Running head: MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 1

Master’s Project: Theoretical Substantiation

Benjamin Lakner

PSYCH/710

December 2, 2019

Dr. Amy Hakim

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Master’s Project: Theoretical Substantiation

Successfully responding to a request for proposal (RFP) requires the respondent to link

the RFP’s deliverables to theoretical and practical interventions within the respondent’s field of

expertise. Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychologists must achieve the same goal, identifying

relevant I-O concepts, strategies, and skills that support any solutions proposed in their RFP

responses. While the typical formal RFP response does not require comprehensive theoretical

substantiation, establishing solid supporting evidence and research lends additional strength,

clarity, and structure to submitted proposals. The following paper provides such theoretical

substantiation for an RFP response document, providing background and contextual evidence in

the form of a preliminary literature review, as well as linking each recommendation within the

proposal to peer-reviewed I-O psychology research.

Theoretical Substantiation Contents & Organization

While establishing the theoretical framework upon which the respondent based the RFP

response document, it is helpful to outline the contents and structure of the following

substantiation paper. As such, the following document includes an introduction to the RFP and

its requisite components, an explanation of the theoretical background of training in professional

organizations, and a primer on industry-recognized best practices in training design and

development. Finally, the paper concludes by drawing clear connections between the

recommendations set forth in the RFP response document and existing theory and research in the

field of I-O psychology and beyond.

Introduction to the RFP

The RFP referenced throughout the following paper, issued by the Community Relations

Service (CRS) of the Department of Justice (DOJ), solicited proposals for the development of a
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training program for multiparty facilitation strategies (DOJ, 2015). The RFP specifies that the

training program proposed by a successful respondent must consist of several elements in

support of CRS and DOJ operational and strategic objectives. The requested elements include

identifying multiparty facilitation frameworks supported by existing research, collaboration with

CRS staff to incorporate existing CRS practices and procedures, and delivery of a training

program built upon a foundation of best practices within the field of training design and

development (DOJ, 2015).

Multiparty Facilitation Frameworks

The first element requested in the RFP is identification of research- and evidence-based

multiparty facilitation frameworks. According to the CRS RFP, these frameworks must promote

exploration and analysis of multiparty issues, consensus building between stakeholder groups,

and effective problem solving that includes agreement capturing at the conclusion of the

facilitation process (DOJ, 2015). The RFP response document provides an overview of the core

elements that often make up successful facilitation and negotiation between groups with

divergent goals and needs, including identification of issues, problem solving, and decision-

making (Lakner, 2019).

Collaboration with CRS Staff

The second element identified within the RFP is conducting focus group sessions with

CRS staff members to gather information regarding the agency’s existing policies, procedures,

and strategies (DOJ, 2015). Using the information gathered during the focus group sessions

provides the respondent with a critical opportunity to identify foundational concepts and

approaches for the respondent’s proposal. The RFP response document reviewed in this paper
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provides examples of key questions to ask and details to obtain while collaborating with CRS

staff (Lakner, 2019).

Training Program Design & Delivery

The third and final element required by CRS is the development and delivery of a

training program for multiparty facilitation. Of particular importance to CRS is the inclusion of

experiential learning opportunities and adult learning practices (DOJ, 2015). The inclusion of

experiential and adult learning helps to maximize comprehension and retention of training

material. The RFP response further outlines the importance of diverse learning activities in

pursuit of greater learning potential across the various learning styles and personalities often

encountered among adult professionals (Lakner, 2019).

Multiparty Facilitation Overview

As the central requirement of the CRS RFP, it is critical to ensure the respondent

understands what multiparty facilitation entails. The first step in understanding multiparty

facilitation is in defining the term. On the surface, such a definition is inherent to the term itself.

Multiparty refers to a situation in which multiple parties, or stakeholder groups, maintain some

investment (Thompson, 2012). Facilitation, also known as mediation, refers to a process of

assisting each stakeholder group in reaching desired goals or outcomes, usually by a neutral

party (Thompson, 2012). As such, multiparty facilitation involves a neutral party, such as CRS,

intervening in situations wherein several groups have grievances or goals, and guiding the

collaboration of those groups to reach mutually beneficial outcomes (CRS, 2018).

Diversity & Multiparty Facilitation

Of importance to the RFP respondent is the level of diversity inherent to the stakeholder

groups with which CRS conciliators interact. According to Parker (2015), greater levels of
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diversity impose additional difficulty in conflict resolution and group facilitation. In order to

account for the difficulties inherent to diverse stakeholder groups, the RFP respondent must

consider multiparty facilitation approaches that account for diversity as a central tenet of the

proposed framework. Without accounting for diversity between stakeholders, it is possible that

facilitators will miss core issues or motivations among parties, leading to suboptimal outcomes

(Parker, 2015).

Exploring Issues

Before invested parties and facilitators can propose or enact solutions to issues, they must

first explore the relevant issues. According to the Center for Community Health and

Development (CCHD) at the University of Kansas, using a common ground approach to

exploring and framing issues encourages a greater sense of shared investment and cooperation

between parties (“Section 5. Reframing the Issue”, n.d.). As part of taking a common ground

approach, exploration of issues involves identifying the factors that contribute to them, as well as

which parties those issues affect (“Section 5. Reframing the Issue”, n.d.). To frame issues

according to a common ground model, each party must provide their individual views related to

problems between the involved communities, providing an opportunity for brainstorming

between the invested parties (“Section 5. Reframing the Issue”, n.d.). While brainstorming may

seem like a simplistic approach for a complex problem, having each participant or each party

provide a summary of problems from their perspectives can help to identify issues that would

otherwise go unnoticed. According to the problem-solving cycle, brainstorming addresses the

problem definition and analysis & diagnosis steps of the cycle by granting participants an open

forum within which to put forth their ideas and concerns (Dewey, 1910; van Aken & Berends,

2018).
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Prioritizing Issues

According to the National Association of County & City Hall Officials (NACCHO), it is

important to follow the exploration of issues with the prioritization of those issues, allowing

involved parties to determine which problems to address in which order (McCracken & Mason,

2012). Prioritization of issues involves establishing a set of criteria by which involved parties

can rate problems, assigning numerical scores to determine the severity of a given problem and

its place on the prioritization list (McCracken & Mason, 2012). By guiding the involved parties

to identify and prioritize issues both individually and collaboratively, facilitators can help to

ensure that all problems between said parties receive acknowledgement, minimizing the number

of issues that go unidentified and threaten to undermine collaboration.

Solving Problems

Once the parties identify and prioritize their relevant issues, it is critical to consider

solutions to those issues. Within the problem-solving cycle, this stage of facilitation addresses

the solution design step of the cycle (Dewey, 1910; van Akens & Berends, 201). Numerous

problem-solving strategies exist, requiring some flexibility among facilitators to determine which

strategy best suits the parties and issues in each case. According to van Akens and Berends

(2018), the design approach and the development approach are the two general categories of

problem-solving. For the type of cases that CRS agents face, focusing on the development

approach may prove ideal, as these strategies involve continued interaction and cooperation from

involved parties, thus reinforcing the collaborative, interdependent nature of overlapping

communities (van Akens & Berends, 2018). Additionally, because the development approaches

to problem-solving involve incremental changes to address individual factors contributing to

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issues, the slower pace of these approaches is contrasted by the fact that parties can adjust to new

factors more easily (van Akens & Berends, 2018).

Making Decisions

Once the parties finish exploring issues and proposing solutions, they must make

decisions and enact a plan of action. As the culmination of the multiparty facilitation process,

agreeing on which issues require immediate attention, and which solutions the communities

should pursue, takes place during this stage. As with the previous stages of the facilitation

process, decisions require the involvement of each party or community, to ensure that all parties

have their needs met and feel invested in said decisions (Craver, 2015; Selin & Chavez, 1990;

Yaffee, Wondolleck, & Lippman, 1997). During the decision-making stage, parties may need to

agree to compromises, foregoing a goal or need related to a low-priority issue in exchange for

resources to address a high-priority issue (Poitras, 2013). Because compromises often result in

communities not addressing one or more issues, the communities in question may need to

reconvene to resolve outstanding issues, requiring strong leaders, and continued collaboration

(D’Aunno, Alexander, & Jiang, 2017; Thompson, 2012).

Decision Making & Leadership

In multiparty situations, having members of affected communities involved in the entire

process strengthens initial confidence in and support for collaborative decisions (D’Aunno,

Alexander, & Jiang, 2017). However, over time, the perception of initial decisions’ value

decreases without effective leaders to guide each community (D’Aunno, Alexander, & Jiang,

2017). As such, each community must identify their representatives or leaders as one of the

decisions at this stage, if any community did not identify a leader previously. Choosing a leader

is an important decision, as that individual can have significant influence over the success of the
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proposed solutions. The leaders named during decision making maintain responsibility for

monitoring the determined action plan, assessing the progress of solutions, and guiding their

community during subsequent collaborative efforts.

Importance of Client Collaboration & Input

Training design does not occur within a vacuum. Training designers must consider

several factors that influence the strategy employed when designing or revising a training course

for an organization. Otherwise, any course designed may prove ineffective for the organization’s

and the learners’ needs (Nazli & Khairudin, 2018). An organization’s culture, policies, and

existing training frameworks can create opportunities and barriers alike for anyone attempting to

create new training courses and materials for that organization’s use (Nazli & Khairudin, 2018;

Zumrah & Boyle, 2015).

For example, if an organization historically focuses on online or virtual training to

accommodate remote employees, designing an on-site training course may result in a high

percentage of employees not attending the course, thus decreasing training effectiveness and

compromising organizational goals. Alternatively, if an organization maintains comprehensive

reference materials and handouts for existing training needs, these same materials could prove

beneficial for new courses, allowing designers to create connections between existing processes,

policies, or values and the new material. By consulting with managers, trainers, and other

personnel inside the organization, an external training designer can identify these potential

pitfalls or opportunities and incorporate them into the training course.

Training in Organizations

Between needs assessments, design strategies, and outcomes analyses, training features

prominently in the field of I-O psychology (Riggio, 2016). As such, significant I-O research
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exists regarding training in organizational settings. The existing body of research serves as a

theoretical framework for the recommendations made in the RFP response document, and the

substantiation section found later in this paper.

According to Masadeh (2012), training consists of specific skills and processes necessary

for fulfilling the tasks associated with a professional role or job. Essentially, training involves

teaching functional skills and the information that supports those skills, rather than conveying

knowledge or information exclusively. Often, training design is iterative, requiring repetition of

a training program for the purpose of perfecting said program (“Iteration”, n.d.). In this design

approach, each session of training provides valuable feedback by which training designers

reassess and revise training materials or content with the express goal of improving the training

experience in subsequent sessions (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). So too is training itself

iterative, with subsequent training sessions building upon the skills and processes learned in prior

training sessions (Riggio, 2016). Iterative training allows learners to master the basics of a

skillset before attempting advanced skills, building a solid foundation of understanding and

familiarity that increases the likelihood of success when performing tasks with higher degrees of

difficulty.

The question, then, is what role training plays within organizations. Considering

training’s use in teaching new skills, there exists a clear connection between providing effective

training to an organization’s employees and an increase in productivity and profitability for that

organization (Asfaw, Argaw, & Bayissa, 2015; Georgiadis & Pitelis, 2014). Beyond the obvious

benefit of more skilled employees, investing in employee training creates a reciprocal sense of

investment, increasing job satisfaction and organizational loyalty (Hanaysha, 2016; Hanaysha &

Tahir, 2016). Additionally, emphasizing training for employees improves an organization’s

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adaptability and flexibility concerning changes in the organization’s industry and workforce (Do,

Yeh, & Madsen, 2016). For example, employee training lends itself to succession planning, as a

well-trained workforce provides a larger pool of skilled, knowledgeable candidates for high-level

positions, especially when organizations offer iterative training programs that prepare employees

for such roles (Rothwell, Jackson, Ressler, & Jones, 2015).

Effective Training Design

Designing a new training program is a multi-faceted process that requires consideration

of best practices in adult learning and corporate training. More so, effective training programs

require significant knowledge of the topic and objectives, including best practices and industry

standards. Creating a seamless blend of training strategy and content requires close attention to

detail and the incorporation of numerous approaches in order to ensure the training program is

effective in its message and wide-reaching in its audience. The following section provides an

overview of training design best practices, including the use of learning objectives, consideration

of participant learning styles, the development of relevant learning materials & activities, the

administration of learning assessments, and the implementation of adult learning theory.

Learning Objectives

During the design of a training program, the identification of learning objectives requires

special attention, as the desired outcomes of the training will determine many subsequent

decisions. More broadly, all learning objectives must be relevant to the training topic; otherwise,

the likelihood that trainees will learn what they need to learn is low, as is the likelihood that the

organization itself will benefit from training efforts (Blanchard & Thacker, 2012). Learning

objectives provide clear, concrete goals toward which participants will work throughout the

training course, helping to focus their attention and enhance retention.

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Learning Styles

When designing a training course, one must consider who will participate in said training.

Because it is often not possible to know each attendee on a personal level, especially during the

early design stages, it is important to instead understand the different types of people who may

attend (Hills, 2017; Manuti, Pastore, Scardigno, Giancaspro, & Morciano, 2015). Accounting

for the various learning mechanisms and learning personalities from the outset of training design

will help to increase the effectiveness of the course, by ensuring that all participants can learn the

material in a way that best fits their needs (Hills, 2017).

Learning Mechanisms

Learning mechanisms are the functional avenues by which training participants observe,

interact, and process the skills, processes, or information presented to them. Examples of

learning mechanisms include kinesthetic, verbal, visual, social, and aural (Barry & Egan, 2018;

Coffield, Mosely, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004). Understanding the differences between learning

styles helps to guide the design and development of a new training course. By incorporating

activities that appeal to the different learning styles, training designers can increase the

effectiveness of their courses. A wider variety of classroom activities, training materials, and

delivery approaches engages a wider audience improves training outcomes (Barry & Egan, 2018;

Russell, 2006).

Kinesthetic learning involves physical activity of some kind to help reinforce learning.

For example, engaging with a mock-up of a tool or program can help kinesthetic learners to

better understand and retain skills or knowledge. Verbal learning relies on words, whether

written or spoken. Verbal learners often do well with traditional classroom lectures and similar

training deliveries. Visual learners prefer images, including pictures, diagrams, and charts, to
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process information. Aural learners associate sounds or music with new information, helping to

recall knowledge or skills learned during training.

Learning Personalities

In addition to the various functional styles or mechanisms of learning, training designers

must consider the personalities of participants. No two participants learn new skills or

information the same way, because their individual personalities will influence the way they

learn. Examples of different learning personalities include pragmatists, theorists, activists, and

reflectors (Furnham, Jackson, & Miller, 1999; Labib, Canos, & Penades, 2017). Pragmatists

seek to connect what they learn to the real world and their professional role, whereas theorists

focus on core concepts and a deeper understanding of underlying theories and reasoning (Labib

et al., 2017). Activists learn through practicing new skills and knowledge, preferring to put them

into use right away, while reflectors tend to observe and study the material, taking the time to

reflect on relevant and important concepts (Labib et al., 2017). One learner might prefer training

to include exact replicas of relevant equipment, marking them as both a kinesthetic and a

pragmatic learner. Another might be fine discussing high-level concepts and related fields of

expertise to establish greater context for the material, marking them as a verbal theorist learner.

Learning Materials & Activities

An effective training course incorporates multiple components that appeal to the different

learning styles and personalities discussed above (Barry & Egan, 2018). Critical components to

training success include, among others, the materials and activities utilized throughout the course

to convey information, reinforce learning, and enhance retention. The training course proposed

by the respondent includes a variety of materials and activities related to multiparty facilitation,

as per the RFP requirements.

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Lecture & Presentation

One training approach for organizational training is the use of presentations and lectures

to convey information to employees. The benefits of lecture and presentations include low costs,

the ability to reuse presentation slides and lecture notes, and the opportunity for learners to

engage with trainers in a dynamic fashion (Center for Instructional Development & Distance

Education, 2014; “Lecture-Based Classes”, n.d.). In addition to the organizational-level

advantages, lectures and presentations reinforce training for certain learning styles and

personalities. For example, verbal and audio learners benefit from the lecture aspect of such a

training approach, while the presentation slides and visual aids improve training efficacy for

visual learners (Barry & Egan, 2018; Hills, 2017). Finally, by encouraging note-taking

throughout the lecture and presentation portions of the proposed training course, the respondent

provides opportunities for kinesthetic and solo learners to engage with the information on their

own terms, in a way that helps to reinforce the knowledge for their specific learning needs (Barry

& Egan, 2018; Hills, 2017).

Practice Activities & Exercises

In addition to lectures, it is important to provide learners with activities that allow them to

explore concepts and scenarios related to the training topic at their own pace (Stockwell,

Stockwell, Cennamo, & Jiang, 2015). Course-appropriate activities and exercises fulfill the need

to offer such an opportunity to self-paced solo learners, while at the same time providing a

kinesthetic element for individuals who prefer manual interaction with new information and

skills (Hills, 2017; Stockwell et al., 2015). Additionally, verbal and visual learners benefit from

text- and image-based activities, further enhancing the benefit of including hardcopy exercises,

in the form or worksheets or workbooks, as a training component (Hills, 2017).

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Case Study Review

The third activity included in the proposal is a series of case study reviews (Lakner,

2019). Case studies offer valuable insight into prior CRS cases and scenarios, recapping and

identifying root causes, interventions, and outcomes. As such, performing an in-depth analysis

of previous cases provides an excellent opportunity to extract lessons learned from real-world,

concrete examples. Case study reviews appeal to pragmatic learners, who prefer to learn by

connecting the concepts to realistic cases (Labib et al., 2017). By including case study reviews

in the participant workbook, the respondent allows visual, verbal, and solo learners to conduct

their own comprehensive investigation into each scenario (Hills, 2017; Stockwell et al., 2015).

Group Discussions

Additionally, by conducting group discussions related to case studies, the respondent

provides an opportunity for in-depth discussion and analysis of scenarios, to the benefit of social

and audio learners (Arias, Scott, Peters, McClain, & Gluskin, 2016). Group discussions need not

focus exclusively on case studies, however. Involving all participants in discussions of

theoretical concepts or fictional cases provides additional opportunities for learners to engage in

critical thinking, reframe prior assumptions, and consider alternative perspectives to multiparty

facilitation strategies and approaches (Arias et al., 2016).

Role-Play Simulations

Additionally, the respondent includes role-play scenarios in the proposed training design

strategy (Lakner, 2019). Role-play scenarios allow training participants to practice the skills

learned throughout the training course. Practicing multiparty facilitation improves mastery of

those skills, while also increasing confidence in the designed facilitation process (Kolb, 2014).

Role-play simulations benefit social learners by giving them an interaction-heavy activity with
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which to process the course material. Similarly, kinesthetic learners benefit from practicing their

interpersonal and facilitation skills within the context of role-play scenarios. Finally, pragmatists

and theorists alike benefit from increased comprehension and retention following role-play

activities. Pragmatists appreciate the opportunity to put course concepts to practical use,

whereas theorists value the chance to test multiple approaches based on the information gained

from the course.

Learning Assessments

Finally, at the conclusion of any training course, it is critical to assess the effectiveness of

the training. Otherwise, participants may not receive the knowledge or skills they needed from

the course, resulting in the organization failing to achieve its intended goal (McDavid, Huse, &

Hawthorn, 2019). Learning assessments take several forms, and each is useful in different ways.

One of the most common methods of assessing learning is the Kirkpatrick model, which involves

administering multiple levels of assessment (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The first level is

a feedback survey taken by participants, allowing them to rate the training course’s strengths and

weaknesses, thus allowing the training designer to further refine the course for future sessions

(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The second level is a test, or knowledge check, that measures

the degree to which participants learned what the course sought to teach (Kirkpatrick &

Kirkpatrick, 2016). Knowledge checks allow organizations and trainers to determine if the

course was effective, and whether participants might require additional training to meet

organizational needs and expectations. The third level is an assessment of each participants’

behavior, focusing on how the skills or knowledges conveyed during training affect their job

performance (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). A level three assessment requires measuring

each participants’ retention and adoption of core concepts, as well as the degree to which their
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job performance reflects the objectives and goals set forth by the organization as part of the

initial solicitation for a training course. The fourth and final level of the Kirkpatrick assessment

model is for the organization to review changes in spending, increases in product quality,

improvements in company-wide efficiency, and other metrics that the organization can use to

measure training effectiveness in quantitative ways (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).

Adult Learning Theory

Adult learning theory, also known as andragogy, is comprised of several principles

relating to the optimal approaches for training adult learners (Cox, 2015; Loeng, 2018). The core

principles of adult learning theory focus on specific traits of adult learners, and training designers

seek to leverage these traits to create effective, meaningful training courses for adult audiences

(Cox, 2015). Because the CRS RFP calls for the respondent to incorporate adult learning theory

into the proposed training design process, outlining the traits of adult learners becomes a

necessary endeavor. Outlining the traits of adult learners helps to ensure that adult learning

theory remains a central consideration throughout the design process of the proposed training.

The first trait of adult learners, according to Knowles (1975), is that they are more

independent, or self-directed, than young learners. Next, Knowles proposed that adult learners

already possess life and professional experience that can aid in learning (1975). The third trait of

adult learners is that their openness and readiness to learning increases when that learning relates

to their roles within their communities or professional lives (Knowles, 1975). Next, Knowles

(1975) suggested that adult learns place greater emphasis on immediate application of new

knowledge, usually within the context of solving a specific problem. The fifth and final trait that

Knowles attributed to adult learners is that their motivations to learn stem more from internal

factors as they age, rather than external factors such as salary or promotions (1975). In
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summary, the traits of adult learners, as identified within the context of adult learning theory,

amount to the idea that adults learn best when the learners can recognize the need for and goal of

training, and that such training must allow for independent learning that they can connect to

existing knowledge, past experiences, and current problems (Cox, 2015).

Substantiation of RFP Recommendations

With the RFP requirements and relevant research outlined, the next step is to create a link

between the respondent’s proposed training design strategy and the existing literature.

Establishing a strong connection between the proposed training design and existing literature

allows the respondent to refine the training design, gathering strategies and recommendations

from other experts in the field. In the case of the CRS RFP and its response, the following

section begins with an explanation of the proposed multiparty facilitation framework, starting

with the three pillars of facilitation before outlining a framework grounded in the concept of

interorganizational collaboration. Following the discussion of multiparty facilitation, this section

will detail the approach used for designing the required training course, including a discussion of

the training materials and components central to the design.

Multiparty Facilitation Framework

The approach intended for the proposed training program is to combine elements of inter-

community collaboration and inter-organizational collaboration. In order to achieve this

synergy, the proposed multi-party facilitation training requires consideration of several concepts

and components of group facilitation. In particular, the concepts and components include

viewing communities as organizations, quantifying resource availability, exploring issues

between groups, solving problems in multi-group settings, and making decisions that address the

needs of all stakeholder groups

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Communities & Organizations

In many ways, a community functions in a similar fashion to an organization.

Community leaders take the place of executives and managers, whereas the general populace of

a community serves as the workforce at large. Like organizations, communities have their own

cultures (Skemp, Dreher, & Lehmann, 2016), unofficial policies in the form of social norms

(Young, 2015), and a degree of interaction and interdependence that influences the effectiveness

of the community (Hoagwood et al., 2018). Various communities exist within a given subset of

people, and these communities overlap with each other (Minar & Greer, 2017). Black residents

of a neighborhood belong to their local geographical community, but also belong to the black

community of the town or city. Members of a union belong to their professional community,

while also belonging to any combination of local religious, political, or hobby communities.

Additionally, it is important to note that often the communities in question are

organizations. Local law enforcement agencies are organizations with employee hierarchies and

defined operational goals; they are, simultaneously, communities with social, political, and

cultural identities tied strongly to their members’ shared traits (Charman, 2017). When

organizations exist and operate within and alongside traditional communities, those

organizations exercise power and authority not normally afforded to a residential neighborhood

or similar community. For example, local companies and small businesses influence the

economies, environments, and cultures of their local communities, and those communities

influence the companies’ organizational culture in turn (Clifton, Gartner, & Rehfeld, 2014).

Further complicating the matter is the fact that overlapping community and organizational

groups often share members, resulting in potential conflicts of interest and questions of loyalty

when a crisis occurs (Forman, 2017).

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Community Resources

Much like organizations that share the same industry, neighboring or overlapping

communities often compete for resources (Watts, 2015). A shortage of resources can cause

tension and animosity between communities; as such, resources often serve as the core issues

from which inter-community conflicts arise (Barrett, 2014). Communities might compete for a

variety of resources, including government funding and financial aid, social and educational

programs, investment from local businesses, representation in local and federal government, and

job opportunities (World Resources Institute, 2018).

Interorganizational Collaboration

The respondent’s intended multiparty facilitation framework for the RFP response

focuses on adapting the principles of interorganizational collaboration for use in community

conflicts. Interorganizational collaboration involves two or more stakeholders combining

resources in order to address and solve mutual problems that none of the stakeholders can solve

independently (Alexiev, Volberda, & Van den Bosch, 2016; Gray, 1985). For the purpose of the

RFP response, communities take the role of organizations in this framework, allowing, for

example, neighborhood or religious community groups to meet with local law enforcement or

businesses on equal footing within the context of the multiparty facilitation process.

Several elements of interorganizational collaboration prove particularly relevant to the

CRS’s multiparty facilitation needs. Interdependence and power imbalances between the

communities, the benefits and costs of collaboration, and the balance between informed

decisions and emotional investment all play a role in Gray’s vision of interorganizational

collaboration (1985). These factors hold as relevant in situations of inter-community tension as

they do in inter-organizational conflict (CRS, 2018; Nan & Strimling, 2006; Watts, 2015).
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Community Interdependence & Power Imbalances

Communities existing near each other develop various forms of interdependence, making

such communities reliant on others to thrive (Hoagwood et al., 2018; van Akens & Berends,

2018). For example, a local police department and a residential neighborhood help each other to

meet their needs in several ways. A portion of the neighborhood’s taxes go to funding the

department, while the department offers a measure of safety and security to the neighborhood.

Similarly, the department may recruit new officers from among the residents, and the presence of

a precinct in the area might increase property values.

While facilitating multiparty discussions between communities, identifying

interdependencies between those communities can serve to establish a sense of collaboration. If

the communities in question recognize that they can help each other to achieve their individual

and mutual goals, they may prove more willing to cooperate (Strimling, 2006; van Akens &

Berends, 2018). The key consideration in taking this approach is the potential for highlighting

power imbalances, which can undermine willingness to cooperate if parties prove unwilling to

address such imbalances (Nadal, Davidoff, Davis, Wong, Marshall, & McKenzie, 2015; Pugh,

Sulewski, & Moreno, 2016).

Power imbalances exist where one party exerts greater influence or authority over other

parties (“Power Imbalances”, n.d.). In some cases where multiparty facilitation becomes

necessary, the imbalance of power itself may serve as the impetus for the facilitators’

involvement. In other cases, the imbalance may be ancillary to the precipitating event. In either

event, where imbalances of power exist, facilitators must account for this dynamic and identify

an effective facilitation strategy in order to ensure an outcome that allows the parties or
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communities in question to move forward in a collaborative relationship that meets their mutual

and individual needs.

Costs & Benefits of Collaboration

A multiparty facilitation model that emphasizes collaboration between parties requires

assessment of the costs and benefits inherent to collaborative efforts. One of the costs associated

with collaboration is the increased time and effort involved, since the parties involved in a

collaborative effort work to meet as many goals of each party or stakeholder as possible (Grant

& Ray, 2019). Another cost of collaboration is the need for compromise. Collaboration is

different than compromise, in that collaboration focuses on all parties working together to

achieve their mutual and individual goals (Coburn, n.d.). Compromise, on the other hand,

focuses on one or more parties conceding some need or goal in favor of reaching a decision to

which all parties can agree (Poitras, 2013). In a facilitation model based in compromise,

multiple parties may walk away without having all their needs met, leaving the potential for

further need for facilitation in the future. A collaborative model of facilitation, however, means

greater support for solving each parties’ challenges, thus increasing the effectiveness of any

solutions enacted.

Emotional vs. Informed Decisions

Finally, it crucial to discuss the role of emotion in the multiparty facilitation process. In

cases where CRS intervenes, the involved parties’ emotions undoubtedly run high. Following a

hate crime, the victims’ community may feel fear, anger, and helplessness. In the aftermath of a

police officer’s death in the line of duty, fellow officers will exhibit a combination of grief,

anger, and fear. The emotional weight of tragic or stressful situations can affect the judgment

and open-mindedness of stakeholders, requiring facilitators to recognize the parties’ emotional

MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 22

states and identify possible hindrances or benefits to the multiparty facilitation process (DeWall,

Baumeister, Chester, & Bushman, 2016). Emotions can affect every stage of the process. For

example, during the issues-exploration stage, parties may be prone to yelling, shutting down, or

otherwise behaving in counterproductive ways. While problem-solving, an emotional party

could refuse to compromise, or may even feel intimidated into complying with other parties’

conclusions without providing sincere and accurate input. Finally, if left unresolved, strong

emotions can derail the decision-making stage of the process if a party’s anger or grief

compromises that party’s ability to make decisions that benefit themselves and the other

communities (Adam & Brett, 2015).

The alternative to making emotional decisions is making informed decisions, supported

and guided by information and data. Informed decisions allow all parties involved to assess the

available data and determine the best outcomes for their communities. However, that is not to

say that emotions have no place in the facilitation process, or even in the decision-making stage.

Impartial data can help to guide parties to an objective decision, but facilitators must consider

emotions while guiding decision-making (Leary, Pillemer, & Wheeler, 2013). For example, if a

hate crime spreads fear throughout a community, that fear could have long-term repercussions

that belie objective, quantitative solutions. The emotional ramifications of a crisis hold

significant influence on affected communities, requiring that any decisions or solutions address

those emotions to ensure effectiveness (Hutchison & Bleiker, 2008; Wirihana & Smith, 2019).

Connecting Training Design & RFP Requirements

Identifying a viable multiparty facilitation framework is only the first half of the RFP’s

requirements. Discussion of the theories behind training design and multiparty facilitation best

practices alone is not enough to substantiate the respondent’s recommended intervention. With
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 23

the research and literature outlined, it is critical to take the next step and connect that research to

the interventions and strategies included in the RFP response, in order to showcase for the client

how the proposed training course will meet the RFP criteria. The following section aims to

accomplish that goal, beginning with a definition of experiential learning and incorporating it

into the training program, and a brief explanation of the importance of including a training

design document within the RFP response. Then, the section serves to connect training design

best practices as discussed earlier in this paper to the RFP response, focusing on the various

interventions recommended by the respondent.

Linking Experiential Learning & Training Design Approach

The RFP issued by CRS identifies experiential learning as a central element of the

training program (DOJ, 2015). As such, it is critical to establish a link between experiential

learning and the proposed training program design. Experiential learning emphasizes the

importance of connecting conceptual learning to real-world experiences and scenarios (Kolb,

2014). Due to the nature of multiparty facilitation work, the creation of a community crisis is not

feasible. However, the RFP response provides opportunities for experiential learning in the form

of role-play scenarios (Lakner, 2019) and case study reviews (Lakner, 2019). According to

Tibbetts and Leeper (2016), Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model outlines an iterative learning

process, wherein participants engage in an experience, engage in reflection, participate in

conceptual learning, and then engage in a second experience. The RFP response reflects the

Experiential Learning Model through the introduction of a case study at the outset of training,

providing learners with an experience to reflect on, before moving on to conceptual learning

followed by more case study reviews (Lakner, 2019).

Training Design Document

MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 24

When responding to an RFP, respondents cannot say that they will design a training

course and fail to provide an explanation of the process and considerations that go into said

design. As such, the respondent for the CRS RFP included a training design document to

provide an overview of the critical elements of the proposed course (Lakner, 2019). Training

design documents serve several purposes. First, training design documents allow training

designers to organize their design process, identifying important components and aspects in

accordance with training best practices (Carliner, 2015; Noe, 2009). Second, training design

documents provide a high-level introduction to the designer’s proposed course, allowing clients

to assess the design plan and its alignment with their needs. Finally, it serves as a concise

summary of the proposed training course and the included training strategies, addressing the

requirements of the RFP and contextualizing those requirements within the framework of

effective training design (Carliner, 2015).

Lecture & Presentation

Effective lectures and presentations focus on conveying knowledge and information,

especially when these training tools maintain tight focus on a specific, relevant topic.

To achieve the objectives set forth by the CRS RFP, the lecture materials included in the

proposed training course must convey central concepts related to multiparty facilitation,

imparting the skillset identified as critical in the RFP, including facilitation frameworks and

processes, group dynamics, and multiparty process design (DOJ, 2015). Discussion of

facilitation processes focuses on outlining common facilitation approaches and strategies to serve

as frameworks useful for creating dynamic, versatile, and situation-specific processes (Forsyth,

2019). Including group dynamics in the lecture and presentation emphasizes the importance of

interpersonal skills, mitigating barriers between individuals and groups, and identifying
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 25

opportunities to create partnerships of like-minded stakeholders for problem-solving and

decision-making efforts (Forsyth, 2019). Effective multiparty process design highlights factors

that influence the multiparty process, including gender, race, religion, and others (Nadal et al.,

2015; Sue, 2015), as well as key components of multiparty facilitation, such as communication,

compromise, and cooperation (CRS, 2018; Nan & Strimling, 2006; Strimling, 2006).

Participant Workbooks

To support the information discussed during the lecture portion of the proposed training

course, the RFP respondent recommended several items to include within the participant

workbooks for the CRS training course (Lakner, 2019). First, reference materials summarizing

the information offered in the presentation will provide participants with the ability to refresh

their understanding of the lecture. Next, self-paced exercises emphasizing the knowledge and

skills covered in the classroom lectures offer participants an avenue for reinforcing their mastery

of the course’s core concepts (Sartori, Costantini, Ceschi, & Tommasi, 2018). The self-paced

exercises workbooks will offer hypothetical scenarios for conciliators to review and analyze,

similar to inbox-style exercises and other job simulation questions frequently used as part of

skills assessments for employee selection and professional development (Oostrom, Melchers,

Ingold, & Kleinmann, 2016). Each scenario will be presented in the standard format of a CRS

situation report or briefing, followed by questions regarding issue identification, contributing

factors, key stakeholders, problem solving, agreement capturing, and other details that CRS

conciliators must consider when facilitating inter-community (CRS, 2018; Craver, 2015).

Finally, the inclusion of case study scenarios grants participants the opportunity to analyze each

case using detailed, multi-directional information on real-world scenarios, further reinforcing the
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 26

concepts covered during the lecture portion of the training through comprehensive examples

relevant to the CRS mission.

Case Studies

The case study component of the proposed training course focuses on the review of case

studies drawn from previous CRS cases, as well as incidents in which CRS was not involved.

Like the supplemental booklet, case studies offer excellent opportunities for participants to

practice knowledge and skills gained through the course, especially knowledge and skills related

to situation analysis and identification of factors that affect multiparty facilitation (Berjano et al.,

2016; Bonney, 2015). Unlike the supplemental booklets, these case study discussions will take

place in a small team format, allowing for dialogue, collaboration, and dynamic learning

(George, 2019; Tibbetts & Leeper, 2016). Upon completing the review and analysis of their

assigned case study, teams will deliver a short presentation in the form of a debriefing for the

other participants, outlining case details, identifying critical factors, analyzing group dynamics

between stakeholders, and suggesting alternate resolutions or approaches. Assigning each group

to analyze a case and then present on the details of that case allows for a deeper level of

understanding and comprehension of the material.

Group Discussions

Group discussions will offer participants the opportunity to offer their insight into

common situations and cases that the CRS handles, providing significant benefits to the learning

experience. The viewpoints, opinions, and experiences offered by participants of different

backgrounds give all participants the opportunity to examine preexisting assumptions and look at

problems from new perspectives (Arias et al., 2016). In any training program, such an

opportunity can prove important, but it is especially critical in a course that focuses on
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 27

collaboration and understanding between parties. The very act of engaging in group discussions

can improve CRS agents’ ability to conduct their jobs effectively and professionally (George,

2019).

Role-Play Scenarios

The role-play simulations incorporated into the training program provide an invaluable

opportunity for learners to practice and refine the critical skills and knowledge gained through

the training program. The instructor will divide conciliators into groups, randomly assigning

stakeholder roles and facilitator roles for each group. Facilitators will receive standard-format

CRS situation reports and briefings detailing relevant information, whereas stakeholders will

receive detailed descriptions of a recent hate crime or similar event and their role in the

community. After a brief period of reviewing their respective roles in the simulation, groups will

engage in a multiparty discussion, with the individual assigned as the facilitator working to guide

stakeholders to suitable, mutually beneficial agreements. Groups will engage in their simulations

separately, working to resolve their situations and overcome negative group dynamics, while the

instructor provides oversight and guidance for the activity.

Learning Assessments

The learning assessments administered at the conclusion of training involve both level

one and level two assessments, in keeping with the Kirkpatrick model of learning assessment

(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The level one assessment is a feedback survey, soliciting

feedback from the participants on the course and the trainer. Consisting of ten or fewer

questions, to maximum response rate, the feedback survey focuses on participants’ level of

confidence in what they learned during the course, as well as the overall quality of the training

activities and materials. The second assessment is a knowledge check, in multiple choice format,
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 28

focusing on defining of important terms, issues and stakeholder identification, and other skills or

knowledge detailed during the training course. Finally, the respondent will work with CRS

officials to develop a level three assessment administered by CRS leadership after three to six

months of training completion. The level three assessment will focus on measuring each

participants’ retention of knowledge and deployment of concepts and skills, thus determining the

degree to which the training course met the organization’s goals as stated within the RFP.

Because Kirkpatrick’s level four learning assessment focuses on organization-wide trends and

metrics over an extended timeframe, it proves outside the scope of the RFP’s requirements and

the respondent’s proposal.

Conclusion

One thing made evident in this document is that responding to RFPs requires significant

investment. In order to submit a comprehensive and effective proposal, respondents must

consider previous research and established models within their field of expertise. For the CRS

RFP requesting a new multiparty facilitation training course, the respondent reviewed literature

related to both multiparty facilitation and training design theory, establishing a link between

theoretical frameworks and approaches and the RFP response document. In support of the

proposed training design approach, the respondent incorporated multiparty facilitation concepts

related to identifying issues, solving problems, and making decisions, culminating in a

facilitation strategy focused on a foundation of interorganizational collaboration. In addition, the

training design approach incorporated learning styles, learning personalities, and adult learning

theory to increase training effectiveness and lead to greater knowledge retention. By combining

these elements in a skillful and comprehensive fashion, the respondent increases the likelihood
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 29

that CRS will accept the proposal, and that the training itself will meet the organization’s needs

and goals.
MASTER’S PROJECT: THEORETICAL SUBSTANTIATION 30

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