Physics Higher Level

Internal Assessment

Research Question: What is the effect of varying

voltages on the radiant heat power emitted by a
tungsten filament light bulb?

Session: May 2023

Number of pages: 12

1
Introduction

My father is a businessman who works in the lighting industry and he is my biggest source of inspiration
as I often see him working hard to introduce new and innovative products. As a young child who looked
up to his father, I naturally began developing an interest in his work. Taking note of my inquisitiveness, he
would often bring home the various light bulbs he was working on to show how they operated. I was
intrigued by each and every light bulb as to my young mind, it was amazing to think that a mere switch
could vary how brightly something shone. However, out of the plethora of bulbs and lamps I had seen, the
tungsten filament bulb piqued my interest the most. I was always fascinated to see it glow, changing
colors from a vibrant red to a warm yellowish-white, and was extremely curious to know how it shone in
the first place. Moreover, I wanted to know why certain bulbs were brighter than others.

Initially, I lacked the knowledge required to completely comprehend the working principle of the tungsten
filament bulb. However, after learning the concept of blackbody radiation in depth, I realized that I could
now answer one of the earliest questions I had about the various phenomena in Physics. Thus, I decided to
investigate the effect of varying voltages on the radiant heat power emitted by a tungsten filament light
bulb.

Background Information

The radiant power emitted by a body is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that the
total energy radiated per unit time by a body is proportional to its surface area 𝐴 and the fourth power of
its absolute temperature 𝑇 (Tsokos) as follows:

𝐸 4
𝑇
= σ𝐴𝑇

Where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

−8 −2 −4
σ = 5. 67 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾

As the energy radiated per unit time is equal to the power 𝑃, the Stefan-Boltzmann law can be rewritten as

4
𝑃 = σ𝐴𝑇
The Stefan-Boltzmann law applies to theoretical objects known as blackbodies, which are perfect
absorbers of radiation. Considering a blackbody with a surface temperature 𝑇 whose surroundings have a
temperature 𝑇𝑠, the rate of emission must be

4
𝑃 = σ𝐴𝑇

2
And the rate of absorption must be

4
𝑃 = σ𝐴𝑇𝑠

Therefore, the net rate of emission 𝑃𝑛 is

4 4
𝑃𝑛 = σ𝐴𝑇 − σ𝐴𝑇𝑠
4 4
𝑃𝑛 = σ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )

When 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠, the body is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, which indicates that the rate of
emission must be equal to the rate of absorption. Thus, it follows that a blackbody must be a perfect
emitter too.

However, a blackbody is only a theoretical object as in reality, a body cannot be a perfect absorber and
emitter of radiation. A body which does not absorb all incident radiation and emits less than a blackbody
is known as a gray body, and it is characterized by its emissivity 𝑒, which is a measure of the effectiveness
with which a material radiates energy. Mathematically, it is defined as the ratio of the energy radiated by a
gray body to the energy radiated by a blackbody under identical conditions. (“Emissivity - an Overview |
ScienceDirect Topics”). The value of emissivity ranges between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates a perfect
reflector (a material that does not emit any radiation) and 1 indicates a perfect emitter or a blackbody.
Based on this, the Stefan-Boltzmann law can be written as

4
𝑃 = 𝑒σ𝐴𝑇

The emissivity of a body mainly depends on its chemical composition, the temperature of its surface, and
the nature of its surface (Britannica). For example, materials with shiny and smooth surfaces will have a
low emissivity as they are good reflectors. Conversely, materials with dull and rough surfaces will have a
high emissivity. The emissivity of a tungsten filament varies from 0.375 and 0.400 depending on its
temperature (Rajendra), which indicates that it is a relatively poor emitter of radiation when compared to
a blackbody. This can be used to explain why tungsten filament bulbs are extremely inefficient.

Based on the information outlined above, a mathematical model can be developed to accurately determine
the effect of varying voltages on the radiant heat power emitted by a tungsten filament light bulb. As the
emissivity 𝑒 and surface area 𝐴 of the tungsten filament remains constant, they will not affect the
relationship between the variables that will be studied. Therefore, for simplicity, the tungsten filament can
be assumed as a blackbody (𝑒 = 1) with a surface area 𝐴 = 1.

4
𝑃 = σ𝑇

3
At higher temperatures, the atoms of the tungsten filament gain kinetic energy and vibrate more, which
increases the resistance of the tungsten filament. Thus, the resistance 𝑅 can be assumed to be proportional
to the temperature.
𝑅∝𝑇

𝑉
Thus, 𝑇 can be substituted as 𝑅 in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation, and as 𝑅 = 𝐼
, this can be used to
indirectly find the relation between the voltage and the radiant heat power emitted.

4
𝑃 = σ𝑅
Taking logarithms on both sides,
4
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ𝑅 )
4
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅)

Therefore, assuming the tungsten filament to be a blackbody, there exists a linear relationship between
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) and 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅), and plotting a graph of 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) vs 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅) will give a straight line with gradient 4 and
𝑦-intercept as 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ).
A tungsten filament behaves as an ohmic conductor when it operates in the ohmic region at temperatures
below 2500℃ (Nave). Ohmic materials at constant temperatures obey Ohm’s law, where 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 and thus,
𝑉 ∝ 𝑅. For a tungsten filament, an increase in the voltage will result in an increase in the temperature of
the filament, and as 𝑅 ∝ 𝑇, the resistance will also increase.

Variables
Independent Variable: The voltage across the tungsten filament light bulb is the independent variable,
which is varied using a rheostat connected to a AC to DC power source from 2V to 12V in increments of
2V. The minimum voltage was 2V as the bulb first began glowing at this voltage.
Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is the radiant heat power 𝑃 emitted by the tungsten filament
bulb. The current 𝐼 through the circuit is measured and the relation 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 is used to determine the
power.

Controlled Variables:
1. Tungsten filament light bulb: The same tungsten filament bulb must be used for each reading as
the power rating of the bulb will have an impact on the radiant heat power emitted by the bulb.
2. Time between each reading: After each reading, the circuit was switched off for 1 minute to allow
the tungsten filament to cool down and prevent overheating, which could result in increased
values of resistance and affect the power radiated by the bulb.
3. Time for which circuit is kept on: Each reading is taken after the circuit is kept on for 30 seconds
as this allows the circuit to reach a steady state, where the current at each point in the circuit is

4
 constant (Amherst College). At a certain voltage, when the circuit reaches the steady state, the
temperature of the tungsten filament will become constant as the number of electrons flowing
through the filament per unit time are equal. This ensures that the power radiated by the filament
remains constant at each voltage.
4. Temperature: The experiment was conducted at room temperature (298 K) to ensure that the rate
of emission of the tungsten filament for each trial was not differently affected.

Apparatus
1. Tungsten filament light bulb (24 W)
2. AC to DC power supply
3. Rheostat
4. Digital Voltmeter (⁤±0. 01 V)
5. Digital Ammeter (⁤±0. 01 A)
6. Connecting Wires
7. Alligator/Banana clips

Experimental Setup

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram

Figure 1 above shows the schematic diagram for the experimental setup, where the rheostat is used to
vary the voltage, the digital voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across the bulb, and the digital
ammeter is used to measure the current flowing through the circuit.

Methodology
After setting up the apparatus according to Figure 1, I followed these steps for each trial, taking 5 trials
for each voltage to account for any variations in the steady state of the circuit:

1. Switch on the circuit and vary the voltage using the rheostat until the digital voltmeter reads 2V.
2. After 30 seconds, when the circuit has reached steady state and the current is the same at all
points in the circuit, record the current as measured by the ammeter.

5
 3. Switch off the circuit for 1 minute to allow the tungsten bulb to cool down before the next reading
is taken.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for 4V, 6V, 8V, 10V, and 12V.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 five times.
As I was working with a glass bulb which heated quickly, I wore goggles and protective gloves as a safety
precaution and that the wire connections were well insulated to prevent the possibility of shocks.
Moreover, the circuit was switched on for only 1 minute for each trial to prevent excessive overheating of
the wires, rheostat and the tungsten filament bulb.

Data and Results: Raw Data

Current (⁤±0. 01 A)
Voltage Average Current
(⁤±0. 01 V) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 (⁤±0. 01 A)

2.00 0.61 0.61 0.63 0.59 0.61 0.61

4.00 0.80 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.81

6.00 1.08 1.06 1.06 1.09 1.05 1.07

8.00 1.31 1.33 1.30 1.31 1.29 1.31

10.00 1.59 1.57 1.59 1.59 1.58 1.58

12.00 1.67 1.66 1.66 1.69 1.65 1.67

Table 1. Raw Data for 5 trials

Analysis: Processed Data

Table 2 below shows the sample data processing and uncertainty propagation for the first reading of 2V,
using the raw data collected in Table 1. The symbol Δ represents the absolute uncertainty in any quantity.

Quantity being calculated Calculation Uncertainty Propagation

Average Current 𝐼 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇5
Δ 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
0.01+0.01+0.01+0.01+0.01
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 5

0.61+0.61+0.63+0.59+0.61 Δ 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ±0. 01 𝐴

𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 5
=

𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0. 61 ± 0. 01 𝐴

6
Quantity being calculated Calculation Uncertainty Propagation

Filament Resistance 𝑅 𝑅=
𝑉
=
2.00
Δ𝑅 = (
Δ𝑉
+
Δ𝐼
)×𝑅
𝐼 0.61 𝑉 𝐼
0.01 0.01
Δ 𝑅 = ( 2.00 + 0.61
) × 3. 3
𝑅 = 3. 28 ± 0. 07 Ω
Δ 𝑅 = ±0. 07 Ω

Power 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 2. 00 × 0. 61 Δ𝑅 = (
Δ𝑉
+
Δ𝐼
)×𝑃
𝑉 𝐼
0.01 0.01
Δ 𝑃 = ( 2.00 + ) × 1. 2
𝑃 = 1. 22 ± 0. 03 𝑊 0.61

Δ 𝑃 = ±0. 03 𝑊

𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑅) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (3. 28) = 0. 516 ± 0. 009 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛)

Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅) = 2

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 + Δ 𝑅
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3. 28 + 0. 07 = 3. 35
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 − Δ 𝑅
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3. 28 − 0. 07 = 3. 21
𝑙𝑜𝑔(3.35) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(3.21)
Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅) = 2

−3
Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅) = ±9. 27 × 10

𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑃) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1. 22) = 0. 086 ± 0. 011 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔( 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛)

Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 2

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃 + Δ 𝑃
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1. 22 + 0. 03 = 1. 25
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃 − Δ 𝑅
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1. 22 − 0. 03 = 1. 19
𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.25) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.19)
Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 2

Δ 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = ±0. 011

Table 2: Sample calculation for 2V

7
 Voltage Average Resistance R Power P (W) Log (R) Log (P)
(⁤±0. 01 V) Current (Ω )
(±0. 01 A)

2.00 0.61 3.28 1.22 0.52 0.09

4.00 0.81 4.94 3.24 0.69 0.51

6.00 1.07 5.61 6.42 0.75 0.81

8.00 1.31 6.11 10.48 0.79 1.02

10.00 1.58 6.33 15.80 0.80 1.20

12.00 1.67 7.19 20.04 0.86 1.30

Table 3. Processed Data Table

The corresponding uncertainties of the processed data are tabulated in Table 4 below. Once again, the
symbol Δ represents the absolute uncertainty in any quantity.

Voltage Average Δ R (Ω ) Δ P (W) Δ Log (R) Δ Log (P)

(⁤±0. 01 V) Current
(±0. 01 A)

2.00 0.61 ± 0.07 ± 0.03 ± 0.010 ± 0.010

4.00 0.81 ± 0.07 ± 0.05 ± 0.010 ± 0.010

6.00 1.07 ± 0.06 ± 0.07 ± 0.005 ± 0.005

8.00 1.31 ± 0.05 ± 0.09 ± 0.004 ± 0.004

10.00 1.58 ± 0.05 ± 0.12 ± 0.003 ± 0.003

12.00 1.67 ± 0.05 ± 0.14 ± 0.003 ± 0.003

Table 4. Uncertainties associated with processed data

The uncertainties in this investigation arise due to the uncertainties in the measured values of voltage and
current. As the voltage and current are measured using digital meters, the uncertainty in the measured
values is equal to the least count (0.01). This uncertainty is carried forward when calculating the values of
resistance and power, and a general trend can be observed for the uncertainties in these calculated values.

8
As the voltage increases from 2.00 V to 12.00 V, the uncertainty in the resistance gradually decreases
from ± 0.07 Ω to ± 0.05 . Conversely, the uncertainty in the power increases from ± 0.03 W to ± 0.14
W as the voltage increases from 2.00 V to 12.00 V.

The uncertainties in log (R) and log (P) are quoted to three decimal places as they are extremely small,
which suggests that they do not have a significant impact on the results of the investigation. Moreover,
upon rounding off the values to 3 decimal places, the values of Δ Log (P) and Δ Log (P) become equal.
This once again shows the extremely small range of the uncertainties.

Figure 2. Plot of Log (R) vs Log (P)

Figure 2 shows the linear trendline for the plot of log (R) vs log (P), which depicts the proportionality
between the two quantities. This supports the theory presented in the background. The gradient of the line
is 3.7344, the 𝑦-intercept is -1.9231, and its R2 value is 0.9532, which indicates a strong positive
correlation. I also observed that the uncertainty in log (P) is much smaller than the scale of the 𝑦 axis,
whereas the uncertainties in log (R) are comparable to the scale of the 𝑥 axis. Thus, only the horizontal
error bars are visible.

For an Ohmic conductor, the temperature is assumed to be constant so that 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼, thus the resistance is
constant. However, as seen in table 3, an increase in voltage results in an increase in the current as well as
the resistance. This is due to the variation in temperature with an increase in the voltage across the
tungsten filament. As the temperature of the tungsten increases, the particles gain kinetic energy and
vibrate faster about their mean position, resulting in an increased number of effective collisions with the
electrons flowing through the filament. Thus, the resistance of the tungsten filament increases with the
temperature, which supports the theory presented in the background information.

9
Evaluation
As mentioned in the Background Information, the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅)
shows that there exists a linear relationship between log (P) and log (R), where a plot of log (P) vs log (R)
produces a straight line with a gradient of 4. The data collected through this investigation strongly
supports the theory presented in the Background Information as a plot of log (P) vs log (R) produces a
linear trendline with a gradient of 3.7344, which is a deviation of 6.64% from the expected value of 4.
This shows that the data collected is accurate as the gradient of the plot obtained is quite close and well
within tolerance of the expected value of the gradient. The extremely small range of uncertainties in the
data also shows that the results are accurate and reliable. The various strengths of the investigation that
have allowed me to accurately collect the data are as follows:

1. The current flowing through the circuit was measured 30 seconds after the circuit was switched
on to allow the circuit to reach steady state. This ensures that the temperature of the tungsten
filament remains constant for a particular voltage, which is essential to accurately determine the
relationship between the voltage and the radiant heat power (or relationship between resistance
and the radiant heat power) as variations in temperature will result in variations in resistance,
which could affect the results of the investigation.
2. I waited one minute after each reading to allow the tungsten filament to cool down. If the voltage
was increased immediately, there would be a sudden change in the temperature and thus the
resistance of the tungsten filament, which would drastically affect the data collected. Waiting one
minute before the next reading also prevented the circuit from overheating, which was an
important safety precaution.
3. As the investigation was straightforward and relatively easy to conduct, I was able to minimize
any human error, and could accurately collect all the data in one sitting, which ensured that the
uncontrollable environmental factors did not vary and affect the results.

Although the results of the investigation can be considered as accurate and reliable, there are certain
weaknesses and limitations in the methodology which affected the results to a certain extent. More
specifically, the 𝑦-intercept of the graph should be 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) as seen from the equation
−8
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅). Therefore, the expected value of the 𝑦-intercept is 𝑙𝑜𝑔(5. 67 × 10 ),
which is -7.25. However, the 𝑦- intercept obtained experimentally is -1.9321, which is a large deviation of
73.4%. This large deviation can be explained through the weaknesses mentioned in the table below.
Weakness / Limitations Effect On Results Improvements

The method does not account for
the emissivity of tungsten,
which ranges from 0.375 to
0.400, as it assumes that
tungsten is a blackbody (𝑒 = 1)
This may have impacted the
gradient of the line in Figure 1.
Moreover, it may have resulted
in the large deviation in the
value of 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ).
The value of emissivity can be
considered when developing a
mathematical model, which
would result in a more accurate
gradient and y-intercept.

10
The method assumes that the
surface area of the tungsten
filament is 1 m2, whereas the
tungsten filament has an
extremely small surface area.
The temperature of the tungsten
filament cannot be measured
The range of voltages used in The power supply used could A more sensitive power supply
this investigation was limited by only provide a maximum with a higher maximum voltage
the AC to DC power supply
This assumption would also
affect the gradient and the value
of 𝑙𝑜𝑔(σ) obtained
experimentally, similar to the
error caused by assuming
tungsten is a blackbody.
Measuring the temperature of
the tungsten filament would
have been extremely hard as it is
housed in a glass case filled with
inert gas. Thus, I had to find the
relation between power and
resistance instead of power and
temperature, which would have
been more accurate (as shown
by the Stefan-Boltzmann law).
Finding the temperature of the
tungsten filament would also
allow me to ensure that the
circuit has reached a steady
state, which would improve the
reliability of the results.
voltage of 12V in increments of could be used. For example, a
The surface area of the filament
could also be considered when
developing the mathematical
model, which would provide a
more accurate gradient and
y-intercept of the graph in
Figure 1. To measure the surface
area of the filament, 2 bulbs
would have to be used. The
filament from one bulb can be
removed from the glass casing
and stretched out. Then, its
length can be measured using a
ruler and its diameter can be
measured using calipers to
calculate the surface area. The
second bulb is then used to
measure the values of voltage
and current through the circuit.
The temperature of the tungsten
filament could be calculated
theoretically through the
temperature coefficient of
resistance and by finding the
relationship between
temperature and resistivity. It
could also be calculated using
the ratio of resistances at
different voltages as 𝑅 ∝ 𝑇.
11
 2V, which limited the range of
voltages for which the
experiment could be conducted.
Taking a larger range of voltages
would have increased the
reliability of the data.
buck converter could be used,
which can provide up to 40V in
much smaller increments than
the power supply used in the
investigation.

CONCLUSION
With a relatively simply experimental design, and thorough data processing, I was able to indirectly
determine the relationship between voltage and the radiant heat power emitted by a tungsten filament light
bulb by finding the relationship between the resistance of the tungsten filament and the radiant heat power
emitted. The data obtained in the experiment has a very small range of uncertainties and supports the
theory provided in the Background Information, which makes it reliable and accurate. Thus, I was able to
effectively answer the research question of this investigation.

Further Exploration

As a part of further exploration, an investigation involving various bulbs of the same power rating but
varying diameters and lengths of tungsten filaments could be carried out. This would allow me to better
understand the properties of tungsten. Moreover, the radiant heat power emitted by a nichrome wire could
be measured, which would increase the accuracy of the investigation in many ways. For example, the
surface area of the nichrome wire can be calculated relatively easily in comparison to a tungsten filament.
Moreover, the temperature of the nichrome wire could be measured directly using a temperature probe. A
radiometer, which detects infrared radiation could also be used to directly measure the radiant flux or the
power emitted by a tungsten filament or nichrome wire. This data can then be used to compare and cross
evaluate the data obtained experimentally. Finally, to investigate the effect of different factors on the

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