LI

FESPANDEVELOPMENT
Whati
smeantbyt
het
erm gr
owt
h,wi
thr
efer
encet
ohumanbei
ngs?

➔ Growt h:Changesoccuri nthefoet usafterfert

il
isati
onint hewomb.Thechangescan
bediv i
dedintotwodi mensions, i
.e.quant i
tat
iveandqual i
tati
ve.Thequant i
tat
ive
aspectisreferr
edt oasgr owth,whi charemeasur abl
e,e.g.weight,si
zeandshape/
physicalchange/physicaldevelopment
➔ Growt histhephysicalprocessofdev el
opment ,parti
cularl
ytheprocessofbecomi ng
physicall
ylar
ger.Itisquantif
iable,meani ngthatitcanbemeasur ed,anditi
smost l
y
i
nfluencedbygenet ics.

Expl
aint
het
erm dev
elopment
.

● Dev elopment :Thesequenceofchangesov erthef ul

llifespanofanor gani sm.One
aspectofphy sical developmentwhi chi sstronglyinf
luencedbygenet ict endencies.
Theot herispsy chologicaldev el
opmentwhi chismuchmor einfluencedby
env i
ronment alfact ors.Dev el
opmentr eferstothedev el
opment ,bothdur ingthe
prenat alandpost natal
.Dev elopmentr eferstoqual i
tat i
veandquant it
ativ echanges.
● Dev elopmentr ef erstot heprogressi
v eseriesofanor der lycoher entgoal ofmaturit
y.
Itreferstot hedev el
opmentbot hinthepr enatalandpost natalper i
od.Itisady nami c
andsequent i
al changeandi tleadsthehumanor ganism t omat ur ati
on.
● Psy chological dev elopment ,t
hedev elopmentofhumanbei ngs'cogniti
v e, emoti
onal,
i
ntel l
ectual,andsoci al capabil
iti
esandf unctioni
ngov erthecour seofanor mall
ife
span, from infancyt hroughol dage.

Ment
ionanyoneuseoft
hest
udyofl
i
fespandev
elopment
.

Byst
udy
ingl
i
fespandev
elopment
,wegett
oknow:

1.Thechangeswhi
cht
akepl
aceduringi
nfancy
,chi
l
dhoodandadol
escence–whi
chcanbe
physi
cal
,cogni
ti
ve,
mor
alandsoci
o-emoti
onali
nnatur
e.

2.I
tpr
epar
espar
ent
s/t
eacher
s,bef
oret
ime.

3.I
thel
pst
oev
aluat
e–mi
l
est
onesr
eached.

4.Hel
psi
npr
operper
sonal
i
tydev
elopment
.

5.I
tisanur
gentgui
def
orachi
l
d’spr
operexposur
etohi
sinnat
eabi
l
iti
es.

6.Goodpar
ent
ing

Wr
it
eashor
tnot
eont
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udyofl
i
fespanofdev
elopment
.

● Duringinf
ancy ,
baby hoodandchi ldhood, devel
opmentpl ay
samaj ori nchi l
d’s
personali
ty.Par ti
cularly,t
heex perienceoft hefi
rstfi
vetosixyearsofl i
feandt he
i
nfluenceofpar entsandnearanddearonespl ayat remendousr oleint hephy si
cal
andment al developmentoft hechild.
● Atbi r
th,t
hechi l
d’smi ndisjustl
ikeabl anksheetofpaper ,acleansl ate.Var i
ous
experi
encesandl earningafterbir
th, pl
ayamaj orr ol
einpersonalit
ydev elopmentof
thechil
d.Dur ingt hisperioditisessent i
al andur
gentt ogui
det hechi l
dpr operl
yfor
exposureofhi si nnat eabil
it
ies,f
orj udi
cious,socialandemot i
onal devel opment.
 ● Enlightenedenv i
ronmenti sut terlynecessar yf ort hecogni ti
v egrowt hoft hechi ld.
Goodpar entingandheal thyf ami lyat mospher ei sur gent lynecessar yf ort he
emot i
onal stabi l
it
yofachi ldandhi sal lroundper sonal itydev elopment .
● Butl ackofpr operpar ent ing, i
nadequat eaf fect ionoft hepar ents,faultydeal i
ngwi t
h
thechi ld,mal adjustedper sonal i
tyoft hepar ent sandt her elat i
ves,wantoff ulfi
lment
ofbasi cneedsl i
kefoodandnut r
ition,dr ess, toy s,educat i
on, medi cal car e,hamper
thepr operphy si
calandment al growt hoft hechi l
d.
● Childhoodi st heperiodwher eal lthet raitsofper sonal i
tyst arttogr owandi fthe
foundat ioni sdef ecti
ve,t hechi ldf acesl ifel
ongsuf f
ering.Thechi l
ddev elopsst ress,
tensionandanxi etywhenhei snegl ectedbyhi spar ent s.St rainedrelat ionship
betweenhusbandandwi fe, bet weensi blings.bet weenf ami l
ymember si sextremel y
undesi rablef orthegr owt hofaheal thyandnor mal per sonal ity,
Thechi ldcannot
adjustwi t
hhi senv ir
onmentandsoci ety.Int heopi nionofKar lsonandSt igli
nk.one’ s
presentper sonal i
tyistheout comeofhi schi l
dhoodt rainingandex perience.Good
personal ityisbackedbygoodchi ldhoodex per ience, properpar ental car e,adequat e
attent i
ont of ulfi
l
mentofemot ional andbasi cneedsofl ife,lessf r
ust rationandmor e
happi ness, Thef rustrati
on, anx ieties, t
ensi onandi nadequaci esofchi ldhoodhav e
seriousi mpact snotonl yi nadul thood, butt hr oughoutl ife.Hence, i
tisneedl esst osay
thatmor eat tentionshoul dbegi vent ot hepr opergr owt handdev elopmentofchi l
dren
thant oadul ts.Byst udy ingt hel if
espandev elopment ,wegett oknowt hedi fferent
changeswhi cht akepl acedur i
ngi nfancy ,chi l
dhoodandadol escentst ages.Ther eare
phy sical,cogni ti
ve,mor al, socio- emot i
onal changewhi cht akepl acei nt heabov e
stages.

Whati
smat
urat
ion?

● Mat
urat
ion:
arethechangesdeterminedlar
gel
ybyourgenes
● mat
urat
ionist
hephysical
,i
ntel
lectual
,oremot
ional
processofdevel
opment.
Mat
urat
ioni
softennotquanti
fi
able,anditt
ooismostl
yinfl
uencedbygenet
ics.

Cogni
ti
vedev
elopmentsensor
imot
orst
age-i
nfancyper
iod

● Thist heor ywasgi venbyj eanpi ageti n1970, biologi stphilosopherandpsy chologist
whohasdev elopedt hemostdet ail
edandcompr ehensi vetheoryofcogni ti
v e
dev el
opment .Piagetcal ledhi sappr oachgenet icepi stemol ogy.epi stemol ogyi sthe
studyofnat ur eandacqui sitionofknowl edge; piaget ’
sappr oachwas“ genet ic”inthe
senset hati tf ocusedonor i
gi nanddev el
opment .
● PiagetSuggest edt hatt hef irststageofcogni ti
vedev elopmentl astsfr om bi rthuntil
somewher ebet ween18and24mont h(0-2y ears).Dur i
ngt hisper i
odt ermedt he
sensor i
mot orst age,Infant sgr aduallyl earnt hatt her eisar elati
onshi pbet weent heir
actionandt heext ernal wor ld.Theydi scov ert hatt heycanmani pulateobj ectsand
produceef fect s.I
nshor t, theyacqui r eabasi cgr aspoft heconceptofcauseand
effect.forexampl e,theyl ear nthati ftheymakecer tainmov ement s-fori nstance,
shakingt hei rleg-speci fi
cef fectsfol l
ow(f orinst ance, toyssuspendedov ert heirgri
p
alsomov e)andt heybegi ntoex perimentwi thv ariousact ionst oseewhatef fects
theywi llpr oduce.
● InPi aget ’sv iew, thedev elopmentofknowl edgei saf orm ofadapt ationandassuch
i
nv olvest hei nterplayoft wopr ocesses, assi milationandaccommodat ion.
Assi mil
at ionmeansmodi fyingone’ senv ironmentsot hatitf i
tsintoone’ salready
dev el
opedway soft hinkingandact ing.Forex ampl e,whenachi ldhoi st sabanana
andr unsar oundi naci rcleshout ing“ Look–i ti
saj et”,thechi l
di sassi mi l
atingt he
bananai ntoway soft hi
nki ngandbehav i
ngt hatar eal r
eadyi nplace.
 ● Accommodat i
onmeansmodi fy
ingonesel
fsoast ofi
tinwit
hexist
ingcharact
eri
sti
cs
oftheenvi
ronment.Thechil
dwho, f
orthefi
rstti
memanagest opeelabananaand
adj
usthismouthsot hatt
hebananawillfi
tint
oithasaccommodatedhisway sof
thi
nki
ngandbehavingt ot
hebananaasi tr
eall
yis.Ofcour
se,moststepsin
devel
opmentinvol
vesomebl endofassimil
ati
onandaccommodat i
on.

Thechil
dwhoaccommodat est
hebanana(adj
ust
inghi
swaysofholdi
nghi
shandandhi
s
mouth)alsoassi
mil
atest
hebanana(
bychewingandswal
l
owingit
).

● Piagetal sospokeofequi li
br ation–t het endencyoft hedev elopi ngindi vidualtost ay
i
nbal ancei ntel l
ectuallybyf i
lli
ngi ngapsi nknowl edgeandbyr est ructuringbel i
efs
whent heyf ail totestoutagai nstr eality
.
● Accor dingt oPi aget, t
hepr ocessesofassi milation, accommodat i
onandequi li
brat i
on
oper ateindi f
ferentway satdi fferentagel evels.
● Piagetcal l
edt heper iodofi nfancyt hesensor imot orst age.Thel abel reflectsthe
i
nf ant’swayofknowi ngt hewor l
dar esensor y,percept ual andmot or i
c.Pi agetcalled
eachspeci f
icwayofknowi ngascheme.Aschemei sanact ionsequencegui dedby
throughout .Forex ampl e, wheni nfant ssuck, theyar eex ercisingasucki ngscheme.
● Thr oughoutt hesensor imot orper i
od, Piagetcont endedi nfant sseem t oknowt he
wor ldonl ythr oughmot oract iviti
esandsensor yImpr essi ons; theyhav enoty et
l
ear nedt ousement al sy mbol sori magest orepr esentobj ectsorev ents.Thi sresul t
s
i
nsomei nterest i
ngef fect sforex ampl eWheny oungi nfant s(4mont hs)seeanobj ect
andt heobj ecti sthenhi dden, theyseem unawar ethatt heobj ectcont i
nuest oex i
st .
● Hol danobj ectwi thinv iewoft hebabyunt i
lheorshei scl earlyi nterestedandi s
reachi ngf orit; t
henqui cklycov ertheobj ectwi t
hacl ot h.Chancesar ethatt hebaby
willstopi nmi dreachandwi llnotsear chf ortheobj ectatal l.Repeatt hesame
exper imentwi tht hesamey oungst er3or4mont hsl at er,andy ouar eaptt oseet he
babysear chfort hehi ddenobj ect.Thesear chsuggest st hatt hebabyhasat t
ained
whatPi agetcal l
edobj ectper manence–t heideat hatobj ect scont i
nuet oex i
stev en
whenwecannol ongerseet hem.Tounder standt hei mpor tanceofobj ect
per manence, r emembert hatt hemot herandf atherar eal soobj ectsi nababy ’
swor l
d.
Evidencesuggest sthatv eryy oungi nf antsar enotawar eoft heper manenceof
peopl e–ev ent heirownpar ent swhent hesepeopl ear ehi ddenf rom v iew.

{Inalli
tischaracteri
sedbyincor porationofrefl
expatt
ernsint
oint enti
onalmov ements
designedfirstonlytorepeat
,latertomai nt
ainandthentoproducenewchangesi nt he
environment ;
increasi
ngunder standingofmeansandr el
ati
onships.objectconstancyis
achieved,andt hebeginni
ngoft rue”t hought”andi
nter
naleyespr oblem sol
vingareseen;but
thechildsti
lloperatesverymuchi ntheHer eandNow}

OR

Ref
lexesSchema(
Bir
th–1mont
h)

Inthef i
rstfewmont hs( subst agesIandI I)
,theyoungi nfantacqui r
esknowl edget hrough
schemas, withschemadef i
nedas“ aconceptorf ramewor kthatorganizesandi nterpr ets
i
nformat ion”( My ers,2001, p.127) .Schemasar ethewayi nwhi cheachi ndiv i
dual act sont he
env i
ronment ,andcanbebi ological orment ali
nnat ure.Schemasav ail
abl et oay oungi nfant
arebi ol
ogical andv erylimi t
ed, andt heyiniti
all
yconsi stpri
mar il
yofr ef
lex es.Forex ampl e,one
schemat hatal lowst heinfantt oacqui r
eknowl edgei sthesucki ngrefl
ex .Ther ear et wo
processesi nv olvi
ngexi sti
ngschemast hatcanbeusedt ot akeininformat ionf r
om t he
env i
ronment .Thef ir
st,assimi lati
on, occurswhent heenv ironmenti salteredt ofitanex i
sti
ng
schema.Thesucki ngref l
exi sdesi gnedt odrawmi l
kf r
om t hemot her'
sni ppl e.Howev er,
throughassi mi lati
on, t
hei nfantcanuset hesamesucki ngr efl
extoacqui r
ei nformat ionabout
otherobj ectst hataresuckedon, suchast heinfant'sthumb.Whent heschemaneedst obe
changedt ofitwi t
ht heenv ironment ,thesecondpr ocessofaccommodat i
onoccur s.For
exampl e, i
fthei nfanttri
est osuckonherf i
st,sheneedst ochanget heshapeofhermout hto
accommodat
ethel
argersi
zeoft
hef
ist
.Hencet
heor
igi
nal
schemai
schangedt
o
accommodat
ethef
ist.

Tags

Pr
imar
yCi
rcul
arReact
ions(
1-4mont
hs)

Thissubst
ageinvol
vescoor
dinati
ngsensati
onandnewschemas.Forexample,achil
dmay
suckhisorherthumbbyaccidentandthenl
ateri
ntent
ional
l
yrepeatt
heact
ion.Theseact
ions
arerepeat
edbecausethei
nfantfi
ndsthem pl
easurabl
e.

Secondar
yCi
rcul
arReact
ions(
4-8mont
hs)

Duri
ngthissubstage,t
hechildbecomesmor efocusedontheworl
dandbeginsto
i
ntent
ionall
yrepeatanactioninordertotri
ggeraresponseint
heenvi
ronment.Forexampl
e,a
chi
ldwil
lpurposeful
lypickupatoyi nordertoputiti
nhisorhermout
h.

Coor
dinat
ionofSecondar
yCi
rcul
arReact
ions(
8–12mont
hs)

Duringthissubstage,thechildst
artstoshowclearlyi
ntent
ionalact
ions.Thechil
dmayalso
combi neschemasi nor dertoachi
eveadesiredeffect
.Childr
enbeginex pl
ori
ngthe
environmentaroundt hem andwi l
loft
enimit
atetheobser v
edbehav i
orofothers.The
under st
andi
ngofobj ectsalsobeginsduri
ngthisti
meandchi l
drenbegintorecogni
zecert
ain
objectsashav i
ngspeci fi
cquali
ti
es.Forexample,achil
dmi ghtreal
izethataratt
lewi
llmakea
soundwhenshaken.

Ter
ti
aryCi
rcul
arReact
ions(
12-18mont
hs)

Childr
enbegi
naperi
odoftr
ial
-and-err
orexper
iment
ationdur
ingt
hefi
ft
hsubstage.For
exampl e,
achi
ldmaytr
youtdi
fferentsoundsoract
ionsasawayofgett
ingat
tenti
onfrom a
caregi
ver.

Ment
alcombi
nat
ions/
Repr
esent
ati
on(
18–24mont
hs)

Chil
drenbegi
ntodevelopsymbolstorepresentev
entsorobject
sintheworl
dinthefi
nal
sensori
motorsubst
age.Duri
ngthist
ime, chi
ldr
enbegintomov etowar
dsunder
standi
ngthe
worldthr
oughmentaloperat
ionsr
atherthanpurel
ythroughacti
ons.

Pi
aget
'spr
eoper
ati
onal
stageofcogni
ti
veDev
elopment
I
tisthesecondstagewhichbegi
nsfr
om age2-7y
ears.Atthi
sstagethelanguagedevel
ops
t
ot hepoi
ntatwhichtheybegi
ntothi
nki
nt er
msofverbalsymbol-words.
Theirt
hinki
ng
r
emai nsi
nfl
exi
bleandill
ogi
calt
osomeex t
ent.

Chil
drenengagei nsy mboli
cpl
ay,pret
endingthatoneobjectisanot
herex ampl
e-pretenda
penciltobear ocket.
______
____
Thisincludes3shi f
ts:-
Decentration
Chil
drengr aduall
ybegintomakeothersrat
herthanthemselvesthereci
pient
softheirplay
ful
acti
ons, fori
nstancetheybegi
ntofeedthei
rdoll
sordr esst
hem.
Decont extuali
z ati
on
Subst itutesar ecr eatedforobj ect sbyt hechil
deg:Thechi ldpretendst hattwi
gi saspoon.
Integrat i
on
Combi ningpl ayact ionsintoi ncreasi ngcomplexsequences.
______________
Egocent ri
sm
Chi l
dren'sI nabilit
yt ounder standt hatot her
smayper ceiv
et hewor lddiff
erentlyt
hant heydo.
Theyl ackunder standingofr elational ter
mssuchasl ight
er,lar
ger,sof t
er.
*Thet hr eeMount ai
nt ask
Anex per i
menti nvolvedusingat hree-dimensi
onaldisplayofamount ai
nscene.Of t
enr efer
red
toast he" ThreeMount ai
nTask, "childrenareaskedtochooseapi cturethatshowst hescene
theyhadobser v ed.Mostchi l
drenar eabletodothiswi thli
ttl
ediffi
culty.Next,chi
ldr
enar e
askedt osel ectapi ctureshowi ngwhatsomeoneel sewoul dhav eobser vedwhenl ookingat
themount ainfrom adi ff
erentv iewpoi nt.

Inv
ariably,
chil
drenal
mostal way schoosethesceneshowingthei
rownviewofthemount
ain
scene.AccordingtoPiaget,chi
ldrenexper
iencet
hisdi
ffi
cult
ybecauset
heyareunabl
etotake
onanot herper
son'sperspectiv
e.*

Principleofconser v
ation
Knowl edget hatcertai
nphy si
cal at
tri
butesofanobj ectremai nunchangedeventhoughthe
outwar dappear anceoft heobjectisalt
er ed.*I
noneconser v
ationexperi
ment,equalamounts
ofliquidarepour edintotwoi denti
calcont ainer
s.Theliquidinonecont ai
neri
sthenpour ed
i
ntoadi ff
erentlyshapedcup, suchasat allandthincuporashor tandwidecup.Childr
enare
thenaskedwhi chcuphol dst
hemostl i
qui d.Despit
eseei ngthattheli
quidamountswer e
equal, chi
ldr
enal mostal wayschooset hecupt hatappear sfull
er.
*
('
*'meansex trafrom othersources)
CHI LDRENCOULDNOTFOLLOW PRI NCI PLEOFCONSERVATI ON

MORALDEVELOPMENT
Moraldevel
opment-Changesi
nthecapaci
tyt
oreasonaboutt
her
ight
nessorwr
ongnessof
var
iousacti
onst
hatoccurwit
hage.
KOHLBERG’SSTAGESOFMORALUNDERSTANDI NG
Lawr enceKohl bergst udi edboy sandmenandsuggest edt hathumanbei ngsmov et
hr ou8ugh
threedi stinctlev elsofmor alreasoni ngeachdi videdinto2separ atephases.I nordert o
determi newhatst agesofmor al dev el opmentt heyhav ereached, Kohlber gaskedt hem t o
consi derimagi narysi tuationst hatr ai sedmor al dil
emmasf ortheper soni nv ol
ved.
Par ti
cipant stheni ndicatedt hecour seofact i
ont heywoul dchooseandex plai
nwhy .
Kohl ber
g
say st hatitist heseexpl anat i
onst hemsel vest hatar ecr ucialforiti
sr easoni ngdispl
ay edin
theseexpl anat ionst hatdet ermi neandr ealani ndividual’sstageofmor al
dev elopment .Kohl berg'sst agesofmor aldevelopmentar ebasedont heassumpt i
ont hat
humansar einher entlycommuni cat ive, capableofr easonandpossessadesi r
etounder stand
othersandt hewor l
dar oundt hem.Thest agesoft hismodel r
elatetot hequal i
tati
ve
mor al reasoni ngsadopt edbyi ndi vidual sanddonott ranslatedirectl
yi ntopr ai
seorbl ameof
anyi ndividual'sact i
onsorchar act er .Ar guingt hathi stheor ymeasur esmor alr
easoningand
notpar ti
cularmor al concl usions, Kohl berginsistst hatt heform andst ructureofmor al
argument si sindependentoft hecont entoft hosear gument s,apositionhecal l
s"formal i
sm".
Kohlberg'stheoryfol
lowst henoti
onthatjust
iceist
heessenti
alcharact
erist
icofmor
al
reasoning.Justiceit
sel
fr el
iesheavi
l
yupont henoti
onofsoundreasoningbasedonprinci
ples.
Despitebeingaj usti
ce-center
edtheoryofmor al
i
ty,
Kohlber
gconsideredittobecompati
ble
withplausibleformulat
ionsofdeontologyandeudaimonia.
Kohlber
g'stheoryunderst
andsv
aluesasacrit
icalcomponentof"
theri
ght".Whatev
erthe
ri
ghtis,f
orKohlberg,i
tmustbeuniver
sal
lyv
alidamongsocieti
es(aposit
ionknownas" mor
al
uni
versali
sm"):
therecanbenorel
ativi
sm.Moralsarenotnat
uralf
eatur
esoft heworl
d;t
hey
 areprescr
ipt
ive.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
mor
alj
udgment
scanbeev
aluat
edi
nlogi
cal
ter
msoft
rut
hand
fal
sit
y.
Accor dingt oKohl ber
g,someonepr ogressingtoahi gherst ageofmor alreasoningcannot
skipst ages.Forexampl e,anindiv i
dualcannotj umpf rom bei ngconcer nedmost lywithpeer
j
udgment s(staget hr
ee)t obeingapr oponentofsoci alcont r
acts(stagef iv
e) .
Onencount er
ing
amor al dil
emmaandf i
ndingthei rcurr
entl evelofmor alreasoningunsat isfactor
y,an
i
ndividual wil
llooktothenextl ev el
.Realizi
ngt heli
mi tat
ionsoft hecur rentstageoft hi
nkingis
thedriv i
ngf orcebehindmor aldev el
opment ,
aseachpr ogressivestagei smor eadequatethan
thelast .Thepr ocessist her
efor econsideredt obeconst ructive,asiti
si nit
iatedbythe
consci ousconst r
ucti
onoft hei ndivi
dual andisnotinanymeani ngfulsenseacomponentof
theindi vidual
'sinnatedisposit
ionsorar esultofpasti nductions.

TheHei nzdi
l
emmai safrequent
lyusedexampl
einmanyethi
csandmorali
tycl
asses.One
wel
l-knownversi
onofthedil
emma, usedi
nLawrenceKohl
ber
g'sst
agesofmoral
development
,isst
atedasfoll
ows:-
Awomanwasonherdeat hbed.Ther ewasonedr ugt hatthedoct orsthoughtmi ght
saveher.Itwasaf orm ofr adium t
hatadr uggi
stint hesamet ownhadr ecently
discover
ed.Thedr ugwasexpensi vet omake, butt hedruggistwaschar gingten
ti
meswhatt hedrugcosthi mt oproduce.Hepai d$200f ortheradium andchar ged
$2,000forasmal ldoseoft hedrug.Thesi ckwoman' shusband, Heinz,wentt o
everyoneheknewt oborrowt hemoney ,buthecoul donlygettogetherabout$1, 000
whichishalfofwhati tcost .Hetoldthedr uggi
stt hathiswifewasdy i
ngandasked
himt oselli
tcheaperorlethi m paylater.Butthedr uggistsaid:“
No, Idiscov eredthe
drugandI '
m goingtomakemoneyf rom it
.”SoHei nzgotdesper ateandbr okeinto
theman' sl
aboratorytosteal t
hedrugf orhiswife.Shoul dHeinzhav ebr okenintot he
l
abor at
orytostealthedrugf orhi
swi fe?Whyorwhynot ?

From atheoreti
calpointofview, i
tisnoti mportantwhatthepart
ici
pantthi
nkst
hat
Heinzshoulddo.Kohl berg'
st heoryholdsthatthejust
ifi
cati
ontheparti
ci
pantof
fer
sis
whatissigni
ficant
,thef orm oftheirresponse.Belowaresomeofmanyex ampl
esof
possibl
eargument sthatbelongt ot hesixstages:
Lev
el St
age Heinzshoul dstealt
hedr ug, Hei
nzshouldnotst
eal
the
because dr
ug,because
Pre- Obedi
ence Iti
sonl ywor t
h$200andnot
Convent
ional howmucht hedruggist
Hewill
consequent
lybeputi
n
want edforit;
Heinzhad
pri
sonwhichwil
lmeanheisa
evenof fer
edt opayforit
badperson.
andwasnotst eali
ng
anythingelse.
Sel
fint
erest Hewi l
lbemuchhappi erif Pri
sonisanawf ulplace,and
hesav eshiswi f
e,eveni fhe hewoul dmor eli
kelylanguish
hast oserveapr i
son i
naj ail
cell t
hanov erhis
sentence. wife'
sdeat h.
Conv
ent
ional Conf
ormi
ty St
ealingisbadandhei snota
cr
iminal;hehast r
iedt odo
Hi
swi
feexpect
sit
;hewant
s
everyt
hinghecanwi thout
t
obeagoodhusband.
br
eakingt helaw,youcannot
bl
amehi m.
 Lawand Hiswi f
ewi l
lbenef i
t,buthe
order shouldalsot akethe
prescri
bedpuni shmentf or
thecrimeaswel laspay ing
thedruggistwhathei s
Thel
awpr
ohi
bit
sst
eal
i
ng.
owed.
Criminal
scannotj ustr un
aroundwi t
houtr egardf or
thelaw;actionshav e
consequences.
Post Social Thesci ent
isthasar i
ghtto
Ever
yonehasari
ghtto
conv
ent
ional contract faircompensation.Evenifhi
s
choosel
if
e,r
egar
dlessof
ori
entati
on wifeissick,i
tdoesnotmake
thel
aw.
hisactionsri
ght.
Uni
ver
sal Savingahumanl if
eisa Othersmayneedt he
humanet
hics moref undamentalval
ue medi cinej
ustasbadly,and
thanthepropert
yright
sof theirli
vesareequall
y
anotherperson. signif
icant
.

ThePr
econv
ent
ional
Lev
el

Atthefir
stlevelofmor aldevel
opment,
thepreconventi
onallevel,
chi
ldr
enjudge
mor al
i
tylargelyi
nt er
msofconsequences:Actionst
hatleadtor ewar
dsareperci
eved
asgoodoraccept abl
e; onesthatl
eadtopuni
shmentareseenasbador
unacceptable.Forexampl e:
-Achil
datthi
sstagewouldsay, ”Themanshouldnot
stealt
hedr ugbecausei fhedoesthenhewill
bepunished.”

InStageone( obedienceandpuni shmentdr i

ven),i
ndividualsfocusont hedirect
consequencesoft heiracti
onsont hemselves.Forex ampl e,anacti
oni sperceiv
edas
mor al
lywrongbecauset heperpetr
atori
spuni shed."Thelastt i
meIdi dthatIgot
spanked,soIwi l
lnotdoi tagai
n."Thewor sethepuni shmentf ortheacti s,
themor e
"bad"theacti
sper ceivedtobe.Thiscangiv eri
set oani nf
erencethatev eninnocent
vict
imsaregui l
tyinproporti
ont othei
rsufferi
ng.Itis"egocentri
c",l
ackingrecognit
ion
thatother
s'pointsofv i
ewar ediff
erentf
rom one'sown.Ther eis"deferenceto
superi
orpowerorpr esti
ge".

Staget wo( sel f

-interestdr i
v en)expr essest he"what '
si nitforme"posi t
ion, inwhi ch
ri
ghtbehav iorisdef inedbywhat everthei ndiv i
dual bel i
evest obei ntheirbesti nterest
,
orwhat everi s" conv eni ent,"butunder stoodi nanar rowwaywhi chdoesnotconsi der
one' sreput at i
onorr elat i
onshi pst ogr oupsofpeopl e.St aget wor easoningshowsa
l
imi tedi nteresti ntheneedsofot hers, butonl ytoapoi ntwher eitmi ghtfur therthe
i
ndi vidual'
sowni nterest s.Asar esult,concer nforot hersisnotbasedonl oy alty
orint ri
nsicr espect , butr athera" Youscr at chmyback, andI '
l
lscratchy our s"ment ali
ty,
whi chiscommonl ydescr ibedasqui dpr oquo, aLat intermt hatmeansdoi ngor
givingsomet hingi nor dert ogetsomet hingi nret urn.Thel ackofasoci etal
perspect i
vei nt hepr e-conv ent i
onal l
ev elisqui t
edi fferentfrom thesoci al cont ract
(stagef ive), asal lact i
onsatt hi
sst agehav ethepur poseofser v
ingt heindi vidual's
ownneedsori nterest s.Fort hest aget wot heorist,thewor ld'
sper spectivei sof ten
seenasmor al
lyr elative.Seeal so: r
eciprocal al
truism.

PRECONVENTI
ONALLEVEL
PUNI
SHMENTANDOBEDIENCE MORALITYJUDGEDINTERMSOF
ORI
ENTATI
ON CONSEQUENCES
NAI
VEHEDONISTI
CORI
ENTAION MORALITYJUDGEDINTERMSOF
WHATSATISFIESOWNNEEDSOR
THOSEOFOTHERS
TheConv
ent
ional
Lev
el

Aschildren’scognit
iveabil
it
iesincrease,Kohl ber
gsuggest s,
theyenterasecondl evel
ofmor aldev el
opment,theconv enti
onal l
evel.Nowt heyareawareofsomeoft he
compl exit
iesofthesocialorderandj udgemor al
it
yont hebasisofwhatsuppor tsand
perservest hel
awsandr ulesoft hei
rsociety.Thusachi ldatthi
sstagemi ghtreason
that.”
ItisOKt ostealthedrug,becausenoonewi llt
hinkyouarebadi fy
oudobuti f
youdon’ tandletyourwifedietheny ouwi l
lnev erbeabletolookanyoneint heey e
again,
”

InSt aget hree(goodi ntenti

onsasdet ermi nedbysoci alconsensus) ,theselfenters
soci et
ybyconf ormingt osocialstandar ds.I ndivi
dual sar ereceptivetoappr oval or
disapprov al f
rom othersasi tref
lectssoci ety '
sv i
ews.Theyt rytobea" goodboy "or
"goodgi rl"toliveupt otheseexpect ations, hav i
ngl earnedt hatbeingr egardedas
goodbenef i
tstheself.Staget hr
eer easoni ngmayj udget hemor al
ityofanact ionby
evaluatingi tsconsequencesi ntermsofaper son'sr el
ationships,whichnowbegi nto
i
ncl udet hingslikerespect,grati
tude,andt he" goldenr ule"."Iwanttobel i
kedand
thoughtwel lof;apparently,
notbei ngnaught ymakespeopl elikeme. "Conformi ngto
ther ul
esf orone'ssocialrol
ei snoty etf ul
lyunder st ood.Thei ntentionsofact orsplay
amor esi gnifi
cantroleinreasoningatt hisst age;onemayf eel moref orgi
vingifone
thinksthat" theymeanwel l"
.

I
nSt agef our( authorit
yandsoci alorderobedi encedriven),itisimpor t
anttoobey
l
aws, dict
a, andsoci alconv enti
onsbecauseoft hei
rimpor tancei nmaintaini
nga
funct i
oningsoci ety.Mor al r
easoni nginstagef ourist husbey ondt heneedf or
i
ndi vidual approv alexhibitedinst aget hr
ee.Acent r
al i
deal oridealsoftenprescribe
whati sri
ghtandwr ong.I foneper sonv i
olatesal aw,perhapsev eryonewoul d—thus
therei sanobl igati
onandadut yt ouphol dlawsandr ules.Whensomeonedoes
violateal aw, itismor all
ywr ong; cul
pabili
tyist husasi gnif
icantf act
orinthisstageas
i
tsepar atest hebaddomai nsfrom thegoodones.Mostact iv
emember sofsociety
remai natst agef our,wher emor ali
tyissti
llpredomi nantlydictatedbyanout si
de
force.
CONVENTI ONALLEVEL
GOODBOYORGOODGI RL MORALI TYJUDGEDI NTERMSOF
ORI ENTATI ON ADHERENCETOSOCI ALLAWSOR
NORMSWI THRESPECTTO
PERSONALACQUAI NTANCES
SOCI ALORDERMAI NTAI NING MORALI TYJUDGEDI NTERMSOF
ORI ENTATI ON SOCIALRULESORLAWSAPPLI ED
UNIVERSALLYANDNOTJUDTTO
ACQUANTANCES

ThePostconv
ent
ional
Lev
el

Finall
y,i
nadol escence,indi
vidualsent ert
het hir
dst ageknownaspostconv enti
onal
stage.Atthi
sst agepeopl ejudgemor ali
tyi
nt ermsofabst ractpri
nci
plesandv alue
i
nst eadofexistionglawsorr ulesoft hesociety.Peoplewhoat tai
nthisst ageoften
beli
ev et
hatsomeobl igati
onsandv al
uestranscendt helawsofsociety.Ther ul
est hey
foll
owar eabst r
actandet hi
cal, notconcreteliketheTenCommandment s,andar e
basedoni nnerconsci encerathert hanonex ternalsourcesofauthori
ty.Forex ampl e,
aper sonatt hisstageofmor aldev el
opmentmi ghtar guef orsteal
ingthedragas
foll
ows: "
Ifthemandoesn' tstealthedrug,heisput t
ingpr opertyabovehumanl i
fe;
thi
smakesnosense.Peopl ecoul dli
vetogetherwithoutpr iv
ateproperty,
buta
respectforhumanl if
eisessent i
al."I
ncontrast,i
ftheyar guef ornotsteal
ingthedrug.
theymi ghtreason: "I
fthemanst olethedrughewoul dn'tbebl amedbyot hers,buthe
wouldpr obabl ybl
amehi mself,sincehehasv i
olat
edhi sownst andardsofhonest y
andhur tanot herpersonforhisowngai n."

I
nSt agef i
ve(socialcontr
actdriven), t
hewor l
disv i
ewedashol di
ngdi f
ferentopinions,
ri
ghts,andv al
ues.Suchper spectivesshouldbemut ual
lyrespectedasuni quetoeach
personorcommuni ty.Lawsar eregar dedassocialcontract
sratherthanrigidedicts.
Thoset hatdonotpr omotet hegener al wel
fareshouldbechangedwhennecessar y
to/
thatmeet" thegreatestgoodf ort hegreatestnumberofpeopl e"
.Thisi
sachi eved
thr
oughmaj or
itydecisi
onandi nevitablecompr omise.Democr at
icgovernmenti s
ostensibl
ybasedonst agefivereasoni ng.

InSt agesi x( uni versal ethi cal pri

nciplesdr iven),mor al r
easoni ngi sbasedonabst ract
reasoni ngusi nguni versal ethicalpr i
nciples.Lawsar ev alidonl yi nsof
arast heyar e
groundedi nj ust ice,andacommi tmentt ojust i
cecar r
ieswi thi tanobl igat i
ont o
disobeyunj ustl aws.Legal r
ight sareunnecessar y,associ al cont ract
sar enot
essent ialfordeont icmor al act i
on.Deci sionsar enotr eachedhy potheticallyina
condi ti
onal waybutr athercat egoricall
yi nanabsol uteway ,asi nt hephi l
osophyof
Immanuel Kant .Thisinv ol vesani ndividual i
magi ni
ngwhatt heywoul ddoi nanot her '
s
shoes, iftheybel ievedwhatt hatot herper soni magi nestobet rue.Ther esul ti
ng
consensusi st heact i
ont aken.I nthiswayact i
oni snev erameansbutal way sanend
i
ni tself;thei ndiv idualact sbecausei tisright,andnotbecausei tavoidspuni shment ,
i
si nt heirbesti nterest, expect ed,legal, orprev i
ouslyagr eedupon.Al thoughKohl berg
i
nsist edt hatst agesi xexi sts, hefoundi tdif
ficulttoident if
yi ndiv i
dualswho
consi stentlyoper atedatt hatl evel.Tour oCol legeResear cherAr thurP.Sul livan
helpedsuppor ttheaccur acyofKohl ber g'
sf i
rstf i
vest agest hroughdat aanal ysis,but
coul dnotpr ov i
dest ati
st ical ev i
dencef ortheex i
stenceofKohl ber g'
ssi xthst age.
Ther efore, i
tisdi ffi
cultt odef ine/recogni zeasaconcr etestagei nmor al dev el
opment .
PRECONVENTI ONALLEVEL
LEGALI STICORI ENTATI ON MORALI TYJUDGEDI NTERMSOF
HUMANRI GHTSWHI CHMAY
TRANSCENDLAWS
UNI VERSALETHI CALPRI NCI PLE MORALI TYJUDGEDI NTERMSOF
ORIENTAI ON SELFCHOSENETHI CALPRI NCI PLE

Fur
therst
ages

Inhisempi r
ical st
udi esofi ndi vidual sthroughoutt hei rlife, Kohl bergobser v
edt hat
somehadappar entlyunder gonemor alstager egr essi on.Thi scoul dber esol ved
eit
herbyal l
owi ngf ormor al r
egr essionorbyex tendi ngt het heor y.Kohlbergchoset he
l
atter,postulatingt heex istenceofsub- stagesi nwhi cht heemer gingstagehasnot
yetbeenf ullyintegr atedi nt ot heper sonality.
Inpar ticul arKohl ber gnotedast age4½
or4+, at r
ansitionf rom st agef ourt of i
ve, t
hatshar edchar acter isti
csofbot h.I nthis
staget heindividual isdi saf fect edwi tht hear bit
rar ynat ureofl awandor derr easoning;
culpabili
tyisfrequent l
yt ur nedf rom bei ngdef i
nedbysoci etytov i
ewingsoci etyi t
self
ascul pable.Thi sstagei sof tenmi stakenf ort hemor al relativi
sm ofst aget wo, asthe
i
ndi vi
dual vi
ewst hosei nter estsofsoci et ythatconf li
ctwi tht heirownasbei ng
rel
ativelyandmor all
ywr ong.Kohl bergnot edt hatt hiswasof tenobser vedinst udents
enteri
ngcol lege.
Kohlber gsuggest edt hatt her emaybeasev enthst age—Tr anscendent al Mor alit
y,or
Mor al
ityofCosmi cOr ient ation—whi chlinkedr eligionwi thmor al r
easoning.Kohl berg'
s
di
ff
icul
ti
esinobt
aini
ngempiri
calev
idencef
orevenasixthst
age,
howev
er,
ledhi
mto
emphasizet
hespecul
ati
venatur
eofhissevent
hstage.
Theconcr
eteoper
ati
onal
stage
Iti
sthet hi
rdst ageinPiaget'st heoryofcogni ti
vedev el
opment .Thisperiodspanst heti
meof
middlechildhood—i tbeginsar oundage7andcont inuesuntilapproximat elyage11—andi s
characteri
zedbyt hedev elopmentofl ogicalthought .
Kidsatthisagebecomemor elogi
cal
aboutconcr eteandspeci fi
ct hings, buttheyst i
llstrugglewithabstractideas.
____
_ _
___
*LessEgocent ri
c
Atearli
erst agesofdev el
opmentar eegocent ri
c,thosei ntheconcreteoper ati
onal st
age
becomemor esociocentri
c.Inot herwor ds,theyar eabl etounderstandt hatot herpeopl
ehav e
thei
rownt hought s.Kidsatt hispoi ntareawar ethatot herpeoplehav euni queper spect
ives,
buttheymi ghtnoty etbeabl et oguessex actl
yhoworwhatt hatotherper sonis
experi
encing. *
____
_ _
_
Theygetabet terunderstandingofspat ialconcept s,ofcasualty,ofcategor isati
on,of
i
nduct i
veanddeduct i
vereasoni ngandofconser vation.

1)SpaceandCausal i
ty
Theyhav eaclearideaofhowf ari
tisfr
om oneplacet
oanotherandhowl ongi
twi l
ltaket
o
getther
e.Achi l
dwhowal kstoschoolbecomesmor ef
amil
iarwiththenei
ghbourhoodoutsi
de
theexperienceplaysarol
einthisdevel
opment.
Theabil
iti
est ousemapsandmodel simprov
ewiththi
sage.Judgementsaboutcauseand
eff
ectalsoi mprovedur
ingmiddlechil
dhood.

2)Categor i
sat i
on
Theabi l
it
yt ocategor isehelpschildr
ent othinklogicall
y.Categori
sati
onincl
udessuch
sophisti
catedabi li
ti
esasser i
ati
on, t
ransit
ivei nf
erenceandcl assincl
usi
on.
Seriat
ion-Whent heycanar rangeobjectsinaser i
esaccor di
ngt ooneormoredi mensi
onsuch
aswei ght(li
ghttoheav y)
.
Transiti
veinference-itistheabili
tytorecogni sear el
ati
onshipbetweentwoobj ect
sby
knowingt her el
ationshipbet weeneachoft hem andat hirdobject
.
Classinclusion-theabi l
it
ytoseet herel
ationshipbet weenawhol eanditspart
s.

3)Inductiveanddeduct iv
er easoning
Att hi
sstagechi l
drenusei nduct i
vereasoning
Inductiv
er easoni
ng-Ininductivereasoning,achi l
dbegi nswithspeci
fi
cobservat
ionsand
measur es,beginstodet ectpat t
ernsandr egulari
ti
es,formulatesometent
ativ
ehy pot
hesesto
explore,andf i
nal
lyendupdev el
opingsomegener alconclusionsort
heori
es.
Anex ampl eofinductiv
el ogicwoul dbenot i
cingthatev eryti
meachi l
disaroundacat ,
they
hav ei
tchyey es,arunnynose, andaswol l
ent hroat.Childr
enmi ghtt
henreasonfrom t
hat
experiencethattheyar eallergictocats.

_
___
_

Deduct i
veReasoning-Doesn'
tdevel
opunt i
ladolescence.
Wemi ghtbeginwi
ththi
nkingupa
theor
yaboutourt opi
cofint
erest
.Wet hennarrowt hatdownintomorespeci
fi
chy potheses
thatwecant est
.Wenar r
owdownev enf ur
therwhenwecol lectobserv
ati
onstoaddressthe
hypotheses.Thi
sulti
matel
yleadsustobeabl etotestthehypotheseswit
hspecif
icdata–a
conf
ir
mat
ion(
ornot
)ofouror
igi
nal
theor
ies.

_
___
___
___

UnderstandingRev ersibil
it
y
Oneimpor tantdev
elopmenti nthi
sstageisanunder
standi
ngofr
ever
sibi
l
ityorawareness
t
hatactionscanber eversed.Anexampl eoft
hisi
sbeingabl
etor
ever
setheor derof
r
elat
ionshipsbetweenment alcat
egori
es.

Anexampleofrev
ersibi
li
tyist
hatachil
dmi ghtbeabl
etor
ecogni
zet
hathi
sorherdogi
sa
Labr
ador
,thataLabradorisadog,andthatadogisanani
mal.

4)Conser vation
Childr
encanwor koutanswer sintheirhead.
Beingabletoconser vemeansknowi ngthataquant it
ydoesn’tchangeifit’
sbeenal
ter
ed(by
beingstret
ched, cut,elongated,
spreadout ,shrunk,pour
ed,etc).TherearesevenPi
ageti
an
tasks,generall
yt endtobeacqui redinthisorder:number(usuallyacqui
redbyage6),l
ength,
l
iquid,mass, area,weight,andvolume( usuall
yacqui r
edbyage10) .

ATTACHMENT
Meani
ng:At
tachmenti
sar
eci
procal
,ast
rongaf
fect
ional
bondbet
weeni
nfant
sandt
hei
r
car
egi
ver
s.

Attachmenti sar eciprocal

,enduri
ngat t
achmentbetweenani nf
antandacaregiver,eachof
whom cont ri
butestothequal i
tyoft her
elat
ionshi
p.Attachmenthasadaptiv
ev al
uef orbabi
es,
ensuringt hatthei
rpsy chol
ogicalaswel l
asphy si
calneedswi l
lbemet.Accordi
ngt o
theologicaltheory,i
nfantsandpar entsarebiol
ogi
call
ypr edi
sposedtobecomeat tachedto
eachot herandat tachmentpr omot esababy ’
ssurvi
val.

BOWLBY’
stheor
y:
Infant sf orm st rongat tachmentt otheper sonswhocar ef ort hem i sobv ioust oany onewho
hasev erwat chedwhathappenswhenbabi esar esepar atedf rom t heircar egivers.
Act ual l
y ,i
nfant s'reacti
onst osuchsepar at ionspl ayacent ral rolei nonewaypsy chol ogi
st s
measur eat tachment .Thi sisknownasast rangesi tuationt est: apr ocedur eforst udy i
ng
attachmenti nwhi chacar egiverleavesachi ldalonewi thast rangerf orsev eralmi nutesand
thenr eturns.Thi stestisbasedonat heorypr oposedbyBowl by (1969) ,suggest ingt hat
attachmenti nv olvesabal ancebet weeni nf ant s't
endenci est oseekt obeneart ot heir
caregi v ersandt heirwillingnesst oexplor enewenv ir
onment s.Thequal it
yofat tachment ,
Bowl bycont ended, i
srev ealedbyt hedegr eet owhi cht hei nf antbehav esasi fthecar egiver,
whenpr esent ,ser vesasasecur ebaseofoper ations-pr ov idescomf ortandr eassur ance;and
byt heef f
ectiv enessofi nfant-caregi
veri nter acti
onswhent hecar egiv erret urnsaf tera
separ ation.
Resear chusi ngst rangesi tuati
ont estshasf oundt hatinfant sdi fferint hequal i
tyorst yl
eof
theirat tachmentt othei rcaregivers(
rememberal l peopl ewhocar efori nfant sar enot
mot her s).Inf actmostshowoneoff ourdi stinctpat ternsofat tachment :
-
1.Secur eat tachment -Apat t
ernofat tachmenti nwhi chinf ant sact i
velyseekcont actwi t
ht heir
caregi v erandt akecomf ortfr
om herpr esencewhensher et urnsi nt hest r angesi tuat i
ontest .
2.I
nsecur e/av oi dantattachment -Apat ternofat tachmenti nwhi chchi l
drendon’ tcr ywhen
theircar egiverleavesi nthest r
anget est,andar esl owt ogreett heircaregiv
erwhent his
personr eturns.
3.Insecur e/ambival entatt
achment -Apat t
er nofat tachmenti nwhi chinfantsseekcont act
witht heircar egiv
erbef oresepar at
ionbutt henaf tershel eav esandt henr eturns, fi
rstseekher
butt henr esistorr ejectheroffersofcomf ort.
4.Disor ganizedofdi sori
entedAt t
achment -Apat ternofat tachmenti nwhi chinf antsshow
cont radictoryreactionst otheircaregiveraf t
erbei ngr eunit
edwi thherint hest r
angesi tuation
tests.
Theexi stenceofdi sti
nctpatternsofat tachmentr aiseani ntriguingandi mpor tantquest ion:
Whatf actor sinfl
uenceat t
achmentandt hepar t
icularf ormi ttakes?Onef actort hatwasl ong
assumedt oplayacent r
alroleismat ernal sensiti
v i
ty-acar egiver’saler
tnesst oi nfantsi gnals,
appr opr i
ateandpr omptr esponsest ot hese, fl
exibil
ityofat tentionandbehav iour ,
appr opr i
ate
l
ev elofcont rolovert heinfantandsoon.

Longt
erm ef
fect
sofat
tachmentst
yle-
Onef actort hatwasl ongassumedt opl ayacer tainrol
ei nmater nalsensi ti
vit
ywast helong
ter
m ef f
ect sofat tachmentt ime-dur ingt hechi l
dhoody oungsterswhoar esecur elyat t
ached
totheircar egiv ersaremor esoci able, betteratsolv i
ngcer t
ainkindsofpr oblems, mor e
tol
eranttof rust r
ationandmor ef lexibleandper sistentinmanysi t
uationt hanchi ldrenwho
areinsecur elyat tached.Fur ther ,secur elyat t
achedchi ldrenseemedt oex per i
encef ewer
behav i
oural pr oblemsdur inglat erchi ldhood.Infancymayhav east r
ongef f
ectont heki ndof
rel
ationshipi ndi vi
dual shav ewhent heyar eadults.Personswhoshowambi val
entat tachment
atinfancyseem t obeambi valentaboutr omant i
cr elat
ionshipstoo.I ncont rast,per sonswho
aresecur elyat tachedt otheircar egiv ersasi nfantsseekcl osenessi nt heiradultr elati
onships
andar ecomf ortablewi thhav i
ngt odependont heirpartners.I
nasense, then,itseemst hat
thepat t
ernofourr elationshipswi thot hersisset -
atleasttoadegr ee-byt henat ur eoft he
veryfir
str elationshi pwef orm, attachmentt oourcar egiver.

Cont
actcomf
ortandat
tachment
:Thesof
ttouchofl
ove:

Harr
yHarlowwasoneoft hefi
rstpsychol
ogi
ststoscienti
ficall
yinv
est
igatethenat
ureof
humanloveandaffecti
on.Throughaser i
esofcontr
ov er
sialexperi
ments,Harl
owwasablet
o
demonstr
atetheimportanceofearlyatt
achments,
affecti
on, andemotional
bondsonthe
cour
seofhealthydevel
opment .

Anaddi tional fact ort hatseemst opl ayakeyr oleinat tachmenti sclosephy sical contact
betweeni nfantsandt heircaregi v ers.Suchcont actknownascont actcomf or ti
nv olves
hugging, cuddl ingandcar essesi nfant sreceivefrom t heircaregiv
ersandi tseemst obean
essential i
ngr edienti nat tachment .
TheWi reMot herExper iment
Hismostf amousexper imenti nv olvedgi vi
ngy oungr hesusmonkey sachoi cebet weent wo
diff
erent" mot her s. "Onewasmadeofsof tterr
ycl othbutpr ov i
dednof ood.Theot herwas
madeofwi r
ebutpr ov idednour ishmentf rom anat t
achedbabybot t
le.
Harlowr emov edy oungmonkey sf r
om t heirnaturalmot hersaf ewhour saf terbi r
thandl eft
them tobe" raised"byt hesemot hersur rogates.Theex perimentdemonst rat edt hatthebaby
monkey sspentsi gni ficant lymor etimewi ththeirclothmot herthanwi ththei rwiremot her
.
Inotherwor ds, thei nf antmonkey swentt othewi remot heronlyforf oodbutpr ef err
edt o
spendt hei rti
mewi tht hesof t,comf ortingclothmot herwhent heywer enoteat ing.
Harlowconcl udedt hataf fect
ionwast heprimar yforcebehi ndt heneedf orcl oseness.A
monkeybaby ’sat tachmentt oitsmot herrestsatl easti npartonherabi lit
yt osat i
sfyitsneed
forcontactcomf or t-directcont actwi thsof tobjects.Sat i
sfyi
ngot herphy si
cal needssuchas
thatoff oodi snotenough.
Mar
yAi
nswor
thandLamb

TheSt rangesi tuat ionisast andar dizedpr ocedur edev i

sedbyMar yAi nswor t
hi nthe1970st o
obser veat t
achmentsecur i
tyinchi l
drenwi thinthecontex tofcaregiverrelati
onships.It
appliestoi nfant sbet weent heageofni neand18mont hs.
Thepr ocedur ei nv olvesaser iesofei ghtepi sodesl asti
ngappr oximately3mi nuteseach,
wher ebyamot her ,chil
dandst r
angerar ei ntroduced,separatedandr eunited.
StrangeSi tuat ionPr ocedure
Thesecur it
yofat tachmenti none-t otwo- y ear-ol
dswer einvesti
gatedusi ngt hestrange
sit
uat i
onpar adi gm, i
nor dertodet erminet henat ureofattachmentbehav iorsandst yl
esof
attachment .
Ainswor thdev elopedanexper iment alpr ocedur einordert oobservet hevar i
etyofattachment
formsex hibitedbet weenmot hersandi nfants.
Theexper imenti ssetupi nasmal lr
oom wi t
honewaygl asssot hebehav ioroftheinfantcan
beobser vedcov ertly.I
nfantswer eagedbet ween12and18mont hs.Thesampl econsist
edof
100mi ddle-classAmer i
canf ami lies.
Thepr ocedur e, knownast he‘ StrangeSi t
uat ion,’
wasconduct edbyobser v i
ngt hebehav i
orof
theinfanti naser iesofei ghtepi sodesl astingappr oxi
mat ely3mi nuteseach:
(1)Mot her ,baby ,andexper i
ment er(last slesst hanonemi nute)
.
(2)Mot herandbabyal one.
(3)Ast rangerj oinst hemot herandi nfant .
(4)Mot herl eav esbabyandst rangeral one.
(5)Mot herr et urnsandst r
angerl eaves.
(6)Mot herl eav es; i
nfantleftcompl etelyal one.
(7)St r
angerr etur ns.
(8)Mot herr et urnsandst r
angerl eaves.

Scor
ing
StrangeSi tuati
oncl assi
ficati
ons(i.
e.,
att
achmentst
yles)arebasedprimari
l
yonf our
i
nteract i
onbehav iorsdirectedtowardthemotheri
nthet woreunionepi
sodes(Ep.5&Ep.8)
.
Proximi t
yandcont acti
ngseeki ng
Cont actmai ntaining
Avoidanceofpr oximityandcont act
Resistancet ocont actandcomf or
ti
ng
Theobser vernot esdownt hebehav i
ordi
splay
edduri
ng15- secondint
erv
alsandscorest
he
behav iorforintensityonascal eof1to7.

Otherbehav i
orsobservedi ncl
uded:
Explorator
ybehav i
orse.g.,mov i
ngar
oundt heroom, playi
ngwithtoy
s,l
ookingaroundthe
room.
Searchbehav i
ors,e.
g.,foll
owingmothertot hedoor,bangingonthedoor
,orient
ingtothe
door,looki
ngatt hedoor ,
goingtomot her
’sempt ychair,
looki
ngatmother’
sempt ychair
.
AffectDispl
aysnegat i
ve,e.g.,
cryi
ng,smil
ing.

Eat
ingdi
sor
der
sdur
ingadol
escentper
iod

Anor
exi
aNer
vosa
● Anexcessi veandi ntensef earofgai ni
ngwei ghtduet owhichpeoplestar
ve
themselvesi nordertol osewei ght.
● Peoplesuf fer
ingfrom thissev erelyrest
ri
ctfoodi nt
aket hr
oughdieti
ngorfasti
ngor
exerci
singex cessively.
● Itposesaser iousthreatt ophy si
cal andpsychologicalheal
thofaperson.
● Theypur suet hegoal ofbeingt hinnomat terwhatthisdoest othei
rhealt
h.
● Theyoftenhav epercept i
onsoft heirownbodi esbelievi
ngthattheyaremuchheav i
er
thantheyr eall
yare.
● Asar esultofsuchf earsanddi stort
edpercept i
ons,theystar
vethemselvestothe
 poi
ntwheret hei
rweightdropstodangerousl
ylowl ev
els.
● Thi
sismor ecommoni nadolescent
sandf emalesastheyfeeltr
emendouspr
essure
tol
iveuptotheimagesofbeaut yshowninmassmedi atobeast hinast
hemodels
whoareheldupaspar agonsoff emaledesir
abi
lit
y.
● I
ftheyaren'
tthisthi
n,theythi
nkthatthey
'l
lbeviewedasunat t
racti
ve.

Causes-
● Genetic-hereditar
y
● Lossofi mpul secont r
ol mechanism.
● Depression
● Int
ensesoci al mediapr essure-st
udybyPax ton
● Malfunctioninginhy pothalamusi nbr
ain.
● Peerpr essure
● Getti
ngcr it
icizedforyoureat inghabi
ts,bodyshapeorwei
ght
.

Tr
eat
ment
-
● Cogni t
ivebehav i
oraltherapy
● Rightkindofr olemedi apr esentati
on
● Maudsl eyAnor exi
aNer vosaTr eatmentforAdults(MANTRA) -Iti
nvolv
est al
kingt oa
therapistinor dertounder standwhat '
scausi ngyoureat
ingdi sor
der.I
tfocuseson
what '
si mpor t
anttoy ouandhel psyoutochangey ourbehav i
ourwheny ou'r
er eady.
● Specialistsuppor t
iveclinicalmanagement( SSCM)
● Focal psy chodynami cther apy-Focalpsychodynamictherapyshouldincludetryingto
underst andhowy oureat i
nghabi t
sarerelat
edt owhatyout hink,
andtohowy ouf eel
abouty our sel
fandot herpeopl einyourl
ife
● Dietadv ice

Bul
i
miaNer
vosa
● I
ndi v
idualsengagei nrecurr
entepi sodeofbi ngeeating(eatinglar
geamountoffood
withi
nashor tperi
odoft ime)andpur gi
ng( thr
owingorf l
ushi ngout)
● Theyappeart ohaveanor maldi et
● Theyhav eadi stor
ted,excessi
v elynegati
v ebodyimage
● I
tisf ol
lowedbysomeki ndofcompensat orybehaviordesignedt oprev
entwei
ght
gain.
● Thiscani nvolvesel
finducedv omi ti
ng,misuseoflax ati
ves,diur
eti
csorenemasand
fasti
ngorexer cisi
ngsoexcessi v el
ythati
ti sharmful.

Causes-
● Genetic-heredit
y
● Lossofi mpulsecontr
olmechani
sm
● Depression
● Malfunctioni
ngofhypothal
amusinbr
ain
● Substanceusedi sor
ders
● Traumat i
cev ents

Tr
eat
ment
-
● Cogni ti
vebehav ioralt
her apy-tohelpy ounor mali
zey oureatingpatternsandi dent
ify
unheal t
hy ,
negat i
v ebeli
efsandbehav iorsandr epl
acet hem wi thhealthy,posi
tiv
e
ones
● Fami ly-
basedt reatment -tohelppar ent sint
ervenetost optheirteenager '
sunhealt
hy
eatingbehav i
or s,tohelpt heteenregai ncont r
oloverhisorhereat i
ng, andtohelpthe
fami l
ydeal withpr obl
emst hatbuli
mi acanhav eont heteen'sdev el
opmentandt he
fami l
y
● Int
er personalpsy chotherapy-whichaddr essesdif
ficult
iesiny ourcloser el
ati
onshi
ps,
helpingt oimprov eyourcommuni cationandpr obl
em- solvi
ngski l
ls
 ● Ri
ghtki
ndofr
olemedi
apr
esent
ati
on
Subst
anceabuse
Accor dingt oDiagnosti
candSt ati
sti
cal ManualofMent alDi
sorders-4( DSM- 4),
Subst ance
abusei samal adaptiv
epat t
ernofsubst anceusethatr esult
sinrepeat ed, si
gnif
icant,
adv er
se
effectsandmal adaptivebehavi
ors:fail
uretomeetobl igati
onsatwor k,school,home;
repeat eduseofapsy choacti
vesubst anceinhazardousway s;
recurrentl egalproblems
rel
atedt othesubstance;andcont i
nuedusei fsubstancedespi t
eit'snegat i
veeffectson
social rel
ationshi
ps.
Iti
st heexcessi ve,uncontr
oll
ableintakeandaddictivedependencyonhar mfulsubstances
l
ikeal cohol, amphetamines,opi
oids,nicoti
ne,dr
ugs, etc.
Theymaybeconsumedor all
yorinjectedinthebody .Someoft hem maybei l
l
egal to
consumeaswel l
.

Causes-
Highl evel ofstr ess-tendencytocopewi thstr
essinmal
adaptiv
eway s(byavoidi
ngthem and
usingsubst ancest ofeel bet
ter
)
Peerpr essur ef rom friendsorcolleaguesandtotryt
ofi
tinthegroup.
Lowl ev elofsuppor tfrom parents.
Posi t
iveexpect anciesaboutt heef f
ectsofsubst
ances(
e.g-al
coholwil
lreducetensi
on,
i
ncr easesoci alcompet ence,et
c.)
Fami lyhistoryofaddi ction
Sleeppr obl ems
Chroni cpai n
Fi
nanci al diff
icul t
ies
Divorceort hel ossofal ovedone
Tensehomeenv i
ronment
Lackofpar ental att
achmenti nchildhood
Relationshi pissues

Sy
mpt
oms-
Feelingt haty ouhav et ouset hedrugr egularly—dai l
yorev ensev eralti
mesaday .
Havingi nt enseur gesf ort hedr ugt hatblockoutanyot hert hought s.
Overt i
me, needi
ngmor eoft hedr ugt ogett hesameef fect.
Maki ngcer taint
haty oumai ntainasuppl yoft hedr ug.
Spendi ngmoneyont hedr ug, event houghy oucan' taffordi t.
Notmeet i
ngobl igat ionsandwor kresponsi bil
iti
es, orcut ti
ngbackonsoci alorrecreat
ional
acti
v i
ti
esbecauseofdr uguse.
Cont i
nui ngt ouset hedr ug,ev enthoughy ouknowi t'
scausi ngpr oblemsi nyourli
feorcausing
youphy sical orpsy chol ogical harm.
Doingt hingst ogett hedr ugt haty ounor mal lywoul dn'tdo, suchasst eali
ng.
Dri
vingordoi ngot herr i
skyact i
vit
ieswheny ou'reundert hei nf
luenceoft hedr ug.
Spendi ngagooddeal oft i
meget ti
ngt hedr ug, usingthedr ugorr ecoveri
ngfrom theeffect
s
ofthedr ug.
Fai
lingi ny ourat tempt st ost opusi ngthedr .ug
Exper i
enci ngwi thdr awal sympt omswheny ouat temptt ost opt akingthedrug.

Ef
fect
-
Euphoria
Incr
easedsociabil
i
ty
Incr
easedenergyandagi t
ati
on
Incr
easedsexdr i
ve
Incr
easedheartrateandbloodpr
essur
e
Problemsthi
nkingclearl
y
Lossofmusclecont rol
Paranoia
Panicattacks
Hall
ucinati
ons
Del
iri
um
Psychoticandv i
olentbehavi
or
Wellbeingdisrupt
ion
Decreasedlif
eexpect ancy
Fai
luretomeetobl igati
onsatwor
k,school
,home,
etc.

Del
i
nquency
Rol
eofPsy
chol
ogyi
nunder
standi
ngt
hecr
imi
nal
sandi
npr
event
ingcr
ime:I
nal
egal
sense,personof21y earsandabov econv i
ctedbyt hecour toflawf orvi
olat
ingtheprovi
sions
ofIPCandCPCi slabell
edacrimi
nal inourcount ryandt heill
egalactforwhichheis
convict
edi sknownascr i
me.Anybehav i
ourl i
kepi ck-
pocket i
ng,gambl i
ng,burgl
ary
,robbery,
theft
,dacoity,r
ape, ki
dnappi
ngandabduct i
onat t
empt satsuicide,murder,r
iot
s,destr
oying
another’
spr opert
y,sexualassaul
t,prosti
tuti
on, cheati
ng, counter
fei
ting,f
ail
uretodeposit
taxesandr evenue,etc.aret
ermedascr i
minal behav i
our.
Under
standi
ngofCr
imi
nal
s:
Toaccountf orcri
minalmotiv
ati
oninpeopl
ecri
minologi
stshav
eusedpsy
chol
ogi
cal
theor
ies.
Thesetheor i
escanbedi vi
dedint
othreecat
egor
ies.
(i
)Moral developmenttheori
es
(i
i)Sociallearni
ngtheori
es
(i
ii
)Personal i
tytheor
ies.

Itissai dt hatcr imi nal behav i

ouri sament al diseaseandacr imi nal i
sament al patient .In
viewoft his, ther ol eofpsy chol ogyi sofgr eati mpor tancei nunder st andingcr iminal s.Usual l
y,
soci etyl ooksatcr iminal swi thr aisedey ebr ows, andhat r
ed.Peopl eoft hesoci etycondemn
them ast heyar elawbr eaker sanddogr eathar mt ot hesoci ety.Butwhydoesaper son
becomesacr i
mi nal ?Isher esponsi bleforhi sant isoci albehav iourorhi spar ent al tr
ai ning?
Faul tychi ldhood, ear l
yf rust rat i
onandr ej ectingpar ent sal lcombi nedar er esponsi blef ort his.
Shoul dwe, thusbl amehi m orbl amet hesoci etyandt r
yt ochanget hef actor sleadi ngt o
crimi nal act .
Prev ent ionandt r
eat ment s:
Ther emedyf orcr imi nal behav iourdemandspr ev ent iveandcur ativemeasur es.
Prev ent ion:Thepr event i
v emeasur esinv ol v
ei mpr ovementofsoci al factorsand
env i
r onment al condi tionst hatar er esponsi blef ort heger mi nat i
onandper pet uationof
crimi nal behav i
our .Thepr obl em i sagi gant iconeandneedst hecooper ationofpar ent s,
member soft hef ami ly, nei ghbour hood, communi ty ,school orcol legeaut hor iti
es, religious
heads, pol iceandgov er nmentof ficialsr esponsi blef ort hesoci alandpsy chol ogical
env i
r onmentoft hei nhabi tant sofasoci et y.Thef ollowi ngmeasur esmaybef rui
t f
ul int he
prev ent i
ont ask:
Sincet oday ’sdel inquent sar et omor r
ow’ scr imi nal s, max i
mum ef fortsshoul dbemadef ort he
prev ent i
on, cont rol andt reat mentoft hei dent ifieddel inquent s.
Ther ei sagr eatneedf orsoci al r efor msandbr eaki ngsoci al andcast ebar ri
er s.
Thet asknar rowi ngt hegul fbet weent her ichandt hepoor , l
ingui sticgr oupsandr eligious
sect sshoul dbegi venpr i
or ity.
Thei mpor tanceofmor al valuesshoul dbei ncul cat ed.Ther eshoul dbeanendt ot hecr isisof
char act ert hr eateni ngt heexi st enceoft hemor al baseandl egal codesofoursoci et y.
Thesy stem ofeducat ionandnat ional planni ngneedr ethinki ngandr e-modi ficationf or
mi nimi singeconomi cdi fficul tiesofoury out handadul t
s.
Thepr obl em ofunempl oy menthast obecheckedandt hepr ofessi onal dissat isfact i
onas
wel lasf rust rationaf fect ingt hev astpopul ationoft hey oungergener ati
onshoul dbecur bed.
At tempt sshoul dbemadet omi ni mi seundesi rabl ei nfluenceofl i
ter ature,filmsandot her
massmedi a.
Thepar ent s, el
der s, gov ernmentaut horities, soci al ,reli
gious, educat i
onal andpol i
tical
l
eader sshoul dbesucht hatt heybecomei deal sofsoci all
ydesi rabl ebehav iour .
Thesoci etyshouldfeelt
henecessityofprovidi
ngsocialandlegalj
usti
cet oit
sciti
zens.In
caseofenv i
ronmentaldepri
vati
onsandhaz ardsoflif
e,t
heaf f
ectedindi
vidualshoul
dbe
helped,protectedandrehabil
i
tated.Thus,thereisaneedf ormodif
yingtheenv i
ronmental
conditi
onssot hatonedoesnotf al
lvi
cti
mt osocialandemot i
onalmaladjustmentorlur
edby
thecriminalsanddr i
ft
edbyinstinct
ivebehaviourtocommi tcr
imes.

Del
i
nquency
:Adel
i
nquentv
iol
atesl
aw,
ishabi
tual
l
ydi
sobedi
ent
,uncont
rol
l
edbypar
ent
sand
guar
dians,habit
ualabsent
eei
sm inschoolorcol
leges.Healsoendanger
shismor al
i
tyand
heal
thandal soposesdangerforot
hersinthesociet
y.Deli
nquent
sareveryi
mpulsiveand
i
ndulgeinactsatthespurofthemoment .Theyaresocial
l
yinsensi
ti
veandlackconsci
ence
andguil
tyfeeli
ng.(
Below18years)Causesofdeli
nquency:

Her
edi
tar
yfact
or:
Theear
lyr
esear
cheshel
dher
edi
tyr
esponsi
blef
ordel
i
nquency
.Itcanbe
concl
udedt hatdeli
nquencyisnoti
nher
it
edandt
her
efor
eiti
sunj
ust
if
iedt
obl
ameher
edi
tyf
or
del
inquentbehaviour.
(Bi
ologi
cal
)

Const
it
uti
onal
orpsy
chol
ogi
cal
fact
ors:Def
ect
iveconst
it
uti
onorgl
andul
arsy
stemswer
e
alsothoughttobethecauseofdel
inquentbehavi
our.UdaiShankerobser
vesthatpoorheal
th,
shortortoobigstat
ureorsomedeformitywhichgiver
isetofeel
ingofinf
eri
ori
ty,
disposeone
tomor eaggressi
on,asacompensatoryreact
ionforhi
sinadequaci
es.Consequentl
y,t
his
l
eadst odeli
nquentbehavi
our
.(psy
chological
)

I
ntel
l
igencef
act
or:
Whi
l
eear
li
erwr
it
ersl
i
keLombr
osoandGoddar
demphasi
zet
hatt
he
mostimpor tantcauseofdel inquencyandcr i
mei slowgradement al
it
y,someti
mesi ti
s
arguedont hebasi soft hest at
isti
cst hatsi
ncet hemajori
tyamongt hedeli
nquentspossess
l
owi ntel
ligence, defecti
v eintel
li
gence, ther
eforecausesdeli
nquency.Butthi
sconclusionis
notwel l
founded.Mor eov er,
defectiv
ei ntel
li
gencemayl eadtodeli
nquencyinonesituati
on
andmaybeabar r
iertoiti nanothersituati
on.Hence,lowintel
l
igencealonecannotbeheld
responsiblef ordelinquentbehav iour.(Cognit
ive).

Env
ironment
alandsoci
alf
act
ors:
Ithasbeenpr
ovedt
hatdel
i
nquentbehav
iouri
sa
l
ear nedr eaction.Del i
nquent sdonoti nheritdelinquentchar actersf r
om theirpar ent sor
ancest orsbutar emadesobyt heuncongeni al envir
onmentandsoci alcondi t
ions.Udai
Shankerobser vesthatdel inquencyi snoti nherited.Itist heproductofsoci aleconomi c
condi t
ionsandi sessent iallyacoef ficientoft hef ri
ctionbet weent hei ndivi
dual andt he
communi ty
.Themosti mpor tantcausesofant isocial behaviourar eenv i
ronment al and
sociological i
nchar acter.Iti sther eforet heuncongeni alenvironmentoft hef ami l
y ,school,
neighbour hoodandsoci etywhi chshoul dbebl amedf ort hedel i
nquentbehav iouroft hechil
d
sincehepi cksupdel inquentt raitinsuchsi t
uat ions.(Soci oCul t
ural).
Rat i
onal choice
Classical cri
mi nologyst ressest hatthecausesofcr imel i
ewi thinindivi
dual offender s,rat
her
thani ntheirext ernalenv ironment .Forcl assicists,offender sar emot i
vatedbyr ational sel
f-
i
nt erest,
andt heimpor tanceoff reewi l
landper sonal responsi bil
it
yisemphasi zed.[56]
Rat i
onal choicet heor yist hecl ear estex ampl eoft hati dea.Delinquencyi soneoft hemaj or
factorsmot i
vat edbyr ati
onal choi ce.

Soci
aldi
sor
gani
zat
ion
Currentposi
ti
vistapproachesgener all
yfocusontheculture.Atypeofcr iminol
ogicaltheor
y
att
ri
butingvar
iationincrimeanddel inquencyoverti
meandamongt err
itori
estot heabsence
orbreakdownofcommunal insti
tut
ions(suchasf amil
y,school
,church,andsoci algroups)
andcommunal relat
ionshipsthattr
aditi
onall
yencouragedcooper at
iverelat
ionshipsamong
people.

St
rai
n
St
rai
ntheoryisassoci
atedmainl
ywiththeworkofRober
tK.Mer
ton,
whofel
tthatther
eare
i
nsti
tut
ional
i
zedpathstosuccessinsociet
y.St
rai
ntheor
yhol
dst
hatcri
meiscausedbythe
di
f f
icult
yforthoseinpovert
yhav etoachiev
esociall
y-v
aluedgoal
sbylegit
imat
emeans.[56]
Sincethosewi t
h,forinst
ance,pooreducati
onalat
tai
nmenthav edif
fi
cul
tyachi
evi
ngwealth
andst atusbysecuri
ngwel l
-pai
dempl oyment,t
heyaremor eli
kel
ytousecrimi
nalmeansto
obtainthosegoals.[
57]Merton'
ssuggestsfiveadaptat
ionstothi
sdil
emma:

I
nnov
ati
on:i
ndi
vi
dual
swhoacceptsoci
all
y-
appr
ovedgoal
sbutnotnecessar
il
ythesoci
all
y-
approv edmeans.
Retreat i
sm:t hosewhor ej
ectsocially -
appr ov
edgoal sandt hemeansf oracqui r
ingthem.
Rit
ualism: thosewhobuyi ntoasy stem ofsoci al
ly-approvedmeansbutl osesightofthe
goals.Mer tonbeli
evedthatdruguser sarei nthiscat egor
y .
Confor mity:t
hosewhoconf ormt ot hesy stem'smeansandgoal s.
Rebelli
on: peoplewhonegat esociall
y -approvedgoal sandmeansbycr eat inganewsy st
em of
acceptablegoal sandmeans.
Adiffi
cul t
ywi t
hstrai
ntheoryisthati tdoesnotex plorewhychildrenofl ow- i
ncomef amil
ies
havepooreducat i
onalatt
ainmenti nt hefirstplace.Mor eimpor t
ant l
y,muchy outhcrimedoes
nothav eaneconomi cmotivat
ion.St raintheoryf ail
st oexplai
nv i
olentcrime, thetypeofyouth
cri
met hatcausesmostanxi et
yt othepubl ic.

Di
ff
erent
ial
associ
ati
on
Dif
f er
entialassoci
ati
oni sanot hertheor ythatdeal swithyoungpeopl ei
nagr oupcont extand
l
ooksathowpeerpr essur eandt heex istenceofgangscoul dleadthem int
ocr ime.I t
suggest syoungpeopl ear emot ivat
edt ocommi tcri
mesbydel inquentpeersandl earn
cri
mi nalskil
lsfrom t
hem.Thedi mini
shedi nfl
uenceofpeer saf t
ermenmar ryhasal sobeen
cit
edasaf actorindesistingfrom offendi ng.Thereisstrongev i
dencethaty oungpeopl ewith
cri
mi nalfri
endsaremor elikel
ytocommi tcrimest hemselves.Howev er,
offendersmaypr efer
toassoci at
ewi thoneanot her
,ratherthandel inquentpeerscausi ngsomeonet ostart
offending.Further
mor e,thereisthequest ionofhowt hedeli
nquentpeergroupi nit
ially
becamedel i
nquent.

Label
i
ng
Label i
ngt heoryisaconcepti ncri
mi nologythataimst oex plai
ndev iantbehav i
orfrom t he
soci alcontext,r
athertheindivi
dualthemselves.Itispartofi nteract
ionism cri
minology ,which
statest hatoncey oungpeopl ehavebeenl abeledascr i
mi nal,theyaremor el
ikelyto
offend. [
56]Thei deaisthatoncelabelledasdev iant,
ay oungper sonmayacceptt hatr oleand
bemor elikelytoassociatewithotherswhohav ebeensi mi l
arlylabeled.[
56]Labell
ing
theor i
stssayt hatmalechi l
drenfr
om poorf ami l
i
esar emor eli
kel yt
obel abell
eddev iant ,
whi chmaypar ti
all
yexplaintheexistenceofmor ewor king-classy oungmal eoffender s.[
27]

Soci
alcont
rol
Social
controlt
heorypr
oposesthatexploi
tingthepr
ocessofsocial
i
zati
onandsociall
earni
ng
bui
ldsself-
contr
olandcanreducetheincl
inati
ontoindul
geinbehavi
orthati
srecogni
zedas
anti
social
.Thesefourt
ypesofcontrol
canhel pprev
entjuveni
l
edeli
nquency:

Dir
ectbywhi chpuni shmentist hreat
enedorappl i
edf orwrongf ul
behav i
or,
andcompl i
anceis
rewardedbypar ents,famil
y,andaut hori
tyfi
gures.Internalbywhichay outhrefrai
nsfr
om
deli
nquencythrought heconsci enceorsuperego.Indirectbyidenti
fi
cationwiththosewho
i
nfluencebehavior,suchasbecauset hedeli
nquentactmi ghtcausepainanddi sappoi
ntment
topar ent
sandot herscloserelati
onships.Controlt
hroughneedssat i
sfacti
on:ifal
lan
i
ndividual'
sneedsar emet ,
therei snopointincriminalacti
v i
ty.

Subst
anceabuser
iskf
act
ors:
Fir
st,
juv
eni
l
esar
eusi
ngmor
epower
ful
drugst
odayt
han
wast hecaseasrecentl
yas10y earsago.Secondly,t
heageatwhi chsomej uveni
lesbegin
usingdrugsisyounger
.Chil
dreninelementaryschoolsar efoundtobeusi ngpower fuli
l
legal
drugs.Theuseoftheseil
legalsubst
ancesort heuseofl egalsubstancesill
egall
ymot i
vates
youngpeopletocommi tcri
mest oobtainmoneyf ordrugs.Additi
onally
,juveni
lesarefarmor e
l
ikelytoengageindest
ructi
ve,harmfulandil
l
egal act
ivi
ti
eswhenusi ngdrugs.(Anyt hr
ee)
 Prev ention:Del i
nquencypr eventi
oni sthebr oadt ermf oralleffort
sai medatpr eventi
ng
yout hfrom becomi ngi nvolvedincriminal,orot heranti
social,activ
ity.Preventionser vi
ces
mayi ncl
udeact i
vit
iessuchassubst anceabuseeducat i
onandt reatment ,f
ami lycounseling,
yout hment oring,par entingeducation,educat ionalsupport,andy outhshel ter
ing.Increasi
ng
availabil
ityanduseoff ami l
yplanningser vi
ces, incl
udingeducat ionandcont r
acept iveshelps
toreduceuni ntendedpr egnancyandunwant edbi rt
hs,whichar er i
skf actor
sf ordelinquency.
Ithasbeennot edthatof tenint
erventi
onssuchaspeergr oupsmayl eav eat-r
iskchi l
dren
wor seof ftheni ft
her ehadnev erbeenani nter venti
on.
Parent aleducat i
on, childcompany ’
ssubst i
tutingenv i
ronment ,recti
fyingschool educati
on
andenv ir
onment ,
counsel li
ngandv ocational guidance.

Character
ist
ics:1.Thef
t2.Gambl i
ng 3.Cheati
ng 4.Pi
ckandPocket
ing 5.Murder6.
Robbery7.Destructi
onofproper
ty8.Violenceandassaul
t9.I
ntoxi
cati
on 10.Abduct
ion 11.
Ki
dnapping 12.Sexualoff
ences