05  1.26b 17.65  1.12a 18.46  1.42a 15.20  1.46b 16.58  1.43a 16.34  1.65a 14.27  0.97b
Energy 173.14  4.17d 254.05  5.11c 256.73  4.12c 296.29  4.12a 299.18  5.34a 271.32  6.03b 277.02  5.82b 273.34  5.76b 261.23  3.83c

R, raw; PO, pre-fried in olive oil; PS, pre-fried in sunflower oil; POFO, pre-fried and fried in olive oil, POFS, pre-fried in olive oil and fried in sunflower oil; POB, pre-fried in olive
oil and baked; PSFO, pre-fried in sunflower oil and fried in olive oil; PSFS, pre-fried and fried in sunflower oil; PSB, pre-fried in sunflower oil and baked. Values are
means  standard error (n ¼ 9). aedValues in the same row with different letters are significantly different.

acid (C23:0) was used as a fatty acid internal standard. Fatty acid
content was expressed as percentage of total fat content. The oil
from the fryer that was absorbed by the food was determined as
described by Pérez-Camino, Márquez-Ruiz, Ruiz-Méndez, and
Dobarganes (1991).
2.3. Consumer acceptability
Forty-two untrained consumers were recruited among students
and personnel of the Departamento de Higiene e Inspección de
Alimentos, Lugo, Spain. They were between 23 and 58 years of age
(50% female and 50% male) and were habitual consumers of brea-
ded frozen foods. The consumers evaluated the appearance, flavour,
taste, crispness and overall acceptance to a seven-point hedonic
scale as follows: 7-like extremely, 6-like very much, 5-like
moderately, 4-neither like or dislike, 3-dislike moderately, 2-dislike
very much, 1-dislike extremely. Spring water and unsalted bread
were provided to clean the mouth between samples.
2.4. Statistical analysis
The Student’s t-test was used to determinate differences
between the nutritional components and sensory parameters of
different types of foods. Differences were considered significant for
P < 0.05. Data analyses were conducted using the statistical
package Statgraphics Plus version 5.0 (SAS Institute, North Carolina,
USA).
3. Results and discussion
The compositions of tuna pasties and ham nuggets, as well as
the changes during pre-frying and cooking processes, are shown in
Table 1 (tuna pasties) and Table 2 (ham nuggets). In both cases,
moisture significantly decreased during the pre-frying process with
respect to raw products. After pre-frying, no significant decrease in
moisture content was found during cooking in the oven. There was
a significant moisture content decrease in all fried products except
tuna pasties pre-fried in sunflower oil and subsequently fried in
olive or sunflower oil. The decrease in the moisture content
observed has been described as a the fact that leads the other
components, such as protein, fat and ash, to increase significantly
during the pre-frying and cooking processes, as was previously
found by other authors, such as Castrillón, Navarro, and Álvarez-
Pontes (1997) and Weber et al. (2008) for frying fish products
and by García-Arias, Pontes, García-Linares, García-Fernández, and
Sánchez-Muniz (2003) for chicken frying. Additionally, variations
in the carbohydrate content were unclear, since the carbohydrate
content in food matter decreased in the pre-fried products with
respect to raw products, but afterwards, increased in most cooked
products with respect to pre-fried foods.
Thus, when the data is expressed on a dry matter basis, only the
fat content increased significantly in pre-fried products with
respect to raw products, as well as in fried with respect to pre-fried
products, due to additional oil uptake during the pre-frying and
frying processes, as has been previously reported by other authors
(Varela et al., 2008). Thus, in the case of tuna pasties, fat content
expressed as dry matter increased from raw products (2.23 g/100 g)
to pre-fried foods (26.62 g/100 g for pre-fried in olive oil and
27.67 g/100 g for pre-fried in sunflower oil), and from pre-fried
foods to fried foods (38.44 g/100 g for samples pre-fried and fried in
olive oil, 40.03 g/100 g for samples pre-fried in olive oil and fried in
sunflower oil, 33.58 g/100 g for samples pre-fried in sunflower oil
and fried in olive oil, and 32.78 g/100 g for samples pre-fried and
fried in sunflower oil). For the case of ham nuggets, on a dry matter
basis, fat content also increased from raw products (7.87 g/100 g) to
pre-fried foods (21.3 g/100 g for pre-fried in olive oil and 22.02 g/
100 g for pre-fried in sunflower oil), and from pre-fried foods to
fried foods (26.7 g/100 g for samples pre-fried and fried in olive oil,
25.64 g/100 g for samples pre-fried in olive oil and fried in
sunflower oil, 25 g/100 g for samples pre-fried in sunflower oil and
fried in olive oil, and 24.95 g/100 g for samples pre-fried and fried in
sunflower oil) (data not shown). However, in the case of baked
products, fat content remained statistically unaltered with respect
to pre-fried products. Antonova, Mallikarjunan, and Duncan (2003)
obtained similar results in nuggets that were deep-fried, micro-
waved, or cooked in an oven.
The fact that increases in the fat content of products during pre-
frying and frying processes are higher than the decrease in the

Table 2
Compositions of raw, pre-fried, and cooked ham nuggets prepared by different methods (mg/100 mg of total matter).

Parameter R PO PS POFO POFS POB PSFO PSFS PSB

Moisture 63.54  0.56a 57.27  1.11b 57.67  1.27b 53.52  1.21c 54.14  1.56c 55.72  1.43b,c 55.86  1.87b 55.79  1.81b,c 57.18  1.12b
Ash 1.90  0.03c 2.22  0.08a 2.01  0.09b 2.04  0.11b 2.24  0.06a 2.03  0.10b 2.04  0.11b 2.01  0.08b 1.98  0.08a
Protein 6.28  0.26b 6.45  0.42 a,b
6.54  0.23a 6.35  0.21 a,b
6.48  0.23 a,b
6.47  0.14a,b 6.15  0.17 b
6.19  0.07b 6.42  0.13a,b
a b b a a a,b a,b a,b
Carbohydrates 23.28  0.63 21.86  1.11 21.08  1.06 23.80  1.10 23.26  1.36 23.02  1.31 21.98  1.51 22.09  1.43 21.76  0.97b
Fat 5.00  0.33c 12.20  1.26b 12.70  1.07b 14.29  0.86a 13.88  0.56a 12.38  1.26b 13.97  1.43a 13.92  1.65a 12.66  0.97b
Energy 163.24  2.11c 223.04  4.13b 224.78  3.72b 249.21  3.02a 243.88  3.04a 229.38  3.13b 238.25  4.15a 238.40  4.26c 226.66  2.91b

R, raw; PO, pre-fried in olive oil; PS, pre-fried in sunflower oil; POFO, pre-fried and fried in olive oil, POFS, pre-fried in olive oil and fried in sunflower oil; POB, pre-fried in olive
oil and baked; PSFO, pre-fried in sunflower oil and fried in olive oil; PSFS, pre-fried and fried in sunflower oil; PSB, pre-fried in sunflower oil and baked. Values are
means  standard error (n ¼ 9). a,b,cValues in the same row with different letters are significantly different.
1274 J.M. Miranda et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276

Table 3
Fatty acid compositions of raw, pre-fried, and cooked tuna pasties prepared by different methods (mg/100 mg of total fat).

Fatty acid R PO PS POFO POFS POB PSFO PSFS PSB

Lauric C12:0 0.28  0.06a 0.17  0.03b 0.18  0.02b 0.08  0.06c 0.08  0.04c 0.07  0.01c 0.08  0.12c 0.11  0.04c 0.08  0.03c
Myristic C14:0 0.75  0.09a 0.28  0.06b 0.30  0.02b 0.25  0.05b 0.28  0.02b 0.29  0.02b 0.25  0.02b 0.26  0.01b 0.30  0.01b
Palmitic C16:0 26.83  0.39a 16.74  0.73b 14.07  0.10c 14.23  1.11c 12.99  0.22c 14.56  0.86c 13.40  0.31c 12.58  0.28c 14.00  0.23c
Stearic C18:0 7.42  0.24a 5.05  0.12c 5.31  0.04b 5.38  0.53b 5.53  0.47b 5.22  0.46b,c 4.74  0.30c 5.20  0.48b,c 5.36  0.12b,c
Arachidic C20:0 0.53  0.03a 0.43  0.09b 0.39  0.11b 0.43  0.05b 0.44  0.02b 0.47  0.02b 0.42  0.11b 0.37  0.13b 0.39  0.03b
Behenic C22:0 0.26  0.06c 0.27  0.04c 0.29  0.04c 0.58  0.04a 0.56  0.01a 0.36  0.03b 0.38  0.09b 0.60  0.12a 0.58  0.06a
P
SFA 36.41  0.48a 23.28  0.95b 20.90  0.03c 21.08  1.35c 20.12  0.69c 21.17  1.18c 19.46  0.47c 19.33  0.85c 21.10  0.31c
Palmitoleic C16:1 (n-7) 0.17  0.01c 0.38  0.02b 0.18  0.03c 0.34  0.06b 0.22  0.04c 0.44  0.03a 0.37  0.06b 0.13  0.02a 0.12  0.02c
Oleic C18:1 (n-9) 32.83  0.42b 53.80  1.36a 33.18  1.37b 55.34  1.12a 35.75  0.68b 55.98  3.41a 49.98  1.03a 32.36  0.48b 32.44  0.54b
Vaccenic C18:1 (n-7) 1.81  0.03b 2.19  0.21a 1.37  0.04c 1.91  0.09a,b 1.36  0.07c 2.16  0.05a 1.86  0.27b 1.21  0.08d 1.38  0.04c
Gadoleic C20:1 (n-9) 0.40  0.01a 0.21  0.08b 0.17  0.04b 0.21  0.02b 0.19  0.03b 0.23  0.11b 0.18  0.02b 0.18  0.03b 0.07  0.08c
P
MUFA 35.51  0.38c 56.98  1.36a 35.14  0.15c 58.03  1.11a 37.96  0.58c 59.13  3.18a 52.71  0.88b 34.22  0.59c 34.13  0.36c
Linoleic C18:2 (n-6) 25.8  0.61b 18.15  0.84c 43.27  0.17a 18.76  0.41c 40.44  1.56a 17.92  0.41c 26.78  0.57b 45.55  1.24a 43.63  0.28a
Linolenic C18:3 (n-3) 1.94  0.08a 1.02  0.07b 0.72  0.12c 1.11  0.05b 0.70  0.01c 1.15  0.06b 0.75  0.11c 0.71  0.15c 0.85  0.13c
EicosatrienoicC20:3 (n-3) 0.25  0.04a 0.09  0.06b 0.10  0.01b 0.09  0.04b 0.08  0.03b 0.14  0.04b 0.10  0.04b 0.11  0.03b 0.12  0.04b
P
PUFA 27.99  0.55c 19.74  1.02d 44.13  0.37a 20.89  0.31d 41.33  0.91b 19.7  0.63d 27.83  0.51c 46.45  0.88a 44.77  0.37a
P
n-6 25.80  0.48d 18.35  0.52c 43.32  0.15b 16.92  0.35f 37.44  1.37c 18.14  0.44e 27.18  0.31d 45.75  0.98a 43.63  0.28
P
n-3 2.19  0.04a 1.39  0.08c 0.82  0.02e 1.54  0.12c 0.69  0.01f 1.76  0.13b 0.85  0.11e 0.71  0.15e,f 1.14  0.12d
PUFA/SFA 0.77  0.02f 0.85  0.03e 2.11  0.02b 0.99  0.06d 2.05  0.14b 0.93  0.08d,e 1.43  0.08c 2.40  0.07a 2.12  0.03b
MUFA þ PUFA/SFA 1.74  0.02d 3.29  0.11c 3.78  0.03b 3.74  0.09b 3.94  0.20b 3.72  0.11b 4.14  0.10a 4.17  0.11a 3.74  0.05b
n-6/n-3 11.78  0.49f 13.20  0.88e 52.83  0.34b 10.98  1.50f 54.26  1.51b 10.31  0.71f 31.98  1.14d 64.43  1.45a 38.27  0.79c

R, raw; PO, pre-fried in olive oil; PS, pre-fried in sunflower oil; POFO, pre-fried and fried in olive oil, POFS, pre-fried in olive oil and fried in sunflower oil; POB, pre-fried in olive
oil and baked; PSFO, pre-fried in sunflower oil and fried in olive oil; PSFS, pre-fried and fried in sunflower oil; PSB, pre-fried in sunflower oil and baked. Values are
means  standard error (n ¼ 9). aefValues in the same row with different letters are significantly different. Only fatty acids that reach 0.25 mg/100 mg of total fat in some
sample are shown.

moisture content indicates that the increase in fat content is also
related to oil absorption during these processes. Since fat content is
the most important component from the energy content point of
view, the increase in the fat content of products caused an increase
in the energy content of foods. Thus, the calorie content increased
in the pre-fried products with respect to raw products and in the
fried products with respect to pre-fried ones. Therefore, in the case
of deep-fried and subsequently baked samples, no significant
increase was found in their calorie content during baking.
Tables 3 and 4 display the fatty acid compositions of fat from
raw, pre-fried, and cooked tuna pasties and ham nuggets,
respectively. As was found by other authors for pork loin (Ramírez
& Cava, 2005), fish (Sánchez-Muniz, Viejo, & Medina, 1992; Sioen
et al., 2006), or pan-fried pork (Haak et al., 2007), pre-frying and
frying processes involve a replacement of fatty acids from the food
fat with those from the culinary fat used during the frying process,
altering the lipid compositions of the fried foods so that they
become similar to that of the culinary fat. However, in the present
work, lower fatty acid percentages of the oil from the fryer
(between 36 and 52% of major fatty acids) were determined in the
food fat than those obtained by Romero, Sánchez-Muniz, and
Cuesta (2000) in pre-fried frozen potatoes or Pérez-Camino et al.

Table 4
Fatty acid compositions of raw, pre-fried, and cooked ham nuggets prepared by different methods (mg/100 mg of total fat).

Fatty acid R PO PS POFO POFS POB PSFO PSFS PSB

Lauric C12:0 1.18  0.41a 0.58  0.32b 0.59  0.14b 0.56  0.25b 0.41  0.13c 0.52  0.13b 0.42  0.37c 0.55  0.31b 0.41  0.13c
Myristic C14:0 3.03  0.21a 1.51  0.18c 1.64  0.10b 1.51  0.11c 1.67  0.12b 1.65  0.04b 1.67  0.06b 1.50  0.05c 1.67  0.12b
Palmitic C16:0 32.16  0.31a 22.15  0.22b 20.30  0.04c 22.14  0.16b 20.45  0.43c 23.23  0.31b 22.40  0.08b 19.36  0.11c 20.45  0.43c
Heptadecenoic C17:0 0.43  0.06a 0.23  0.03c 0.22  0.02c 0.22  0.07c 0.29  0.01b 0.30  0.07b 0.26  0.04b 0.26  0.04b 0.29  0.02b
Stearic C18:0 12.68  0.10a 8.56  0.11c 8.69  0.24c 8.66  0.05c 9.37  0.26b 9.04  0.05c 8.51  0.06c 8.35  0.07c 9.37  0.26b
Arachidic C20:0 0.29  0.03c 0.33  0.02c 0.26  0.02c 0.32  0.03c 0.39  0.02b 0.48  0.08a 0.33  0.05c 0.24  0.06c 0.39  0.02b
Behenic C22:0 0.15  0.02c 0.09  0.02d 0.35  0.01b 0.06  0.03d 0.44  0.06a 0.14  0.01c 0.12  0.04c,d 0.38  0.07a,b 0.44  0.06a
P
SFA 50.16  0.23a 33.54  0.27b 32.19  0.09b 33.63  0.06b 33.36  0.35b 35.62  0.34b 33.81  0.18b 30.79  0.13c 33.37  0.35b
Palmitoleic C16:1 (n-7) 1.68  0.03a 1.29  0.07c 1.00  0.05d 1.28  0.06c 0.99  0.04d 1.47  0.01b 1.30  0.04c 0.90  0.11d 0.99  0.04d
Oleic C18:1 (n-9) 32.70  0.31b 50.51  0.39a 32.95  0.11b 50.65  0.42a 31.25  0.54b 48.30  0.72a 48.88  0.68a 32.57  0.25b 31.65  0.54b
Vaccenic C18:1 (n-7) 2.46  0.07a 2.45  0.04a 1.85  0.06b 2.55  0.10a 1.78  0.14b 2.30  0.06a 2.35  0.02a 1.70  0.04b 1.69  0.14b
Gadoleic C20:1 (n-9) 0.47  0.02a 0.39  0.04b 0.36  0.05b 0.38  0.01b 0.38  0.03b 0.45  0.01a 0.38  0.01b 0.37  0.02b 0.38  0.03b
P
MUFA 38.15  0.19b 55.24  0.24a 36.55  0.31c 55.49  0.41a 35.02  0.31d 53.24  0.81a 53.57  0.69a 36.08  0.17c 35.09  0.20d
Linoleic C18:2 (n-6) 10.03  0.13d 9.89  0.34d 30.44  0.14b 9.91  0.21d 30.49  0.34b 9.71  0.52d 11.73  0.17c 32.34  0.12a 30.51  0.42b
Linolenic C18:3 (n-3) 0.84  0.04b 0.97  0.04a 0.43  0.03e 0.81  0.02b 0.48  0.02d 0.88  0.02b 0.71  0.03c 0.47  0.05d 0.43  0.09d,e
Eicosapentaenoic C20:5 (n-3) 0.25  0.03a 0.11  0.02b 0.11  0.01b 0.11  0.01b 0.06  0.01c 0.11  0.02b 0.10  0.03b 0.07  0.02c 0.10  0.08b
P
PUFA 11.19  0.12d 11.16  0.26d 31.26  0.27b 10.88  0.19d 31.59  0.15b 11.14  0.46d 12.62  0.15c 33.13  0.09a 31.53  0.15b
P
n-6 10.04  0.13d 10.13  0.30d 30.72  0.15b 9.96  0.23d 30.56  0.31b 10.07  0.46d 11.79  0.13c 32.56  0.11a 31.00  0.35b
P
n-3 1.15  0.03a 1.03  0.03b 0.54  0.03f 0.92  0.02c 0.63  0.03e 1.07  0.02b 0.83  0.03d 0.57  0.04e,f 0.53  0.06f
PUFA/SFA 0.23  0.01e 0.33  0.02d 0.97  0.02b 0.32  0.00d 0.95  0.01b 0.31  0.01d 0.37  0.02c 1.08  0.03a 0.94  0.01b
MUFA þ PUFA/SFA 0.98  0.02e 1.98  0.03c 2.11  0.04b 1.97  0.02c 1.99  0.03c 1.81  0.03d 1.96  0.03c 2.25  0.03a 1.99  0.03c
n-6/n-3 8.73  0.78d 9.83  0.68c 56.89  1.78a 10.83  0.45c 56.59  3.34a 9.41  0.49c 14.20  0.82b 57.12  1.67a 58.49  1.56a

R, raw; PO, pre-fried in olive oil; PS, pre-fried in sunflower oil; POFO, pre-fried and fried in olive oil, POFS, pre-fried in olive oil and fried in sunflower oil; POB, pre-fried in olive
oil and baked; PSFO, pre-fried in sunflower oil and fried in olive oil; PSFS, pre-fried and fried in sunflower oil; PSB, pre-fried in sunflower oil and baked. Values are
means  standard error (n ¼ 9). aefValues in the same row with different letters are significantly different. Only fatty acids that reach 0.25 mg/100 mg of total fat in some
sample are shown.
 J.M. Miranda et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276 1275

(1991) in pre-fried frozen potatoes and battered hake. In this sense,
it was reported that many factors can affect the oil exchange
between the food and the bath oil, such as frying temperature and
duration of the frying process, surface area of the food, or food
proximate composition (Cuesta, Romero, & Sánchez-Muniz, 2001).
Thus, for samples pre-fried in olive oil, it was found that 46.8% of
oleic acid recovered from tuna pasties and 39.7% of oleic acid
recovered from ham nuggets came from the bath olive oil (which
contains 77.6 mg/100 mg of oleic acid). On the other hand, for
samples pre-fried in sunflower oil, it was found that 49.9% of
linoleic acid recovered from tuna pasties and 40.2% of linoleic acid
recovered from ham nuggets came from the bath sunflower oil
(which contains 60.8 mg/100 mg of linoleic acid). In the case of
most other fatty acids contained in the raw products, the content in
pre-fried and cooked products significantly decreased with respect
to raw products due to the described absorption by the food matter
of fatty acids belonging to the culinary fat.
However, we found that in both fried tuna pasties and ham
nuggets, most of their fatty acids tended to resemble the culinary
fat in which they were finally fried as opposed to the culinary fat in
which they were pre-fried, especially in the case of the fatty acids
found in higher amounts, like oleic in olive oil-fried products and
linoleic acid in sunflower oil-fried products.
On the other hand, it has been reported that trans poly-
unsaturated fatty acids can be present in the frying oils as
a consequence of the heat treatment (Cuesta et al., 2001; Romero
et al., 2000). In the present work, trans fatty acids did not reach
a content higher than 0.25 mg/100 mg of total fat in any sample.
Thus, these results suggest that trans fatty acids are minor
constituents of both raw foods and frying oils and that the iso-
merisation process caused by the heat treatment applied was
insignificant (Cuesta et al., 2001; Romero et al., 2000).
Thus, Tables 3 and 4 indicate that frying in olive oil resulted in
a decline in the proportion of SFA and an increased proportion of
MUFA, whereas frying in sunflower oil resulted in a decline of SFA
of products and an increase in the PUFA fraction, independent of
the oil used in the pre-frying process. Additionally, as was
described above for the composition of the fat and energy contents,
cooking the pre-fried foods by baking them did not significantly
modify the fatty acid profile of the product.
The information reported in Tables 3 and 4 indicates that the
PUFA:SFA ratio increased in sunflower oil-fried tuna pasties and
ham nuggets with respect to raw products, and reaches higher
ratios than products fried in olive oil. Besides, total PUFA n-6 fatty
acids decreased in tuna pasties fried in olive oil or pre-fried in olive
oil and baked with respect to raw products, and did not
significantly change in ham nuggets after frying in olive oil or pre-
frying in olive oil and subsequently baking. However, there was
a considerable increase in the PUFA n-6 fatty acid content in both
tuna pasties and ham nuggets fried in sunflower oil or pre-fried in
sunflower oil and subsequently baked as a result of linoleic acid
incorporation from the frying media.
From a nutritional point of view, products fried in sunflower oil
showed higher amounts of PUFA and higher PUFA/SFA and
PUFA þ MUFA/SFA ratios, which are commonly used to indicate the
nutritional fat quality of a food. In this sense, the PUFA/SFA obtained
in sunflower oil-fried tuna pasties was greater than 2, which clearly
exceeds the recommended ratio of 0.4e1 (Jiménez-Colmenero,
2007). However, the main nutritional drawback of the products
fried in sunflower oil was the high n-6/n-3 ratio. This ratio is
strongly correlated with mortality caused by cerebrocardiovascular
diseases, cancer and inflammatory and autoimmune diseases (Hoz
et al., 2004), and nutritional experts have recommended values of
less than 4:1 (Valencia et al., 2006). Although both products fried in
olive oil and those pre-fried in olive oil and subsequently baked
showed higher ratios than the recommended 4:1, these products
showed ratios between 3-fold and 6-fold lower than products fried
in sunflower oil or those pre-fried in sunflower oil and subse-
quently cooked by baking.
Taking into consideration the fatty acid compositions of the
products prepared using these methods as well as the nutritional
recommendations, olive-oil-fried products have a more desirable
fatty acid profiles and nutritional ratios than sunflower-oil-fried
products, even when, in some cases, these ratios are far from
desirable values. However, because baking has minor effects on the
fatty acid profiles and on the PUFA/SFA, MUFA þ PUFA/SFA and n-6/
n-3 ratios found in the of pre-fried products, products pre-fried in
olive oil and subsequently baked have better nutritional properties
than the products prepared by the other cooking methods tested in
the present work.
With respect to the consumer’s acceptability, previous studies
(Romero et al., 2001) reported a higher overall acceptance for
breaded foods deep-fried in olive oil than those deep-fried in
sunflower oil. However, in our case, no significant differences in
overall acceptance were found between any of the cooked foods
tested (Table 5). The only exception was that the panellists found
that tuna pasties pre-fried and fried in olive oil, tasted better than
those pre-fried in sunflower oil and subsequently baked. With
respect to crispness, as was previously reported by Antonova et al.
(2003), significantly higher crispness was found for deep-fried
foods than for baked foods. Thus, in the case of tuna pasties, baked
pasties showed lower crispness than pasties pre-fried and fried in

Table 5
Consumer acceptability of tuna pasties and ham nuggets cooked by different methods.

Parameter POFO POFS POB PSFO PSFS PSB

Tuna pasties
Appearance 5.23  1.23 5.12  1.11 4.92  1.32 5.19  0.92 5.27  1.31 4.88  1.32
Flavour 5.31  1.45 5.04  1.23 5.09  1.12 5.08  1.67 5.12  0.93 5.03  1.08
Taste 6.02  1.23a 5.21  1.42a,b 5.76  1.32a,b 5.92  1.54a,b 5.18  1.32a,b 4.69  1.21b
Crispness 5.62  1.23a 5.43  1.45a,b 4.12  0.89b 5.43  1.34a,b 5.61  1.24a,b 4.23  1.03b
Overall acceptance 5.54  1.19 5.21  1.23 5.23  1.11 5.43  1.32 5.18  1.21 4.92  1.23

Ham nuggets
Appearance 5.43  1.21 5.32  1.41 5.21  1.12 5.35  1.16 5.54  1.43 5.11  1.41
Flavour 5.52  1.43 5.44  1.32 5.38  1.34 5.34  1.56 5.15  1.21 5.12  1.20
Taste 5.98  1.34 5.41  1.18 5.82  1.23 5.87  1.34 5.02  1.32 5.07  1.26
Crispness 5.91  1.32a 5.78  1.23a 4.24  1.21b 5.56  1.56a,b 5.71  1.23a 4.14  1.21b
Overall acceptance 5.84  1.31 5.46  1.23 5.23  1.31 5.61  1.25 5.21  1.30 5.05  1.43

POFO, pre-fried and fried in olive oil, POFS, pre-fried in olive oil and fried in sunflower oil; POB, pre-fried in olive oil and baked; PSFO, pre-fried in sunflower oil and fried in
olive oil; PSFS, pre-fried and fried in sunflower oil; PSB, pre-fried in sunflower oil and baked. Values are means  standard error (n ¼ 42). a,bValues in the same row with
different letters are significantly different.
1276 J.M. Miranda et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1271e1276
olive oil. For the case of ham nuggets, significantly lower crispness
was found for baked nuggets than for most deep-fried nuggets.
Only for the case of nuggets pre-fried in olive oil and fried in
sunflower oil no significant differences were obtained for crispness
with respect to baked nuggets.
4. Conclusions
The fatty acid compositions of the tested products tended to
become similar to that of the culinary fat used in frying, suggesting
that the influence of culinary fat is more important in the final
composition of the cooked product than the raw product compo-
sition or than the pre-frying fat. Frying in sunflower oil increased
the PUFA proportion in the tested products but had negative effects,
especially on the n-6/n-3 ratio. Frying products in olive oil had more
beneficial effects than frying in sunflower oil. Additionally, the
results showed that oven cooking did not significantly modify the
fatty acid compositions of pre-fried samples. These samples
showed a lower fat content than fried samples, and only in the case
of crispness did consumer’s acceptability decrease with respect to
deep-fried foods.
From a nutritional point of view, breaded products pre-fried in
olive oil and subsequently baked had more beneficial properties
than the other culinary processes due to the lower level of total fat
content compared to fried products and the better fatty acid
profiles and ratios compared to products pre-fried in sunflower oil.
In addition, it was also found that the pre-frying process,
although it determined the fatty acid composition of the food, had
no effect on the fatty acid profiles of products fried in oils different
than the ones used in the pre-frying process.
Thus, food companies that pre-fry their products in culinary fats
with better nutritional characteristics (such as olive oil) in order to
advertise healthier products must seriously advise consumers that
these products must be baked or fried in the same oil as that used
during the pre-frying process. Otherwise, the nutritional benefits
created during the pre-frying process will be useless to the
consumers and harmful to the companies due to economic disin-
centives for the use of costly oils in the pre-frying process.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Xunta de Galicia for financial support
(project PGIDIT05TAL003E). The authors also thank Carmen
Carreira for her expert technical assistance.
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