Fluid Mechanics For Engineers, Ibrahim Saleh and M Galal Rabie

Fluid Mechanics
For Engineers
Ibrahim Saleh M. Galal

Rabie
Professor of Mechanical Professor of
Engineering Mechanical
Engineering
This book is published by the authors. The hardcopy is for free distribution to
the authors' students while the electronic book is for free download and free
distribution.
No part of this publication may be reproduced for the purpose or re-publishing,

without the prior written permission of the authors.
ISBN 978-977-5092-00-7, 2011
2011/5464 :‫رقم اإليداع بدار الكتب المصرية‬

To Fatema and Fatema,
To sons, daughters, grandsons and grand daughters
Ibrahim SALEH and M. Galal RABIE, FLUID MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS
INTRODUCTION
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under shear stress; that is why a fluid
at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. Fluids include liquids, gases, and
plasmas. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be
divided into fluid statics, fluid kinematics and fluid dynamics. Fluid statics is the study
of fluids at rest. Fluid kinematics is the study of fluid motion without considering the
forces acting on them, while fluid dynamics is the study of the effect of forces on fluid
motion.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuum mechanics. It models matter from a

macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint.
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when
Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous
Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da
Vinci (observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli (barometer), Isaac Newton
(viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics). It was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with
the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in his book Hydrodynamica (1738).
Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians: Leonhard Euler,
d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson and others. Viscous flow was explored by a
multitude of engineers including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen. Further
mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel
Stokes in the Navier–Stokes equations. Boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig
Prandtl), while various scientists advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and
turbulence: Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.
This book is prepared as a basic course in fluid mechanics for engineers, arranged in
six chapters:
Chapter 1: properties of fluids
Chapter 2: fluid statics
Chapter 3: fluid kinematics
Chapter 4: fluid dynamics
Chapter 5: steady incompressible real flow in hydraulic conduits
Chapter 6: dimensional analysis and similarity
Cover Design
The authors are indebted to the graphic designer Rehab Rabie, PhD.
i
THE AUTHORS
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Saleh Mostafa

Birth date & place: 27 November 1945, Cairo, EGYPT
Degrees Hold:
PhD Field: Rheology, Multi-phase Flow.
Awarded by: ENSEEIHT Toulouse & Paul Sabatier Univ., Toulouse, France, Sept., 1980
MSc Field: Hydraulic Engineering
Awarded by: VUT, Brno, CSSR, , July,1976
BSc Field: Mechanical Engineering (Power & Energy)
Awarded by: Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt, 1968
Previous occupations and Experience
Professor in Mechanical engineering, title awarded by the supreme council of the Military
Technical College (MTC), Cairo, April.1992
Author or co-author of more than 50 papers published in local and international journals and
conferences n and supervisor of 45 PhD & MSc Thesis.
Current Institution: Military Technical College, Cairo, Egypt.
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Galal El-Din Mohamed RABIE

Birth date & place: 19 April 1946, Dakahlia, EGYPT
Degrees Hold:
PhD Field: Automatic Control and Computer Science Applied to Industrial Systems
Awarded by: INSA Lyon & Claud Bernard Univ., Lyon, France, Oct., 1980
MSc Field: Mechanical Engineering
Awarded by: Military Technical College, Cairo, Jan.,1977
BSc Field: Mechanical Engineering (Aircraft Engines)
Awarded by: Military Technical College, Cairo, 1968
Previous occupations and Experience
Professor in Mechanical engineering, title awarded by the supreme council of the Military
Technical College (MTC), Cairo, Nov.1991
Author of: M Galal Rabie, Fluid Power Engineering, McGraw-Hill, NY, May 18, 2009.
Author or co-author of 57 papers published in local and international journals and conferences n
and supervisor of 25 PhD & MSc Thesis
Current Institution: Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology, Cairo, Egypt.
ii
Content
CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 2
1.2.1 Density 2
1.2.2 Compressibility and Elasticity 4
1.2.3 Viscosity 7
1.2.4 Surface Tension 12
1.2.5 Vapor Pressure 15
1.3 EXERCISE 17
CHAPTER 2: FLUID STATICS 21

2.1 INTRODUCTION 21
2.2 CONTROL VOLUME AND CONTROL SURFACE 21
2.3 SURFACE AND BODY FORCES 22
2.4 PRESSURE AND PASCAL’S LAW 22
2.5 EULER’S EQUATIONS OF FLUID STATICS 24
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF EULER’S EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS 26
2.6.1 Pressure Difference Between Two Points in a Gravity Field 26
2.6.2 Pressure Measuring Devices 28
2.6.2.1 Mercury barometer 28
2.6.2.2 Piezometer - Piezo-manometer 29
2.6.2.3 U-Tube Manometer 30
2.6.3 Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces 36
2.6.3.1 Pressure Forces on Plane Surfaces 36
2.6.3.2 Pressure force on curved surfaces 40
2.7 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES 45
2.7.1 Buoyancy Forces 45
2.7.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies 46
2.7.3 Stability of Floating Bodies 47
2.8 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM IN LINEAR AND ROTARY MOTIONS 51
iii
2.8.1 Relative Equilibrium, Linear Motion 51

2.8.2 Relative Equilibrium, Rotary Motion 53
2.9 EXERCISE 55
CHAPTER 3: FLUID KINEMATICS 63

3.1 INTRODUCTION 63
3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW 64
3.2.1 Uniform and Steady Flow 64
3.2.2 One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow 65
3.2.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flow 66
3.3 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT 67
3.3.1 Fluid Element Translation, Velocity and Acceleration 67
3.3.2 Fluid Element Rotation about its Own Axis- Spin 69
3.3.3 Angular Deformation of Fluid Element 71
3.3.4 Linear Deformation of a Fluid Element 72
3.4 STREAMLINES, PATH LINES AND STREAK LINES 72
3.5 STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS 75
3.5.1 Stream Function  75
3.5.2 Velocity Potential Function φ 78
3.5.3 Flow net 80
3.5.3.1 Uniform flow in x- direction 80
3.5.3.2 Source and sink 81
3.5.3.3 Vortex 82
3.5.3.4 Combination of a source and a uniform flow in x-direction 82
3.5.3.5 Combined source-sink 83
3.5.3.6 Doublet 83
3.6 EXERCISE 84
CHAPTER 4: FLUID DYNAMICS 85

4.1. INTRODUCTION 85
4.2. MASS CONSERVATION - Continuity Equation 85
4.2.1 Discharge and mean velocity 85
iv
4.2.2 Continuity Equation 86

4.3. MOMENTUM EQUATION 90
4.4. ENERGY CONSERVATION, BERNOULLI’s EQUATION 91
4.5. FLUID DYNAMICS, APPLICATIONS OF BASIC EQUATIONS 93
4.5.1. Applications on Continuity equation 94
4.5.2. Mass flow rate 95
4.5.3. Volume flow rate: Discharge 96
4.5.4. Orifice Flow 96
4.5.5. Application of the Momentum Equation 100
4.5.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation 102
4.5.6.1 Free jet flow 103
4.5.6.2 Flow from a reservoir 103
4.5.6.3 Flow in a conduit 104
4.5.6.4 Pressure head, velocity head, potential head and total head 105
4.5.6.5 Piezo-meter and Pitot tube 107
4.5.6.6 Venturi Meter 109
4.5.6.7 Flow over notches and weirs 112
4.5.6.8 Empting of tanks 114
4.6 EXERCISE 116
CHAPTER 5: STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE REAL FLOW IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS 121

5.2. REAL FLOW IN CONDUITS 121
5.3. HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES 122
5.4. FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPELINES 122
5.4.1. Laminar Flow in Pipelines 123
5.4.2 Flow between two parallel plates 128
5.4.3 Internal Leakage in Hydraulic Elements 130
5.4.4. Friction Losses in Turbulent Flow Pipelines 131
5.5 LOCAL LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS 134
5.6. APPLICATIONS ON HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES 137
5.6.1 Head Loss for a Given Flow Rate 137
5.6.2 Flow Rate for a Given Head Loss 139
v
5.6.3 Selecting a Pipe Diameter 141

5.6.4 Total Head Loss 142
5.6.5 Fluid Pumping 143
5.6.6 Complex Networks 145
5.7 EXERCISE 147
CHAPTER 6: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY 149

6.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES 150
6.3. BUCKINGHAM PI () THEOREM 151
6.4 SIMILARITY AND NON-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 154
6.4.1. Geometric Similarity 156
6.4.2. Kinematic Similarity 156
6.4.3. Dynamic Similarity 157
6.5. EXERCISE 161
vi
1 FLUIDS
PROPERTIES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All substances consist of very large number of molecules separated by empty spaces.
The intermolecular interaction depends largely on the inter-distance between them.
The difference of the properties of solids, liquids and gases depends mainly on their
molecular structure. The basic properties of fluids are defined and discussed in this
chapter.
In solids, the molecules can be modeled as being held together by tiny springs that
permit them to vibrate about their equilibrium position. They, almost, do not exchange
positions with other molecules. Solids are almost incompressible and they have,
almost, definite volume and shape
In a liquid, the molecules are also densely packed. They cannot easily escape from
one another, but they are free to move with respect to each other. Molecules
continually attract and repel one another so that they move in curved, wavy paths
rather than straight lines. The attraction force between molecules is sufficient to keep
the liquid together in a definite volume. Liquids are of poor compressibility. They have,
almost, definite volume but they take the shape of their container and they have a free
surface.
In a gas, the molecular activity is very much greater. The space between molecules is
large and the intermolecular forces are negligible. The molecules are free to travel
away from each other compared with liquids and solids. Therefore, gases occupy their
container and they are compressible.
Fluid can be defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the action of
shear stress. According to the physical form in which fluids exist, they are classified to
gases, vapors, liquids and plasma. Plasma is an ionized fluid.
Fluid mechanics is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (Fluid
statics) and in motion (Fluid Dynamics).

Fluid Statics is the study of fluids at rest or in equilibrium; Σ F  0 .
1
 
Fluid Dynamics is the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, Σ F  m a .
where a = Acceleration, m/s2

F = Force, N
m = Mass, kg
Continuum Assumption
The continuum is a homogeneous media without voids. Therefore, the properties and
behavior can be described by differential equations; no singular points exist. In many
engineering applications, interest lays only in macroscopic behavior of molecules. The
molecular, microscopic, nature of the fluid is ignored. Thus, the fluid is assumed a
continuum.
Because of continuum assumption, the fluid properties are assumed to have a definite
value at any point in the space at certain time; the fluid properties depend on the
position and time. The fluid properties at a point, such as the density, are assumed to
have an average value. The quantities such as velocity, acceleration and the properties
of fluid are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another in the fluid.
The continuum assumption fails when the characteristic length of the problem is less
than the mean free path of molecules. For air, at the standard atmospheric conditions
(STP), the mean free path is less than 0.013 m.
1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The fluid behavior and its effects on the fluid systems depend on its properties. The
fluid properties are classified to:
 Physical properties, e.g. density, viscosity, elasticity, …
 Thermal properties, e.g. specific heat, heat transfer coefficient, fire point, …
 Chemical properties, e.g. acidity, compatibility with other materials, …
 Mechanical properties, e.g. lubricity and load carrying capacity, ...
 Biological properties,
 Radioactive properties.
1.2.1 DENSITY
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the
substance. It can be expressed in different forms:
Mass Density ρ is the mass m of substance per unit volume V.
2
dm (1.1)
 , kg/m 3
dV
For liquids and homogeneous fluids, the density could be simply written as:
m
 (1.2)
V
The fluid density depends mainly on the pressure and the temperature;  = f (p,T). The
variation of the density with temperature can be measured by the thermal expansion
coefficient (). The fluid volume at temperature T can be related to that at reference
temperature To as:
m m
VT  Vo (1  T) ,  T  and  o  (1.3)
VT Vo
Then
o
T    o (1  T ) , ΔT=T-To (1.4)
1  T
The densities ρo and ρT are the fluid densities at To and T temperatures respectively
where To is the reference temperature.
Table 1.1 gives the density of some fluids, at Standard ambient Temperature and
Pressure, STP (temperature of 288.15 K and absolute pressure of 1.013  105 N / m 2 ).
Table 1.1 Density of some fluids
Fluid Density (kg/m3)

Water 999.1
Mercury 13,558
Air 1.23
Paraffin Oil 800
The variation of the density with the pressure can be evaluated by considering the fluid
elasticity (or compressibility).
Specific Weight  is defined as the weight of substance per unit volume.
   g , N/m3 (1.5)
3
where g = Gravitational force per unit mass = 9.807 m/s2
Table 1.2 gives the specific weights of some commonly used fluids.
Table 1.2 Specific weights of common liquids at STP
Specific weight Specific weight

Fluid Fluid
(kN/m3) (kN/m3)
Water 9.798 Gasoline 6.6
Motor oil 8.5 Ethyl alcohol 7.76
Kerosene 7.9 Mercury 132.96
glycerin 12.3 Paraffin Oil 7.85
Specific gravity s: is the ratio of fluid density to that of pure water at 4 oC. At 4 oC,
water density is 1000 kg/m3. The specific gravity is dimensionless.

s (1.6)
 w aterat 4o C
Specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.
V 1
v  , m3/kg (1.7)
m 
1.2.2 Compressibility and Elasticity
The fluid compressibility is the ability of the fluid to change its volume when its
pressure varies. It is measured by the compressibility coefficient β where:
V / V
 , (m2/N) (1.8)
p
The negative sign indicates that the volume decreases as the pressure increases, and
vice versa.
The bulk modulus of fluid, B, is a measure for the ability of fluid to resist changes
in its volume when its pressure varies. It is the inverse of the compressibility
coefficient.
1 p dp
B  or B   , (N/m2) (1.9)
 V / V dV / V
4
where Δp = Pressure variation, Pa

ΔV = Change in volume due to pressure variation, m3
V= Initial fluid volume, m3
B= Bulk modulus of fluid, N/m2,(Pa)
β= Coefficient of compressibility, m2/N, (1/Pa)
The gases are highly compressible while liquids are of very low compressibility.
Therefore, liquids are usually assumed incompressible in many applications.
The bulk modulus of pure liquid is slightly affected by its pressure. Table 1.3 gives the
numerical values of the bulk modulus of pure water at different working pressures and
temperatures. Equation1.10 gives an expression for the effect of the pressure on the
bulk modulus of water, at 20oC.
B  2.18  109  6.7 p ( for p  100 MPa) (1.10)
Table 1.3 Bulk modulus of elasticity for pure water in GPa
Pressure Temperature (oC)

(bar, abs) 0 20 50 93 150
1 2.01 2.21 2.29 2.12 --
100 2.07 2.28 2.35 2.20 1.71
300 2.19 2.40 2.50 2.33 1.87
1000 2.62 2.85 2.94 2.79 2.41
1 bar = 100 kN/m2, standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kN/m2
For gases, the compression process is governed by the following equation:
pV n  const (1.11)
Where n = polytropic exponent; n = 1 for isothermal process and n = 1.4 for isentropic
process.
Then
V n dp  n V n1 pdV  0 (1.12)
Or
dp
Bg    np (1.13)
dV / V
When the liquid includes bubbles of gases, air, or vapors, the bulk modulus of this
mixture decreases due to the high compressibility of the contained gases. If the total
volume of mixture at standard conditions is VT, the gas volume is αVT and the liquid
5
volume is (1-α)VT, an equivalent bulk modulus Be of the mixture can be deduced.

Assuming that the liquid-gas mixture is subjected to pressure variation Δp, then the
variations of volumes are:
V
V   p  Vg  VL (1.14)
B
VT
Vg   p (1.15)
np
(1   )VT
VL   p (1.16)
B
Then:
p pVT
Be   
( VL  Vg ) / VT (1   )VT VT (1.17)
 p  p
B np
nB p 1  1 
Be  or   (1.18)
np(1  α)  Bα B e np B
The relative equivalent Bulk modulus of elasticity Be can be written as:
Be np
Be   (1.19)
B np(1  α)  Bα
The effect of air volumetric ratio (α) on the bulk modulus of a mixture is shown in
Fig.1.1, for an adiabatic air compression processes. The bulk modulus of mixture
decreases to very low values at low pressures, due to the reduced bulk modulus of air.
At higher pressures, the air bulk modulus (np) increases. Therefore, the equivalent
bulk modulus of mixture increases as the pressure increases.
The speed of sound in fluids (speed of pressure wave) is calculated by the following
expressions.
 For liquids
c  B/ (1.20)
 For gas
c  B g /   np /  (1.21)
6
pv  RT or p  RT (1.22)
Then
c  nRT (1.23)
Where c = Sound speed, m/s

R= Gas constant; for air R = 287.1 J/kg.K
n= Polytrophic exponent, for adiabatic process, n = 1.4
T= Air temperature, K
v= 1/ρ = Specific volume of gas, m3/kg
Bg = Bulk modulus of gas, Pa.
ρ= Gas density, kg/m3
Fig.1.1 Effect of entrained air and operating pressure on the bulk modulus of a
typical mineral-base hydraulic oil
1.2.3 Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the ability of fluid to resist shear force. Simply, it is a measure
of the resistance to flow. It results from the cohesion and interaction between the
molecules. The viscosity of fluids has dominant effects in many applications such as
lubrication, damping and leakage. This section illustrates some of these effects.
Consider the fluid contained between two infinite plates, Fig.1.2. The lower plate is
fixed, while the upper plate is moving at a steady velocity v. Assuming no-slip between
the fluid and plates, a velocity distribution is created. At certain conditions, this velocity
distribution is linear as shown in Fig.1.2. The upper and lower plates will experience
7
shear (friction) forces. The fluid is subjected to shear stress . Newton's law of
viscosity is expressed as:
du du
 or    (1.24)
dy dy
The proportionality coefficient  is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity;

 (1.25)
du / dy
where = Shear stress, N/m2 or kg/ms

μ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2. μ is often expressed in
Poise, where 1 Poise = 0.1 Ns/m2 = 1 gm/cm s
u = Fluid velocity, m/s
y = Perpendicular distance to the velocity vector u , m.
du / dy = Velocity gradient or shear strain rate, s-1.
Fig.1.2 Velocity profile of viscous fluid

between two parallel plates.
The fluids, which obey Newton’s law of viscosity, are known as Newtonian fluids. Other
fluids are known as non-Newtonian fluids. The non-Newtonian fluids are of special and
complicated behavior. Therefore, there is a branch of the fluid mechanics, known as
Rheology, which deals with the non-Newtonian fluids.
At certain operating shear strain, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ is constant for
Newtonian fluids. Meanwhile, the viscosity of Non-Newtonian fluids, changes
depending on the shear strain, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Some non-Newtonian fluids exhibit
viscosity change with time. The ideal fluid is non-viscous; μ = 0.
Kinematic Viscosity  is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to its

density.
  / (1.26)
8
where = Kinematic viscosity, m2/s.
The kinematic viscosity  is often expressed in Stokes, where: 1 St = 1 cm2/s =10-4

m2/s, or in cSt, where 1 cSt  1mm2 /s  10-6 m2 /s. The viscosity may be given in other
scales as Redwood (R), Saybolt universal seconds (SUS), or in degree Engler ( o E),
according to the measuring method. These units are no longer used, but conversion
tables are available.
Fig.1.3 Viscous behavior of fluids
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, Fig.1.4, while that of
gases increases with increasing temperature. This is due to intermolecular relation
between molecules. Viscosity also increases slightly as pressure increases. For oils,
the viscosity is approximately doubled as pressure increases by 400 bar. Generally,
the effect of pressure is of little importance, compared to that of temperature variation.
Viscous friction force on a sliding spool
The parts moving in oil are subjected to viscous friction forces due to the viscous shear
stress. Figure 1.5 shows a spool moving axially inside a cylindrical hole, with radial
clearance c. The cylindrical surface of spool land is subjected to shear stress due to
the oil viscosity. For small radial clearances, the velocity distribution is assumed linear.
An expression for the friction forces is deduced as:
du v
  (1.27)
dy c
9
Fig.1.4 Variation of dynamic viscosity of typical fluids with temperature
10
DL DL
F  DL   v  f v Where f  (1.28)
c c
where F= Friction force, N

c= Radial clearance, m
f= Friction coefficient, Ns/m
L= Length of spool land, m
D= Spool diameter, m
Fig.1.5 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a spool valve
Viscous friction torque on rotating spool
Fig.1.6 shows a cylindrical spool of length L and radius r, rotating at an angular speed
ω inside a cylindrical hole of inner radius r1. The radial clearance is filled with oil of
dynamic viscosity μ. An expression for the frictional torque T created by the oil at this
condition can be deduced, assuming linear velocity distribution, as follows:
du u r
  (1.29)
dr r1  r c
du
  r / c (1.30)
dr
2r 3L 2r 3L

T  2rLr    f  where f   (1.31)
c c
11
Fig.1.6 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a rotating spool.
1.2.4 Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of liquids, which is noticed, at the interface (the separating
surface) between the liquid and another fluid or solid. Surface tension is defined as the
energy per unit area, or force per unit length, required to form the surface of
separation, Figs.1.7 & 1.8.
Fig.1.7 Surface tension due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules
Surface-tension is caused by the attraction between the liquid's molecules. In the

bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring
liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero, Fig.1.7. At the surface of the liquid,
the molecules are pulled inwards by other molecules deeper inside the liquid and
are not attracted as intensely by the molecules in the neighboring medium.
Therefore, all of the molecules at the surface are subject to an inward force of
molecular attraction which is balanced only by the liquid's resistance to
12
compression. There is no net inward force. However, there is a driving force to

diminish the surface area, and in this respect a liquid surface looks like a stretched
elastic membrane. Thus the liquid squeezes itself together until it has the locally
lowest possible surface area.
A soap bubble is a good example to illustrate the effect of surface tension. How does
a soap bubble remain spherical in shape? The answer is that there is a higher pressure
inside the bubble than outside, much like a balloon. The surface tension in the soap
film acts similar to the tension in the skin of a balloon. Consider a soap bubble of an
inner radius r with internal pressure pin and external atmospheric pressure pout. Figure
1.8 shows a free body diagram of half spherical soap bubble. On the free body
diagram, the sum of all forces must be zero, since the soap film segment is stationary.
The surface tension acts along two circular lines, as shown. Considering the
equilibrium of the half spherical bubble, and neglecting the film thickness relative to
radius r, the following equation is obtained.
Fig.1.8 Surface tension forces in a soap bubble.
r 2 (pin  p out )  2(2r ) (1.32)
Then
4
p  p in  p out  or   r pin  pout  / 4 (1.33)
r
The surface tension is also important at the liquid-gas interface and the liquid-solid
interface (Capillary action). For example, a meniscus occurs when the surface of a
liquid touches a solid wall, as noticed when a capillary tube is placed in a liquid.
Consider a glass capillary tube inserted into a liquid, such as water. The water rises
up the tube to a height, h, because surface tension pulls the surface of the water
towards the glass, Fig.1.9. The meniscus is the curved surface at the top of the water
column.
13
The contact angle  is the angle between the tangent to liquid and the solid surface
at their contact line, Fig.1.9. The contact angle depends on both of the liquid and the
solid. For   90o , the liquid is said to "wet" the solid and the liquid rises in the capillary
tube. However, for   90o , the liquid is repelled by the solid and tries not to "wet" it.
Then, the liquid level drops in the capillary tube (non-wetting). For example, water wets
glass, but not wax and mercury does not wet glass, Fig.1.10. Table 1.4 gives the
surface tension of typical fluids.
Fig.1.9 Capillary rise in a tube
To calculate the capillary height, consider a small glass capillary tube inserted into
water. The height of the water column can be found by summing all forces acting on
the water column as a free body diagram, Fig.1.10.
Weight of water column = mg = r 2hg (1.34)
Surface tension force = 2r cos  (1.35)

Then,
2 cos 
h (1.36)
rg
where σ= Surface tension, N/m

= Contact angle, rad.
r= Capillary pipe radius, m
h= Capillary rise, m
14
Table 1.4 Surface tension of some liquids
Substance Surface tension σ (N/m)

Benzene-air 0.029
Water-air 0.073
Mercury-air 0.484
Mercury-water 0.375
Fig.1.10 Capillary in clean circular glass tube, published by Daugherty, 1937
1.2.5 Vapor Pressure
The saturated vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a liquid, enclosed
in a closed vessel at certain temperature, will boil. For pure water, the vapor
pressure is one bar (abs) when its temperature reaches 100oC. The vapor pressure
increases as temperature increases and vice versa, Fig.1.11. For example, on a high
mountain (3,000 m altitude), the atmospheric pressure is 70.1 kPa. Fig.1.11 shows that
this vapor pressure corresponds to 90oC. Therefore, at 3000 m of elevation, water boils
at 90 C, rather than the common 100oC at standard sea level pressure. The pressure
cooker has the opposite effect. In these vessels, the pressure increases above the
normal atmospheric value. This forces the water to boil at a temperature greater than
100oC.
The pressure reduction below the vapor pressure of the liquid caused intensive
evaporation, which leads to the formation of cavities full of vapors. This may lead to
cavitation in hydraulic machines or elements. The cavitation phenomenon is based
upon the formation and collapse of vapor cavities.
15
Cavitation is not desirable for the following reasons:

 It leads to reduction of the efficiency of pumps.
 The collapse of these cavitation bubbles causes pitting and erosion of blades and
other surfaces nearby, due to the impact pressure.
 It causes noise due to the collapse of cavitation bubbles as they migrate into
regions of higher pressure.
Fig.1.11 Variation of saturated vapor pressure of pure water with temperature
Physical Properties of Air and Water
Air and water are the most commonly used fluids in engineering applications; Table
1.5 and 1.6 introduces their main physical properties.
Table 1.5 Physical properties of air at standard atmospheric pressure
Dynamic Dynamic
Temperature Density Temperature Density
viscosity viscosity
o
C kg/m3 Ns/m2 o
C kg/m3 Ns/m2
-40 2.515 1.49  10-5 40 1.128 1.90  10-5

-20 1.395 1.61 60 1.060 2.00
0 1.293 1.71 80 1.000 2.09
10 1.248 1.76 100 0.946 2.18
20 1.205 1.81 200 0.747 2.58
30 1.165 1.86 300 0.616 2.95
16
Table 1.6 Physical properties of water
Specific weight
pressure (abs)
Bulk modulus
Temperature
Kinematic
Dynamic
viscosity
viscosity
Surface
Density
tension
Vapor
o
C kN/m3 kg/m3 Ns/m2 m2/s N/m kPa GPa
0 9.805 999.8 1.781  10-3 1.785  10-6 0.0756 0.61 2.02

5 9.807 1000.0 1.519 1.519 0.0749 0.87 2.06
10 9.804 999.7 1.308 1.308 0.0742 1.23 2.10
15 9.798 999.1 1.140 1.141 0.0735 1.70 2.15
20 9.789 998.2 1.002 1.003 0.0728 2.34 2.18
25 9.777 997.0 0.890 0.893 0.0720 3.17 2.22
30 9.764 995.7 0.798 0.800 0.0712 4.24 2.25
40 9.730 992.2 0.653 0.658 0.0696 7.38 2.28
50 9.689 988.0 0.547 0.553 0.0679 12.33 2.29
60 9.642 983.2 0.466 0.474 0.0662 19.92 2.28
70 9.589 977.8 0.404 0.413 0.0644 31.16 2.25
80 9.530 971.8 0.354 0.364 0.0626 47.34 2.20
90 9.466 965.3 0.315 0.326 0.0608 70.10 2.14
100 9.399 958.4 0.282 0.294 0.0589 101.33 2.07
1.3 EXERCISE
1. Calculate the density of air when the absolute pressure and the temperature
are 140 kPa and 500C if R= 287 J/kg K.
2. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of air at 38 oC and
4800 mbar, abs.
3. If a certain gasoline weighs 7,000 N/m3, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at 4 oC?
17
4. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What are
the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative to air
weighing 12 N/m3?
5. If the specific weight of a liquid is 8.0 kN/m3, what is its density’?
6. If the specific volume of a gas is 0.72 m3/kg, what is its specific weight in N/m3?
7. A vessel contains 85 liters of water at 10 oC (ρ = 999.7 kg/m3) and atmospheric

pressure. If it is heated to 70 oC (ρ =977.8 kg/m3) what will be the percentage
change in its volume? What weight of water must be removed to maintain the
volume at the original value?
8. A cylindrical tank (diameter = 10 m and depth 5 m) is full of water at 20 oC

(ρ20=998.2 kg/m3). If the water is heated to 50 oC (ρ50=988 kg/m3), how much
water will spill over the edge of the tank?
9. If the density of mercury is 13558 kg/m 3, calculate its specific gravity, specific
volume and specific weight if g = 9.807 m/s2.
10. Water in a hydraulic press is subjected to a pressure of 1000 bar at 20 oC

(B20=2.18 GN/m2). If the initial pressure is 1 bar, what will the percentage
decrease in specific volume?
11. To two significant figures what is the bulk modulus of water in GN/m 2 at 50 oC
under a pressure of 30 MN/m2 (At 50 oC and atmospheric pressure B= 2.29
GN/m2)?
12. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 81.7 MPa.
Determine the density of sea-water at this depth if the density at the surface is
1025 kg/m3 and the average bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.34 GPa.
13. Approximately what pressure must be applied to water to reduce its volume 2%
(B= 2.18 GN/m2)?
14. Calculate the speed of sound in water for B =2.18 GPa and ρ = 998 kg/m3.
15. Calculate the speed of sound in air at sea level and temperature 20 oC.
18
16. a) show that the density of mixture of gas and liquid is given by:
m  g  (1 )L
where ρm = Density of mixture, kg/m3
ρL = Density of liquid, kg/m3
ρg = Density of gas, kg/m3
α = Proportion of gas to total volume
b) Calculate the speed of sound in water for (B =2.18 GPa and ρ = 998 kg/m 3)
at normal atmospheric pressure if it contains.
i) 0 % air nuclei.
ii) 100% air.
iii) 0.2 % by volume air nuclei.
iv) 0.8 % by volume air nuclei.
The air density is 1.23 kg/m3 and adiabatic exponent n=1.4.
17. If 300 liters of carbon dioxide at 25 oC and 140 kN/m2, abs is compressed iso-
thermally to 60 liters, what is the resulting pressure? What would the pressure
and temperature if the process is isentropic? The isentropic exponent for carbon
dioxide is 1.28.
18. A hydraulic ram of 200 mm in diameter and 1.2 m length moves within a con-
centric cylinder 200.2 mm in diameter. The annular clearance is filled with oil of
specific gravity 0.85 and kinematic viscosity 400 mm 2/s. Derive an expression
for the viscous friction force. Calculate also the viscous force resisting the
motion when the ram moves at 120 mm/s.
19. The space between two large flat and parallel walls 26 mm apart is filled with a
liquid of dynamic viscosity 0.7 Pa s. Within this space a flat plate; 250 mm x 250
mm x 1 mm is towed at a velocity of 150 mm/s at a distance of 6 mm from one
wall, the plate and its movement being parallel to the walls. Assuming linear
variations of velocity between the plate and the walls, calculate the force
exerted by the liquid on the plate.
20. A uniform film of oil 0.13 mm thick separates two discs, each of 200 mm
diameter, mounted co-axially. Ignoring edge effects, Derive an expression for,
and calculate, the torque necessary to rotate one disc relative to the other at a
speed of 7 rev/s if the oil has a viscosity of 0.14 Pa
s.
19
21. A journal bearing consists of an 8 cm diameter shaft in a sleeve of 8.03 cm and

10 cm length. The clearance space (assumed to be uniform) is filled with SAE
30 western lubricating oil at 40 oC (μ=0.065 Pas). Calculate the rate at which
heat is generated at the bearing when the shaft turns at 120 rpm. Express
answer in W.
22. At what absolute pressure will the water boil if its temperature is 40 oC ?
23. Air at 10 oC temperature, 80 kPa (abs) pressure and viscosity μ = 1.77x10-5 Pa

s, flows along a smooth surface with a velocity profile given by;
y3
u  1000y  m/s
9  10 9
Calculate the shear stress at the smooth surface.
24. A fluid of viscosity μ = 0.0012 Pa s flows along a smooth surface with a velocity
profile given by:
u  750y  2.5  106 y 3 m/s
Calculate the shear stress and shear force at the smooth surface if the surface
area is 12 m2.
25. Oil, of 850 kg/m3 density, flows through a 10 cm diameter pipe. The shear stress
at the pipe wall is measured as 3.2 N/m2 and the velocity profile is given by:
u  2  800r 2 m/s,
Where, r is the radial distance from pipe centerline in meters. What is the
kinematic viscosity of oil?
26. By how much does the pressure in a cylindrical jet of water 4 mm in diameter
exceed the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere if the surface tension of
water is 0.073
N/m?
27. What is the approximate capillary rise of water in contact with air (surface
tension 0.073 N/m) in a clean glass tube 5 mm in diameter?
28. What is the pressure inside a droplet of water 50 μm diameter if the surrounding
pressure is standard atmospheric?
29. Calculate the pressure in a soap bubble in the atmosphere, assuming surface
tension of 0.1 N/m.
20
2 FLUID
STATICS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid statics deals with the fluids at rest, or, when there is no relative motion between
fluid elements. In this case, no velocity gradient exists and hence no shear stress
whatever is the fluid viscosity. The general laws of statics can be applied to fluids.
This chapter deals with the study of the forces acting on/or generated by fluids at rest.
It covers the following topics:
 Basic concepts; control volume and control surface,

 Surface and body forces,
 Concept of pressure and Pascal’s law,
 Basic equation of fluid statics, Euler’s equation of fluid statics,
 Applications; pressure difference between two points, manometers, pressure
forces on flat and curved submerged surfaces,
 Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies,
 Relative equilibrium of fluid in linear and rotary motion.
2.2 CONTROL VOLUME AND CONTROL SURFACE
Generally, fluids have undefined shape. Their shapes are defined by the physical
surrounding boundaries. To study the statics and dynamics of fluid, it is essential to
define the working zone (control volume).
Fig. 2.1 Control volume (CV) and control Fig.2.2 Body forces (FB) and surface
surface (CS) force (FS)
21
Control volume (CV) is an imaginary volume in the space, surrounding the fluid to be
studied. The surface surrounding this volume is known as control surface (CS), Fig.
2.1.
2.3 SURFACE AND BODY FORCES
The external forces applied to the fluid are classified into surface and body forces.
 Surface forces, or contact forces FS, include all forces affecting the control
surface. Usually they have normal components (pressure forces Fp) and
tangential components (shear forces Fsh).
 Body forces FB, or non-contact forces, are due to field effect, which affect the
considered control volume, e.g. gravity, inertia and electromagnetic forces.
The total force applied on a fluid element can be written as, Fig. 2.2.
F  FB  Fs  FB dV   F s dA (2.1)
CV CS
where FB= the body force per unit volume of the CV, N/m 3
FS= the surface force per unit surface of the CS, N/m 2
2.4 PRESSURE AND PASCAL’S LAW
A static fluid has no shearing force acting on it. Any force between the fluid and the
boundaries must act normal to the boundary. For the curved surfaces, the force acting
at any point is normal to the surface at that point. For an element of fluid at rest, the
element is in equilibrium, then:
 The sum of the components of all forces in any direction is zero.

 The sum of the moments of all forces about any point is also zero
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three mutually perpendicular

axes or by taking moments about these axes and then equate each of them to zero. If
the surface pressure forces exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the
pressure is said to be uniform. The surface is then an isobar.
Surface Normal Force F

Pr essure   (Pa) (2.2)
area over which the force is applied A
22
Pascal's Law: the pressure acts at certain point is equal in all directions
This law, can be proved by considering an element of fluid in the form of a triangular
prism ABCDEF, Fig.2.3. A relationship between the three pressures p x, py in the
directions x and y and ps in the direction normal to the sloping face can be deduced as
follows.
Fig.2.3 Triangular prismatic element of fluid
The fluid is at rest, so there are no shearing forces, and all of the pressure forces are
perpendicular to the surfaces. Then the force Fs acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,
Fx acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and Fz acts perpendicular to surface FEDC.
Then, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.
The following relations are deduced assuming very small dimensions of the considered
fluid element.
Fx  p x y z (2.3)
Fz  p z x y (2.4)
Fs  pss y (2.5)
The components of force Fs in the x direction is:
z
Fsx  Fs sin   pssy  pszy (2.6)
s
23
At rest, in equilibrium, the resultant horizontal force is zero, therefore:
Fx  Fsx  p x yz  ( p s yz)  0 or p x  p s (2.7)
The components of force Fs in the z direction is:
x
Fsz  Fs cos   p s s y  p s x y (2.8)
s
The body force due to gravity, weight W, is:
1
W   x y z g (2.9)
2
At rest, in equilibrium, the resultant vertical force is zero, or:
Fz  Fsz  W  0 (2.10)
1
p z x y  ( ps xy )  (  x y z g)  0 (2.11)
2
The element is small i.e. x, y and z are very small, and so x y z is considered
negligible, hence;
p z  ps (2.12)
Thus
p x  p z  ps (2.13)
Equation 2.13 shows that for any arbitrary system of coordinates, the pressure at any
point is the same in all directions. This is Pascal’s law.
2.5 EULER’S EQUATIONS OF FLUID STATICS
Euler’s equations of fluid statics are a form of the general momentum conservation
equation, applied in fluid mechanics (the change of momentum is equal to zero, in
static conditions). It is the basic equation, used to determine the pressure distribution
within the fluid, due to the body forces. This equation can be derived by considering a
fluid element, defined by a control volume of dimensions dx, dy and dz in Cartesian
coordinates, Fig. 2.4.
24
Fig.2.4 Forces acting on a fluid element
In the static conditions, the surface forces are due the pressure only, since the shear
force is zero. The body forces per unit mass are FX, FY, FZ, in the directions x, y, z
respectively. The considered fluid element is at rest, then, the forces balance in the x-
direction gives:

 xi  0
F (2.14)
p x p x
(p  )yz  (p  )yz  Fx  xyz  0 (2.15)
x 2 x 2
Then:
1 p
FX  0 (2.16)
 x
Similarly:
1 p
FY  0 (2.17)
 y
And
1 p
FZ  0 (2.18)
 z
Equations 2.16 to 2.18 were firstly derived by Euler in 1750, and known as Euler’s
equations of fluid statics.
25
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF EULER’S EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS
Generally, the pressure at any point in a fluid may change from point to point and may
vary with time; p = f (x, y, z, t). In the static conditions, the fluid parameters do not
change with time, and p = f (x, y, z), then:
p p p
dp  dx  dy  dz (2.19)
x y z
p p p
Substituting for , and from Eqs.2.16 thru 2.18 in Eq.2.19 yields:
x y z
dp   Fx dx   Fy dy   Fz dz (2.20)
This equation can be used to find the pressure distribution in a static fluid, whenever
the body forces and the overall dimensions of the control volume are known.
2.6.1 Pressure Difference between Two Points in a Gravity Field
In a gravity field the gravity force per unit mass is g and the body forces per unit mass
are:
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and Fz = -g (2.21)
The pressure difference between two points, can be calculated as follows:
dp  0  0  (g)(dz) or dp  -  gdz (2.22)
The pressure difference between two points, (x1, y1, z1) & (x2, y2, z2), in a static fluid can
be obtained by integrating Eq.2.22, Fig.2.5
2 2
 1
dp    gdz
1
(2.23)
Then:
(p2 – p1) = -  g (z2 – z1) (2.24)
The isobar surface is a constant pressure surface; dp = 0. So, at the isobar surface;
as dp = 0, then dz = 0. Therefore, an isobar surface in gravity field is horizontal (e.g.
the sea surface).
26
Absolute and Gauge Pressures
In a liquid with a free surface, Fig.2.5, the pressure at a depth h measured from the
free surface (at atmospheric pressure), is given by:
p  gh  p atm (2.25)
Fig.2.5 Fluid pressure in gravity field
The pressure p, calculated by Eq.2.25, is the absolute pressure, measured from the
absolute zero pressure (the perfect vacuum). However, it is convenient to consider the
atmospheric pressure as the datum for the pressure measurements, Fig.2.6. Then, the
pressure measured relative to the atmospheric pressure is defined as the gauge
pressure.
Gauge pressure p  gh (2.26)
Or
pabsolute = pgauge +patm (2.27)
Fig.2.6 Gauge and absolute pressures
27
Pressure Head
Based on Eq. 2.26, the gauge pressure can be expressed by the pressure head h,
where h  p / g . It is defined as the vertical height of column fluid of density ρ, which
exerts a pressure p on its base. Generally, the term head is defined as the energy per
unit weight of fluid.
Example 2.1: Find the pressure head of water and mercury equivalent to of 500 kPa,
if the water density is 1000 kg/m3 and the density of mercury is 13600 kg/m3.
p 500  103
hw    51 m (water)
g 1000  9.807
p 500  103
hm    3.75 m (mercury)
g 13600  9.807
2.6.2 Pressure Measuring Devices
The pressure can be measured by different methods using mechanical, electrical,

piezo-electrical, fluid and other measuring devices. Barometers are used to measure
the absolute atmospheric pressure while Manometers are used to measure the
pressure difference between two points. The manometers function based on the fluid
height measurement. It is important to remind here that: “within continuous columns
of the same stationary fluid, the pressure is the same over a horizontal plane”.
2.6.2.1 Mercury barometer
Fig. 2.7 shows a simple mercury barometer invented by Torricelli, 1643. This
barometer measures the absolute atmospheric pressure (patm). It consists of a tube
filled with mercury and inverted while submerged in a reservoir. The atmospheric
pressure can be measured as:
patm = Hg g H + pvp (2.28)
Where pvp is the vapor pressure of mercury, pvp=0.17 Pa at 20oC.
The mercury has an extremely small vapor pressure at room temperature (0.17 Pa)
and can be neglected, compared with the atmospheric pressure (10 5 Pa).
Consequently, the atmospheric pressure is patm = Hg g H. For high temperatures, the
vapor pressure increases and the glass tube scale dilates. Therefore corrections of
measurements should be considered.
28
Fig.2.7 Mercury Barometer
2.6.2.2 Piezometer; Piezo-manometer
The simplest manometer is a tube, opened at its top and attached to the top of a vessel
containing a liquid at the point at which the pressure is to be measured, Fig.2.8. The
measured pressure should be higher than atmospheric pressure. This simple device
is known as the Piezometer. As the tube is opened to the atmosphere, the pressure
measured is relative to atmospheric pressure so it is a gauge pressure; p=ρgh.
The simple piezometer can be used only for liquids (not for gases) and only for limited
liquid height. The height should not be too small or too large so that the pressure
changes can be detectable.
Fig.2.8 Simple Piezometer (glass

tube manometer)
Example 2.2 What is the gauge pressure of liquid that can be measured by a
piezometer of height 1.5m? If the liquid has a specific gravity of s = 0.85.
ρ = ρwater x s = 1000 x 0.85 = 850 kg/m3
29
The maximum measurable pressure corresponds to a completely full tube;

h=1.5m. For greater heights, the tube will overflow.
Gauge pressure p = ρgh= (0.85 x 103) x 9.81 x 1.5 = 12508 Pa =12.5 kPa.
2.6.2.3 U-Tube Manometer
The U-Tube is a manometer, which enables measuring the pressure difference

between two points. If one end of the manometer is opened to the atmosphere, the
manometer can read directly the gauge pressure at a point. The U tube is connected
as shown in Fig.2.9. It is filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose
pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the
manometric fluid. These two fluids should be immiscible. For fluids of low density, as
gases, inverted U-tube manometers are used.
Fig.2.9 U-Tube manometer
Considering the U-tube manometer, illustrated by Fig. 2.9, the pressure in a continuous
static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so, the pressures at points B and C are
equal; pB = pC.
For the left side arm,

p B  p A  gh 1 (2.29)
For the right side arm,
p C  p atm  m gh2 (2.30)
Where ρm is the density of the manometric fluid, kg/m 3

Then;
p A  patm  m gh2  gh1 absolute pressure (2.31)
Or
p A   m gh 2  gh 1 gauge pressure (2.32)
30
If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will be very small, compared with that
of the manometric fluid; ρm » ρ. In this case, the term ρgh1 is negligible, and the
measured gauge pressure is given by:
p A  m gh 2 (2.33)
Example 2.3 A U-tube manometer, Fig.2.9, is used to measure the gauge pressure of
a fluid of density ρ = 700 kg/m3. The manometric fluid is mercury, with
a specific gravity of 13.6. What is the gauge pressure in each of the
following cases?
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m.
b) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = -0.1m?
For the U-tube, pB = pC
pA + ρ gh1 = pAtm + ρm gh2,
Then: pA = pAtm + ρm gh2 - ρ gh1 (Absolute Pressure)
Or pA = ρm gh2 - ρ gh1 (Gauge Pressure)
a) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.807 x 0.9 - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4 =117.3 kPa
b) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x (-0.1) - 700 x 9.807 x 0.4 = -16 kPa
The negative sign indicates that the pressure is below atmospheric

(vacuum pressure).
Measurement of Pressure Difference by U-Tube Manometers
To measure the pressure difference between two points, the ends of a U-tube
manometer are connected to these points, A & B, Fig.2.10. In the manometer, the
pressures at points C and D are equal; pC  pD .
pC  p A  gha (2.34)
pD  pB  g(hb  h)  m gh (2.35)
Then;
p A  pB  g(hb  ha )  gh(m  ) (2.36)
31
If the fluid in the pipe is a gas then, ρm » ρ, and the terms involving ρ can be neglected,
then Eq.2.36 becomes:
p A  pB  m gh (2.37)
Fig.2.10 U-Tube manometer,

measuring pressure
difference
To increase the measuring accuracy, manometers that are more complicated are used
(such as multi-leg and inclined manometers). For these types of manometers, simpler
method of calculation can be used, such as, starting at a point of known pressure and
moving vertically from one point to another through the manometer fluids until the
required measured point. Note that the pressure increases when moving down, while
it decreases when moving up.
For the considered example, Fig.2.10, an expression for the pressure difference (pA-
pB) can be derived by starting from point A, then move through the manometer to point
B.
pA + gha - m gh - g(hb – h) = pB (2.38)

Then;
pA  pB  g (hb  ha )  gh (m  ) (2.39)
Special U-tube manometer
32
The U-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of the liquid in
both sides must be readable. In the case of small pressure differences, this height is
too small to be accurately read. This inaccuracy may be reduced by using different
diameters U-tube manometer, Fig.2.11. The diameter of one side is very large
compared with the other. In this case, the surface of liquid in the side with the large
area displaces very little compared with the displacement of the small area side.
Fig.2.11 U-tube manometer with different diameters
The manometer can be used to measure the pressure difference (p 1-p2) of a gas of
negligible density. The datum line indicates the level of the manometric fluid when the
pressure difference is zero. When the pressures are applied, the heights of fluid in
both branches change as shown in Fig.2.11, the volume of liquid V displaced from the
left side to the right is given by:
 2 
V d h 2  D 2 h1 (2.40)
4 4
Then:
h1  h 2 (d / D)2 (2.41)
The Pressure difference (p1 - p2) is:

p1  p 2  ρm g(h1  h 2 )  ρm gh2 1  d / D
2
 (2.42)
In this case it is enough to measure h2 to calculate the pressure difference (p1 - p2).
Inclined-tube manometer
33
Fig.2.12 Inclined-
tube
manometer
For an inclined manometer of angle  Fig.2.12;
 2   h
V D h1  d2 x  d2 2 (2.43)
4 4 4 sin 
h 2  x sin  and h1  h2
d / D2  x sin  (2.44)
sin 
Then:
 2
  ( d / D) 2 
p1  p 2  m g x sin   d / D  m g sin  1 
sin  
x (4.45)

If D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small and negligible. For example,
for D/d=20. (d/D)2=0.0025. Then, by neglecting this term, the error is 0.25%. Therefore,
the pressure difference is calculated using h2 only.
p1  p 2  m gh 2 (2.46)
For inclined manometer and (d/D)2 « sinθ,
p1  p2  mg x sin  (2.47)
Example 2.4 An inclined manometer consists of a vertical cylinder of 35mm diameter.

A 5 mm diameter tube is connected at the bottom of this cylinder. The tube
inclines upward at an angle of 15o to the horizontal. The top of this tube is open
to the atmosphere. The vertical cylinder is connected to an air duct and the
manometric fluid has specific gravity 0.785. Calculate the pressure in the air
duct if the manometric reading is 50mm along the inclined tube. What is the
error if the movement of the fluid in the vertical cylinder is ignored?
34
Calculation of the pressure in the air duct by substituting in Eq.2.45:
 ( d / D )2 
p1  p 2  ρ m g(h1  h 2 )  ρ m g h 2 1  
 sin θ 
For a manometer where (d/D)2 « sinθ:
h2 = x sin θ = 0.05 sin (15) = 0.01294 m
p1  p2  785  9.8  0.01294 [1  (5 / 35)2 / sin(15o )]  107.4 Pa
Neglecting h1:
p1  p 2  gh 2  785  9.8  0.01294  99 .54 Pa
Therefore, the error induced by this assumption is:
107.4  99.54
Error   100  7.3 %
107.4
Generally, to increase the precision and sensitivity of the U-tube manometers, several
methods can be used such as:
 use multi-leg manometers,

 use inclined manometers,
 Decrease the density-difference between manometer & measured fluids.
NB
Sometimes, inverted U-tube manometers are used, if the density of the manometric
fluid is less than that of the measured fluid, e.g. air is used as a manometric fluid for
measuring water pressure.
Advantages and disadvantages of the U-tube manometers
The main advantages of manometers are:

 The simplicity of design and that no calibration is required (the pressure can be
calculated from first principles).
 Multiple legs U-manometers can be used to increase the accuracy
 Different manometric fluids are used to increase both of the accuracy and range
of measurement.
35
The following are the main disadvantages of the U-tube manometers:

 Slow response, therefore it is used mainly for steady state or very slowly varying
pressures.
 For the U tube manometer, two measurements must be taken simultaneously
to get the head difference. This may be avoided by using a tube with a much
larger cross-sectional area on one side of the manometer.
 It is difficult to measure small variations in pressure. Alternatively, the inclined
manometer may be used
 It cannot be used for very large pressures unless several manometers are
connected in series
 For accurate measurements, the effect of temperature on the density  and
the glass thermal expansion should be considered.
2.6.3 Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces
The calculation of the pressure force on plane or curved surfaces (magnitude, direction
and line of action) is essential in the design of dams, gates, tanks, ships and the like.
When a fluid is at rest, no tangential forces can exist within the fluid.
2.6.3.1 Forces on Plane Areas
If the pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, then the resultant pressure force
is equal to the pressure times the area. The point of application of the resultant force
(called the Center of Pressure CP) is at the center of that area (C). In the case of
compressible fluids (gases), the pressure variation with vertical distance is very small
due to the very low density. Hence, for practical applications, the pressure is
considered constant. The pressure center coincides with the center of area. The static
gas force is then:
Fp   pdA  n p dA  n pA (2.48)
Where n is a unit vector perpendicular to the element of area dA.
In case of inclined surfaces in stationary liquids, the pressure distribution is not uniform.
It varies linearly with the depth. To calculate the pressure distribution on a submerged
surface, consider the flat plate (1-2) shown in Fig. 2.13. The plate is of arbitrary shape.
It is submerged in a liquid of density  and inclines by an angle  The pressure at a
point at depth h, due to liquid weight, is given by Eq. 2.49.
36
Fig.2.13 Pressure
forces on
inclined
submerged
plane surface
p =  g h =  g y sin  (2.49)
Consider an elementary area dA, chosen such that the pressure can be assumed
uniform over it. The Pressure force acting on the plate is deduced as follows:
dFP  pdA  ghdA  g y sin  dA (2.50)

Then:
FP   g y sin  dA  g sin   y dA  g sin  y c A (2.51)
y C  (1 / A ) y dA (2.52)
The area center is at distance yc from the line ox
hc  y c sin  (2.53)
FP  g h C A Or FP  p C A (2.54)
where C= Is the center of area

hc = Vertical depth of center of area, , m.
pC = The pressure at the pressure center CP, Pa.
yc= The distance of between the points O and C on the plane of area,
m
The pressure at the center of area is ghc . Therefore, the total hydraulic force on any
plane area submerged in a liquid is the product of the area and the pressure at its
37
center.
The resultant pressure force FP is perpendicular to the surface. It acts at a point called
the center of pressure CP.
Pressure Center

The point of application of resultant pressure force is called the center of pressure. An
expression for the position of pressure center can be deduced by taking the moments
around the axis OX. This axis is the intersection of the plane of the area with the liquid
free surface plane, Fig.2.13.
y dFp  ygh dA  g y 2 sin  dA (2.55)
The distance from the axis OX to the pressure center is yP
y P Fp   ydF g sin   y dA  g sin  I

2
O (2.56)
g sin  IO sin  IO I
yP    O (2.57)
ghc A y c sin A y c A
IO  Ic  (CO) 2 A  Ic  y c2 A (2.58)
Or
Ic
yP  yc  (2.59)
yc A
where Ic = Moment of inertia of the plane area about its center axis, m4
Io = Moment of inertia of the plane area about the axis OX, m 4
yP = Distance between the center of pressure and point O, m
The expression for the pressure center shows that:

 The position of the pressure center, relative to the center of area C, is
independent of the inclination angle θ.
 The distance between the area center and pressure center (yP-yc) decreases as
the depth of the submerged area increases as (Ic/Ayc) decreases with the
increase of yc.
 The distance yP is always greater than yc. The pressure center is below the
center of area. They become on the same level in the case of horizontal area.
The x-location of the center of pressure may be determined by considering the area to
consist of a series of elementary horizontal areas. The center of pressure of each strip
would be at its midpoint, then:
38
XpF   X epdA Or Xp 
 X pdA
e
(2.60)
ghc A
where XP = Lateral distance of Pressure center of area from a selected y axis, m

Xe = Lateral distance of the Pressure center of any horizontal strip from a
selected y axis, m
Table 2.1 Area, center of area and Moment of inertia of typical plane surface
2nd moment of area,

Shape Area A
about the center axis; Ic
Rectangle
bh3
bh
12
Triangle
bh bh3
2 36
R 4
Circle
R 2
4
Semicircle
R 2
0.1097 R4
2
39
Example 2.5 A circular flat plate of diameter D = 1m, closes off an opening in a ship's
hull, Fig.2.14. The center of circular plate is at a distance of 3 m below
the water surface. The plane of the plate is 45o from the vertical, as shown
in the figure below. If the water density, ρ=1000 kg/m 3, calculate the total
force exerted on the plate by the water and the distance between the
center of pressure and the center of the circular plate.
The pressure at center, pc, Eq.2.54, is:
pc = ρghc=1000x9.807x3= 29420 Pa (gauge Pressure)
The pressure force Fp = pc A


Fp   12  29420  23.1 k N
4
y c = hc /sin  3/sin 45 = 4.2426 m
  14
I 64
y P  y c  c  4.2426   4.2574 m
yc A  2
4.2426  (  1 )
4
yP - yc = 0.01473 m
Fig.2.14
2.6.3.2 Pressure Force on Curved Surfaces
On any curved area such as 1-2 in Fig.2.15, the pressure forces upon the various
elementary areas are different in direction and magnitude. In this case, it is practical to
analyze the area vector dA (in Cartesian coordinates) to dA x, dAy , dAz . For 2-D
40
problems, the components of resultant pressure force are the horizontal and vertical
components; Fx & Fz .
2 2
Fx   dFx   (gz)dA x (2.62)
1 1
Fx  (ρgh C ) A x (2.63)
The area Ax is the projection of area over a vertical plane, Fig.2.15.
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface F x is equal to the
resultant force on the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane. It acts
horizontally through the center of pressure of the projection of the curved surface onto
a vertical plane.
2 2
Fz   dFz   (gz)dA z (2.64)
1 1
Fig.2.15 Pressure forces on submerged curved area
The resultant vertical force (Fz) of a fluid above a curved surface is equal to the weight
of fluid directly above the curved surface. It acts vertically downward/upward
(depending on the direction of pressure force) through the center of gravity of the mass
of fluid.
If the fluid is a gas, its weight is negligible compared to the pressure forces on the
surfaces. The horizontal component is the product of the pressure by the vertical
projection of area and passes by the center of area (CG=CP).
Resultant Force
41
When the horizontal and vertical forces lie on the same vertical plane, there exists a
resultant force. However, if the lines of action of these forces are skew, then there is
no single resultant force. This procedure can also be done for the three dimensions.
Considering the forces at one vertical plane, the resultant is given by:
F  FX2  FZ2 (2.65)
The angle, which the resultant force makes with the horizontal direction, is:
  tan 1(FZ / FX ) (2.66)

The line of action of the resultant force passes through the point of intersection of both
forces FX & FZ.
For three-dimensional problem, the three components of the pressure force should be
considered.
Pressure Forces of The Fluid Below The Curved Surface
This situation may occur on a curved gate for example. Figure 2.16 shows a curved
surface subjected to fluid pressure from below. The calculation of the forces is the
same as if the fluid is located above the gate surface, and extended to the fluid free
surface. But, the vertical component of the pressure force acts upwards.
Fig.2.16 Pressure force on a curved surface
Example 2.6 Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force of water on the
quadrant gate (of width w=3m) shown by Fig.2.17.
42
The horizontal force, FX, is the force on the projection of the curved surface
on a vertical plane.
H = 1 m and hc = hc/2
h
Fx  g hc A  g hw  0.5gh2 w
2
 0.5  1000  9.807  12  3  14.715 kN
The vertical force, FZ, is the weight of fluid above surface
FZ  g  Volume  1000  9.807  (  r 2 /4)  3  23.114 kN
The resultant force F  FX2  FZ2 = 27.4 kN
At an angle   tan 1(FZ / FX ) = 57o 31'
Fig.2.17
Example 2.7 A cylinder of length L = 1.5 m and radius r = 1 m lies as shown in

Fig.2.18. It holds back oil of specific gravity 0.8. If the cylinder has a
mass of 2250 kg find the reactions at points A and B. Find also the
resultant force.
The reaction at point A is FA  - FX  ghc A  gr(2r)L  2 gr 2 L
Or, FA  2  0.8  103  9.81 12  1.5  23544 N , to the left

The force of fluid above DC = ρg  area of sector DCE x length
πr 2
 0.8  103  9.807 x (r 2  )  1.5
4
The force from below DB = ρg  volume of real or imaginary fluid above BD
= ρg  area of BDEC  length
r 2
The force due to fluid below BD  0.8  10 3  9.807 x (r 2  )  1.5
4
43
The vertical force = Reaction at B = FB

= Force due to weight of fluid, DCE (downward)
+ Force due to fluid below BD (upward)
+ Force due to weight of cylinder
Or FZ = 3580 N, vertically upwards
The resultant and angle of application are given by:
Resultant force F  FA2  FB2 = 23.815 kN
At an angle θ  tan1(FB / FA ) = 8o 38' and passes by the pint O.
Fig.2.18
Example 2.8 A tank of 5m width with an L-shaped cross section, as shown by Fig.2.19,
has a gate, which is hinged at the top of its right hand end.
a) If the tank is filled with water to a level of 8m, determine the minimum
torque required at the hinge to keep the gate closed.
b) Determine the force on the base of the tank. Comment on why this is not
the same as the weight of the water.
Force on the gate F = Pressure at center x area of gate

= ρg (6+1)x(2x5) = 686700 N = 686.7 kN
44
Fig.2.19
The point O is the point where a line from the gate crosses the top water
surface level. This force passes through the center of pressure, y p. The
position of the pressure center, yP, is determined as follows.
Ic
yP  yc 
yc A
bd3 5  2 3 10 4
Ic    m
12 12 3
10 1
yp  7   7.0476 m
3 752
Torque required = (7.0476-6) x 686700=719.7 kNm, Clockwise.
Force on base = p A = ρgh A = 3924 kN
Weight of water = 4  8  5   6  4  5   1000  9.807  2746800 N
= 2746.8 kN
2.7 BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
The pressure in a fluid in equilibrium increases with depth. Therefore, the fluid exerts
a resultant upward force on anybody, which is immersed, wholly or partially, in it. This
force is known as the buoyancy force and it has only a vertical component.
2.7.1 Buoyancy Forces
Figure 2.20 shows a wholly immersed body, BCDF. The upward thrust on the lower
surface BCD corresponds to the weight of the fluid, (real or imaginary volume), located
vertically above that surface. That is corresponds to the volume ABCDE. The
45
downward force on the upper surface BFD equals the weight of the fluid of volume
ABFDE. The horizontal components of force are balanced, while the vertical
components (up and down) are:
FU  Fluid g( Volume ABCDE) (2.67)
FD  Fluid g( Volume ABFDE) (2.68)
Then the resultant buoyancy force (FB) acting upwards is the difference between these
two forces;
F  FU  FD  Fluid g( Volume BCDF) . (2.69)
For a partially immersed body, Fig. 2.21, similar considerations show that the buoyancy
force is equal to the weight of the fluid of the same volume as BCDGF. Archimedes,
287-212 B.C., firstly derived this equation. It is known as Archimedes principle. It states
that "Anybody completely or partially submerged in a fluid at rest is subjected to
a vertically upwards force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid". It acts in the
center of displaced volume.
Fig.2.20 Submerged body Fig.2.21 Floating Body
2.7.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies
For submerged and floating bodies it is important to study, not only their vertical
balance but also their equilibrium and stability. An originally vertical axis in the body
will remain vertical or not? There exist three types of equilibrium:
46
Stable equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if, when given a small displacement
and then released, it returns to its original position.
Unstable equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if, when given a small

displacement and then released, it will not return to its original position, but it will move
further far from it.
Neutral equilibrium (meta-stable): a body is in neutral equilibrium if, when given a

small displacement, and then released, it will stay in its new position. It will neither
return to its original position nor increase its displacement.
For a body fully immersed in a fluid, a balloon for example, Fig.2.22, the stability and
equilibrium conditions are simple. The balloon is in equilibrium if the buoyancy force
FB and weight W are equal and have the same line of action.
An angular displacement from the equilibrium position results in a couple. This couple
acts in the direction to restore the system to its original position if the buoyancy center
B is higher than the center of gravity G. The body is in a stable equilibrium. However,
if the point B is below G, a small angular displacement causes the assembly to topple
over. The body is in unstable equilibrium. If B and G coincide, a neutral equilibrium
is obtained and the body is meta-stable.
Fig.2.22 Immersed body stability
2.7.3 Stability of Floating Bodies
The condition for angular stability of a body floating in a liquid is more complicated.
This is because the shape of the immersed volume, and consequently the position of
center of gravity and buoyancy center move relative to the body, as illustrated by
Fig.2.23. This figure shows a floating boat. In its equilibrium position, the buoyancy
force is equal in magnitude to the weight W of the body. The center of gravity and
buoyancy center lie on the same vertical line. This equilibrium is altered if the body has
47
undergone a small angular displacement θ. It is assumed that the position of the center
of gravity remains unchanged relative to the body. During the movement, the volume
immersed on the right-hand side increases while that on the left-hand side decreases,
and so the center of buoyancy moves to a new position B'. Suppose that the line of
action of the buoyancy (which is always vertical) intersects the axis BG at the point M.
For small values of θ, the point M is practically constant in position and is known as
the Meta center. The distance of M above G is called metacentric height. For the body
shown in the figure, M is above G (Positive metacentric height), and the couple is
tending to restore the body to its original position. If M were below G the metacentric
height is negative. Then the couple would be an overturning couple and the original
equilibrium would have been unstable. The neutral equilibrium is obtained when the
metacentric height is zero, when G and M coincide.
Fig.2.23 Stability of floating boat
It is important to determine the position of the metacenter and the metacentric height
before a boat is constructed. Figure 2.24 shows that cross-section, perpendicular to
the axis of rotation, in which the center of buoyancy B lies. Figure 2.24(a) shows the
initial equilibrium position, while Fig.2.24 (b) shows the position after displacing by
small angle θ. The section on the left, indicated by cross-hatching, has emerged from
the liquid whereas the crosshatched section on the right has moved down into the
liquid. Assuming that there is no overall vertical movement; thus the vertical equilibrium
is undisturbed. As the total weight of the body remains unaltered so does the immersed
volume, and therefore the volumes corresponding to the cross-hatched sections are
equal.
Choose the coordinate axes through O as origin. OY is perpendicular to the plane of

selected cross-section, Fig.2.24 (a) & (b). OX lies in the original plane of flotation and
OZ is vertically downwards in the equilibrium position. As the body is rotated, the axes
rotate with it and the tilting moment (around O) is equal to the restoring moment
produced by the weight of the hatched area.
FB (MG sin )   gdA( x tan )x (2.70)
48
(gV)(MG sin )   gdAx2 tan   g tan  x 2 dA w ater line (2.71)

For small angles:
Io
tan   sin  ; ..then: MG  (2.72)
V
Where Io is the moment of inertia of the water-line area of the body.
Fig.2.24 determination of location of metacenter
The entire immersed volume V may be supposed to be made up of collection of

elementary volumes of columns of base area δA in the plane of flotation. The center
of buoyancy B is the center of the immersed volume. For symmetrical body the x-
coordinate of center x o is zero, otherwise it is determined as follows:
xo 
 (z dA)x (2.73)
V
And the vertical distance BM between the metacenter and centroid is:
1 2
V
BM  x dA (2.74)
Or
Second moment of water area of plane of flotation about 
 
BM   
centroidal axis perpendicular to plane of rotation (2.75)
Immersed volume
49
By the determination of the position of the metacentric, it is possible to judge the

stability of the floating body according to the criteria illustrated by Fig.2.25. Generally,
the system will be stable if BM  GM
Fig.2.25 Stability of floating bodies
Example 2.9 A wooden block of square cross-section floats on the surface of water,
Fig.2.26. The block has a width w, height h and specific gravity s. Find the
minimum ratio of width to height (w/h) that will insure the body stability.
Denote the block bottom center by O, the center of gravity by G, the center
of buoyancy by B and the metacenter by M as shown in the figure.
Fig.2.26
hG  0.5h and hB  0.5h w
w 2hw  w 2hw sw Then hw  s h and hB  0.5 s h
BG  hG  hB  0.5h  0.5sh  0.5(1  s) h
50
x
2
dA w4 1 w2
BM    
V 12 w 2sh 12 sh
Limiting condition for stability is that BG  BM , or:
(1  s)h w2

2 12 sh
w
Or  6 s (1  s)
h
2.8 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM IN LINEAR AND ROTARY MOTIONS
The hydrostatic equations applied to the fluids at rest can be used to solve problems
of fluid at motion in relative equilibrium. The fluid can be subjected to a constant linear
acceleration or a rotary motion at constant speed, without occurrence of relative motion
between fluid particles or between the particles and the boundaries. In such cases, the
fluid can be considered as a stationary fluid, taking into consideration the body forces
due to the acceleration; the inertia forces.
2.8.1 Relative Equilibrium, Linear Motion
Consider an open tank moved horizontally at acceleration a (Fig.2.27). In this case the
body forces per unit mass are:
X = -a, Y = 0, Z = -g (2.76)
The following is the equation describing the pressure variation in a static fluid, Eq.2.19.
dp = Fx dx + Fy dy +  Fz dz (2.77)
Substituting for Fx, Fy and Fz, from Eq.2.76, into Eq.2.77 yields:
dp = -adx +  - gdz (2.78)
The equation of an isobar and the pressure distribution on all surfaces of the tank, are
obtained directly from Eq.2.78.
For isobar (dp = 0);

0 = -adx - gdz (2.79)
Or
dz a a
   tan  and z   x  cons tan t (2.80)
dx g g
51
The solution of this equation gives different isobars for different conditions such as the
free surface and the isobar passing through certain point. Therefore, other conditions
are required to locate the free surfaces, such as fluid volume, spill conditions, touching
certain point on the boundaries or in the space, ..etc. In the absence of shear forces,
the isobaric surface is usually perpendicular to the resultant body force. To calculate
the pressure distribution on a surface, substitute for dx or dz and solve Eq.2.78.
Fig.2.27 Hydraulic tank moving by constant Fig.2.28 Hydraulic tank moving

accelerations in x and z directions on an inclined Plane
Figure 2.28 shows the hydraulic tank subjected to accelerations in both x and z
directions. At rest, the dashed line illustrates the free surface. After giving an
acceleration a, the isobaric surfaces angle θ is given by the following equation.
  ax 
  tan 1   (2.81)
 g  aZ 
In the case of a completely filled closed tank, the fluid has no free surface. The isobars
are still inclined by the angle θ. The pressure At particular point of fluid is calculated as
follows.
p p
p   dp   dx   dz  a X x  (g  a Z )z  const. (2.82)
x z
The integration constant is determined by the boundary conditions, for example, at free
surface, the pressure is constant. For open tank it is atmospheric.
52
Generally, the pressure difference between two-points (1&2) can be calculated as:
p2-1 = -x -g z (2.83)
2.8.2 Relative Equilibrium, Rotary Motion
A rigid cylindrical container, partially filled with water, is rotated with a constant angular
velocity ω about its vertical axis, Fig.2.29. By the end of the transient period, the fluid
rotates with the container by the same angular velocity ω and there is no relative
motion between them. Since there is an axial symmetry in this case, it is convenient to
use the cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z). The pressure distribution will be a function of r
and z; p=p(r, z).
Fig.2.29 Fluid in rigid container rotating (Vortex motion)
The pressure variation within the fluid is investigated for an ax-symmetrical body.
Consider a fluid element of height dz, as shown by Fig.2.29.The body forces per unit
mass of the fluid element are:
In r-direction:
R = -2r (2.84)
In z-direction:
Z= -g (2.85)
Substituting Eqs. 2.84 and 2.85 in Eq. 2.20 yields:
dp = -(-2r)dr -gdz (2.86)
53
The equation of an isobar (dp =0) is:

dz 2r
 (2.87)
dr g
or
2 2
z (r )  c (this is an equation of a paraboloid) (2.88)
2g
The integration constant can be calculated from the boundary conditions. The head
difference (Δz) between any two points on an isobar is:
2 2 2
z  (r2  r1 ) (2.89)
2g
The free surface is a special isobar and can be located by the boundary conditions
(e.g. volume of liquid, spill point and passing through certain point). The volume of
paraboloid of radius Ro & height h is:
V  Ro2h / 2 (2.90)
The pressure distribution on any surface can be calculated using the equation;
dp = -(-2r)dr -gdz (2.91)
In the vertical direction (on the side walls), dr = 0, then;
p = -gz (2.92)
In the radial direction (on bottom), dz = 0; then:
2 2
p   (r2  r12 ) (2.93)
2
The pressure difference between two arbitrary points within the fluid (a & b) is:
2 2
p  (rb  ra )  g ( z b  z a )
2
(2.94)
2
2.9 EXERCISE
54
1. What is the pressure head of carbon tetrachloride (specific gravity 1.59) for a 200
kPa pressure?
2. To what head of air (R = 287 J/kgK) at an absolute pressure of 101.3 kPa and
temperature of 15 oC is a pressure of 75 mm of water equivalent?
3. A spherical air bubble rises in water (a=1.25 kg/m3). At a depth of 9 m, its diameter
is 4 mm. If the surface tension effects are negligible, what is its diameter just as it
reaches the free surface where the pressure is 101.3 kPa?
4. A tank containing alcohol of specific gravity of 0.82 to a depth of 3 m is 3.5 m long

and 2.5 m wide. A 50 mm diameter pipe leads from the bottom of the tank. What will
be the reading on a gauge calibrated in Pa connected at a Point
(a) 150 mm above the bottom of the tank
(b) in the 50 mm diameter pipe, 2 m below the bottom of the tank
(c) at the upper end of a 25 mm diameter pipe, connected to the 50 mm pipe 2 m
below the bottom of the tank, sloping upwards at 30 o to the horizontal for 1.2 m
and then rising vertically for 600 mm?
(d) What is the load on the bottom of the tank?
5. A pressure gauge at elevation 8 m on the side of a tank containing a liquid reads

57.4 kPa. Another gauge at elevation 5 m reads 80 kPa. Calculate the specific
gravity and density of the liquid.
6. An open tank contains 5.0 m of water covered with 2.0 m of oil (s =8). Find the
pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
7. If the atmospheric pressure is 920 mbars, abs, and a gauge attached to a tank reads
400 mm Hg vacuum, what is the absolute pressure within the tank?
8. If the atmospheric pressure is 940 mbars, abs what would be the reading in meters
of a barometer containing water?.
9. What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of water at depths 12m
below the surface? ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and patm = 101kPa.
10. At what depth below the surface of oil, of specific gravity 0.8, will produce a pressure
of 120 kPa? What is the equivalent depth of water?
55
11. What would the pressure in kPa be if the equivalent head is measured as 400mm of
(a) mercury of s =13.6 (b) water ( c) oil of specific weight 7.9 kN/m 3 (d) a liquid of
density 520 kg/m3?
12. A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of 50mm of

mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Pa if the atmospheric pressure
is 1 bar?
13. What height would a water barometer need to be to measure atmospheric pressure?
14. An inclined manometer is required to measure an air pressure of 3mm of water to

an accuracy of ±3%. The inclined arm is 8 mm in diameter and the larger arm has a
diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid has density 740 kg/m 3 and the scale may
be read to ±0.5mm. What is the angle required to ensure the desired accuracy?
15. The pressure at point A, in the closed tank is 90 kPa. Calculate the absolute pressure
at point B, then recalculate this pressure, neglecting the air weight. What is the
percentage error, made when neglecting the air weight?
16. Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury (s = 13.55),
the connecting tubing are filled with water. The higher-pressure vessel is 1.5 m
lower than the other is. If the mercury reading is 10 cm, what is the pressure
difference in m of water and in kPa?. If carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.59) was used
instead of mercury, what would be the manometer reading for the same pressure
difference?
56
17. The shown U-tube has a 1-cm inner

diameter and contains mercury as
shown. If 10 cm3 of water is poured
into the right-hand leg, what will be
the free surface height in each leg?
18. For the given open tank, the

atmospheric pressure is 101.33 kPa
and the pressure at the bottom of the
tank is 237 kPa. What is the specific
gravity of the fluid X? (soil = 0.8 & sHg
= 13.55)
19. The shown manometer contains two

fluids. Fluid 1 is glycerin, s.=1.27 and
fluid 2 is carbon tetrachloride
s= 1.594. If pa=101 kPa, calculate
the absolute pressure at point A.
20. For the shown manometer, calculate the pressure difference pA-pB, (sben= 0.8,
sHg= 13.6, sK= 0.85. , a = 1.29 kg/m3).
57
21. For the shown manometer the pressure difference P A-PB = 99 kPa. Calculate the
height H.
22. For the shown manometer, calculate the pressure at point A
23. The shown two-fluid differential

manometer can measure a very
small pressure difference (pA-pB)
accurately. The density ρ2 is slightly
larger than that of the other fluid ρ1.
Derive an expression for the
Pressure difference (pA-pB) in terms
of the height h.
58
24. Calculate the pressure at point A in the

shown manometer
25. If a triangle of height h and base b is vertical and submerged in liquid with its vertex
at the liquid surface, derive an expression for the depth to its center of pressure.
Solve this problem if the vertex is at a distance a below the liquid surface.
26. A circular area tube, of diameter d, is vertical and submerged in a liquid. Its upper
edge is coincident with the liquid surface. Derive an expression for the depth to its
center of pressure.
27. A vertical semicircular area has its diameter at the liquid surface. Derive an
expression for the depth to its center of pressure.
28. A plane circular surface of 1.2 m diameter is vertical. Its top edge is 0.3 m below the
water surface. Find the magnitude of the force on one side and the depth to the
center of pressure.
29. A triangle with a height of 1.8 m and a base of 1.2 m is placed vertically with its base
horizontal and 0.3 m below a liquid surface. Determine the depth and horizontal
position of the center of pressure.
30. A rectangular plane 1.2 m by 1.8 m is submerged in water making an angle of 30o
with the horizontal plane. The 1.2 m side is horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of
the net force on one face and the position of the center of pressure when the top
edge of the plane is
(a) at the water surface,
(b) 500 mm below the water surface,
(c) 30 m below the water surface.
59
31. Find the magnitude and point of application of the pressure force on the circular
gate shown in the figure.
32. A circular opening 1.2 m in diameter in the vertical side of a reservoir is closed by
a disc. The disk fits the circular opening. It is pivoted on a shaft passing through its
horizontal diameter. Show that, if the water level in the reservoir is above the top
of the disc, the turning moment on the shaft required to hold the disc vertical is
independent of the head of water. Calculate the value of this moment.
33. A square opening in the vertical side of a tank has one diagonal vertical. It is
completely covered by a plane plate hinged along one of the upper sides of the
opening. The diagonals of the opening are 2 m long and the tank contains a liquid
of specific gravity of 1.15. The center of the opening is 1.5 m below the free
surface. Calculate the net hydrostatic thrust on the plate, the moment of this thrust
about the hinge and the position of the center of pressure.
34. A hollow cylinder with closed ends is 300 mm diameter and 450 mm high, of a
mass 27 kg and has a small hole in the base. It is lowered into water so that its
axis remains vertical. Calculate the depth to which it will sink, the height to which
the water will rise inside it and the air pressure inside it. Disregard the effect of the
thickness of the walls but assume that it is uniform and that the compression of the
air is isothermal. The atmospheric Pressure is Pa = 101.3 kPa.
35. A canal lock is 6 m wide and has two vertical gates, which make an angle of 120o
with each other. The depths of water on the two sides of the gates are 9 m and 2.7
m respectively. Calculate the pressure forces acting on the gate.
36. A uniform wooden cylinder has a specific gravity of 0.6. Determine the ratio of
diameter to length so that it will just float upright in water.
60
37. A solid uniform cylinder of length 150 mm and diameter 75 mm is to float upright
in water. Between what limits must its total mass be so that it will just float upright
in water?
38. A buoy, floating in the seawater of density 1025 kg/rn3, is conical in shape with a
diameter across the top of 1.2 m and a vertex angle of 60o. Its mass is 300 kg and
its center of gravity is 750 mm from the vertex. A flashing beacon is to be fitted to
the top of the buoy. If the mass of this unit is 55 kg, what is the maximum height of
its center of gravity above the top of the buoy if the whole assembly is to be stable?
(The center of volume of a cone of height h is at 3h/4 from vertex.)
39. What would be the hydrostatic pressure at a depth h of bucket of oil (s=0.82) that
is in elevator being accelerated upwards at 3 m/s2.
40. A tank containing water to depth of 2 m is accelerated upwards at 3 m/s 2. Calculate

the pressure at the bottom of tank.
41. A completely filled rectangular tank is closed at the top. It is 20 m long, 4 m wide
and 3 m deep. What will be the pressure difference between the left hand end and
the right-hand end at the top, if the liquid has a specific weight of 8 kN/m3 and a
horizontal acceleration is 0.3g? Sketch the planes of equal pressure, indicating
their magnitude. Assume zero pressure at the upper right-hand corner.
42. A rectangular tank is completely open at the top. It is 20 m long, 4 m wide and 3 m
deep. If it is initially filled to the top, how much liquid will be spilled if it is given a
horizontal acceleration of 0.3g in the direction of its length.
43. An open topped tank, in the form of a cube of 900 mm side, has a mass of 340 kg.
It contains 0.405 m3 of oil of specific gravity 0.85. The tank is accelerated uniformly
up a long slope at   tan 1(1/ 3) to the horizontal plane. The base of the tank
remains parallel to the slope, and the side faces are parallel to the direction of
motion. Neglecting the thickness of the walls of the tank, estimate the net force
(parallel to the slope) accelerating the tank if the oil is just on the point of spilling.
44. A cylindrical tank, open at the top is filled with water to a height of 0.3 m. The tank
height is 0.5 m and diameter is 0.4 m. The tank rotates around its vertical axis by
an angular speed ω. Draw the pressure distribution at the walls and base ,
calculate also the volume of spilled water for the following cases:
a- The water just touches the upper tank edge.
b- The water just touches the bottom of the tank
c- The bottom of the tank is uncovered to a radius of 0.1 m.
61
45. A closed cylindrical tank of 0.2 m diameter and 0.3 m height is completely filled
with water at atmospheric pressure. The tank is rotated around its vertical axis by
an angular speed ω = 50 rad/s. Calculate and plot the pressure distribution over
the bottom and sides of the tank.
62
3 FLUID
KINEMATICS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid kinematics deals with the motion of fluid elements, without taking into account
the forces causing this motion. In fluid kinematics, the fluid flow is described by the
fluid displacement, velocity, acceleration, flow rate and nature of flow. The fluid motion
can be analyzed by one of two alternative approaches: the Lagrangian and Eulerian.
Lagrangian approach
In the Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified and followed

during the course of its motion with time. The kinematical variables are written as
function of the time and the initial coordinates (xo, yo, zo in Cartesian coordinates). The
particle velocity, for example, is described by:
v = v(xo, yo, zo, t) (3.1)
The difficulty in tracing a fluid particle(s) makes it difficult to apply the Lagrangian
approach.
Eulerian approach
The alternative approach, the Eulerian approach, consists of observing the fluid by
setting up fixed stations (sections) in the flow field. A typical example of the Eulerian
approach is the observation of the variation of flow properties in a closed volume, in
the flow field (control volume).
The motion of the fluid is specified by the velocity components as functions of the time
and the location in the space; v =v(x,y,z,t). This is considerably easier than the
Lagrangian approach and is usually used in fluid mechanics.
63
3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW
It is useful to consider the following concepts, to study the fluid flow.
3.2.1 Uniform and Steady Flow
To simplify the used equations and their solutions, the fluid and flow problems can be
classified to the following types.
 Uniform or non-uniform flow :
 Uniform flow: The flow velocity (magnitude and direction) is the same at every
point in the fluid, at any instant; e.g. v=v(x, y, z, to) = constant at time t0.
 Non-uniform flow: The flow velocity is not the same at every point at any
instant.
 Steady or Unsteady flow :
 Steady flow: A steady flow is one in which the conditions at certain point
(velocity, pressure …) do not change with time, but they may differ from point
to point, .g. v=v(xo, yo, zo, t) = constant at point (xo, yo, zo).
 Unsteady flow: An unsteady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,
pressure …) at certain point change with time. Practically, if the average values
are constant, the flow may be considered steady.
Looking at a fluid flow, in a river for example, the conditions vary from one point to
another. The flow velocity near the boundaries is less than that at the middle of river.
This flow is said to be a non-uniform flow. If the conditions at one point vary with time,
this flow is unsteady. Generally, the fluid flow may be one of the following;
Steady uniform flow
The flow parameters do not change with position in the stream or with time,
v = constant. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter with
constant velocity, when neglecting the viscosity effect. This is the simplest case of fluid
flow. The quasi-time independent problems can be treated as steady flow.
Steady non-uniform flow
The conditions change from point to point in the stream but it does not change with
time; v = f(x, y, z). An example is the flow in a tapering pipe with constant flow rate.
64
The velocity changes along the length of the pipe. However, the fluid velocity at certain
point is time independent.
Unsteady uniform flow
At a given instant of time, the flow parameters at every point are the same, but they
change with time, v=f(t). An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a
pump of constant flow rate of negligible velocity effect. When the pump is switched off,
the fluid velocity decelerates until the fluid comes to rest.
Unsteady non-uniform flow
All of the flow parameters may change from point to point and with time; v = f(x, y, z, t).
An example is the waves in a water channel. The fluid velocity changes from point to
point in the three directions and changes with time.
3.2.2 One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow
Generally, all fluids flow is three-dimensional. The pressure, velocity and other flow
properties vary in all directions. In many cases, the main changes occur in one or two
directions only. In these cases, the changes in the other directions are negligible, which
simplifies the flow analysis.
The flow is one-dimensional, Fig.3.1 if the flow parameters change in one direction
only. An example of this class of flow is the flow of a non-viscous fluid in a pipe. The
velocity and pressures are constant along the pipe cross-section. But, they may vary
along the pipe length, in the case of tapered pipe, for example. Actually, the real fluid
is viscous and the velocity at the boundary is zero while the velocity changes along the
pipe cross-section. The unidirectional flow may be unsteady. In this case, the flow
parameters vary with time but still not along the cross-section.
Fig.3.1 One dimensional flow
65
The fluid flow is two-dimensional (plane flow), Fig.3.2, if the flow parameters vary in
two directions. In the two-dimensional flow, the flow lines are curved on a plane and
are the same on all of the parallel planes.
Figure 3.3 shows an example of a three-dimensional flow in a duct, where the velocity
changes in the x, y and z directions.
v=f(x,y) v=f(x,y,z)
Fig.3.2 Two dimensional flow around Fig.3.3 Three-dimensional flow

long cylinder
3.2.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flow
The fluid flow may be classified according to the possible motion (or strain) of a fluid
element as:
 in hydrostatic condition; v = 0,
 irrotational flow; zero rate of rotation, Fig.3.4.
 incompressible fluid; zero linear strain,
 in-viscid flow; zero shear strain.
Fig.3.4 Rotational and irrotational flow
66
3.3 MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT
In fluid mechanics, the fluid element may undergo four fundamental types of motion or
deformation: translation (displacement), rotation about its own axis (spin), fluid angular
deformation (shear strain) and linear strain (linear deformation), Fig.3.5. Because fluids
are in continuous motion, motion and deformation are best described in terms of
velocity rates, and not absolute values.
translation (displacement) rotation about its own axis (spin)
fluid angular deformation Linear deformation
Fig.3.5 motion and deformation of a fluid element
3.3.1 Fluid Element Translation, Velocity and Acceleration.
The motion of a fluid element is usually described by its displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
Velocity
The velocity of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of change
of its displacement along that direction. The velocity of a fluid element is a vector, which
is a function of the position in the space and time. Let V be the velocity of a fluid along
any direction and u, v and w be the velocity components in x, y and z directions
respectively. Mathematically, the velocity components can be written as follows;
V  ui  vj  wk (3.2)
where:
67
u = f ( x, y, z, t ), v = f ( x, y, z, t ) and w = f ( x, y, z, t ) (3.3)
then:
V  u2  v 2  w 2 (3.4)
where:
dx dy dz
u , v and w (3.5)
dt dt dt
Acceleration
The acceleration of a fluid element along any direction is the rate of change of velocity
of the fluid along that direction. If ax, ay and az are the components of acceleration
along x, y and z directions respectively then:
du
ax  (3.6)
dt
For u = f (x, y, z, t), then;

u dx u dy u dz u
ax     (3.7)
x dt y dt z dt t
similarly:
v dx v dy v dz v
ay     (3.8)
and
w dx w dy w dz w
az     (3.9)
Considering Eq. 3.5, then:
Convective Local
acceleration acceleration
u u u u
ax= u v w 
x y z t
v v v v
ay= u v w  Total Acceleration (3.10)
x y z t
w w w w
az= u v w 
x y z t
For steady flow, the local acceleration will be zero.

Flow Rate (or Discharge Q)
68
The fluid flow rate is either the mass flow rate or the volume flow rate. The mass flow
rate is the mass of fluid flowing per unit time across certain cross-section of the conduit,
(kg/s). The volumetric flow rate of fluid, or the discharge, is the volume of fluid flowing
per unit time across certain cross-section of the conduit, (m3/s).
3.3.2 Fluid Element Rotation about its Own Axis- Spin
The rotation of a fluid particle, ω, is defined as the average angular velocity of any two
mutually perpendicular line elements of the particle. The rotation is a vector quantity.
A particle moving in a three-dimensional flow field may rotate about all of the three
coordinate axes. Thus, in general,
  i x  j y  k z (3.11)
where ω= Angular velocity of the fluid element, rad/s

ωx = Angular velocity in the y-z plane, around the x-axis, rad/s
ωy = Angular velocity in the z-x plane, around the y-axis, rad/s
ωz = Angular velocity in the x-y plane, around the z-axis, rad/s
Consider the fluid motion in the x-y plane. the components of the velocity in the flow
field are u(x,y) and v(x,y). The motion is illustrated by Fig.3.6. The two mutually
perpendicular lines oa and ob rotate to the position indicated by the dashed lines
during a time interval Δt, when the velocities of points a and b are different from the
velocity at point o.
Fig.3.6 Rotation of fluid element around its own axis, spin
The rotation of line oa of length Δx is due to the variation of velocity of the y component
of velocity. If the y-component of the velocity at point o is taken vo, then the y-
component of the velocity at point a can be written as,
69
v
va  vo  x (3.12)
x
The angular velocity of line oa is given by
  / x
oa  Lim  Lim (3.13)
t 0 t t 0 t
Since
v
  x t (3.14)
x
Then
(v / x )xt / x v
oa  Lim  (3.15)
t 0 t x
The rotation of line ob of length Δy is due to the variation of velocity of the x-component
of velocity. If the x-component of the velocity at point o is taken uo, then the x-
component of the velocity at point b can be written as,
u
ub  u o  y (3.16)
y
The angular velocity of line oa is given by
  / y
ob  Lim  Lim (3.17)
t 0 t t 0 t
Since
u
   y t (3.18)
y
Then:
 (u / y )yt / y u
ob  Lim  (3.19)
t 0 t y
The negative sign is introduced to give a positive value of ωob, as the counter clockwise
rotation is positive.
The rotation of the fluid element about the z-axis is the average angular velocity of the
two mutually perpendicular lines oa and ob in the x-y plane.
70
1  v u 
z    
2  x y 
(3.20)
Similarly,
1  w v 
x    
2  y z 
(3.21)
and
1  u w 
y     (3.22)
2  z x 
NB: the flow is said to be irrotational if ωx = ωy = ωz = 0
3.3.3 Angular Deformation of Fluid Element
Angular deformation of a fluid element results from the change of the angle between
two mutually perpendicular lines in the fluid element. Referring to Fig.3.7, the rate of
change of the angle between the two lines oa and ob is:
Fig.3.7 Angular deformation of fluid element in x-y plane
d  d  d
   (3.23)
dt dt dt
d   / x (v / x )xt / x v
 Lim  Lim  Lim  (3.24)
dt t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t x
d   / y (u / y )yt / y u
 Lim  Lim  Lim  (3.25)
dt t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t y
Consequently, the rate of angular deformation in the x-y plane is as follows:
71
d d d v u
     (3.26)
dt dt dt x y
 v w   w u 
Similarly, the angular deformation in y-z and z-x planes are    and   
 y z   z x 
respectively.
3.3.4 Linear Deformation of a Fluid Element
During linear deformation, the shape of the fluid element remains unchanged. All the
right angles continue to be right angles, Fig.3.5. The fluid element will change in length
in the x direction only if u / x  0 . Similarly the change in length in the y-direction
requires that v / y  0 and a change in the z-direction requires non-zero value of
w / z .The quantities u / x , v / y and w / z represent the components of the
longitudinal rates of strain in the x, y and z directions respectively. The rate of local
instantaneous volume dilatation is given by:
 u v w 
The rate of volume dilatation =    x  y  z  (3.27)
 x y z 
All fluids are compressible. Their volume and density will change as the pressure
changes. In the case of steady flow, and if the changes in pressure are small, it is
possible to neglect the fluid compressibility. However, in some unsteady conditions
and for very high-pressure variations, it is necessary to consider the compressibility
even for liquids. For incompressible fluid, the rate of volume dilatation is zero, then,
u v w
  0 (3.28)
x y z
3.4 STREAMLINES, PATH LINES AND STREAK LINES
When analyzing fluid flow, it is useful to plot the flow pattern by drawing different
imaginary lines for the paths of the fluid particles such as the streamlines, path lines
and streak lines.
Streamline is “an imaginary line to which the flow velocity is tangent at any
instant”. The fluid particles do not cross this line. Figure 3.8 illustrates the streamlines
and Fig.3.9 shows the streamlines around a long cylindrical rigid body.
72
Fig.3.8 Stream lines
Fig.3.9 Stream lines around a rigid body (a cylindrical body)
For two-dimensional flow (in Cartesian coordinates) the velocity v = v(x,y). At any point
on the streamline (x, y) the tangent is:
dy/dx = - v/u (3.29)
When the fluid is flowing past a solid boundary, e.g. the surface of an airfoil or the wall
of a pipe, fluid does not flow into or out of the surface. Therefore, near body surface,
the flow direction is parallel to the boundary, and the boundaries are considered as
streamlines. The following are some important information about the streamlines:
 For a steady flow, the position of streamlines does not change.
 The fluid moves in the same direction as the streamlines, therefore the flow
cannot cross a streamline.
73
 Streamlines cannot cross each other. If they cross, this would indicate two
different velocities at the same point (singular points). This is not physically
possible in a continuous media.
 The above point implies that, for steady state conditions, any particles of fluid
starting on one streamline will stay on the same streamline throughout the fluid.
A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only an isolated part of the fluid.
Stream tube is an example of this technique; a tubular surface formed by streamlines.
The fluid cannot flow across the wall of the stream tube, Fig.3.10.
Fig.3.10 Stream tube
The stream tube can often be viewed as a solid walled pipe. Its walls change in form
with time, in unsteady flow.
Sometimes, for unsteady flow, it is useful to define other flow lines such as the path
lines and the streak lines.
Fig. 3.11 Path line of particle p
74
Path line (Trajectory)
The path line is the trajectory of a fluid particle in the space, Fig.3.11. The velocity in a
two-dimensional flow is: v = v(x,y,t).
Streak line
The streak line is an instantaneous locus of all fluid particles (1, 2, 3, …) that have
passed by a certain point in the space. It is useful for flow visualization, Fig.3.12. If a
dye is injected into a fluid in a given point, a photograph of the dye at any instant is a
streak-line. In steady state conditions stream, path, and streak lines coincide.
Fig. 3.12 Streak lines of particles (1 to 10), passed by point (xo,yo)
3.5 STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
It is of special interest to draw a flow grid (or net) of stream and potential lines. These
lines are mutually perpendicular for irrotational flow.
Fig.3.13. Stream Line
3.5.1 Stream Function 
Streamlines in 2-D incompressible flow may be described by the stream-functions. The

stream function  is a scalar function such that its partial derivative with respect
75
to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction
and satisfies the continuity, Fig.3.13.
Generally, for a steady two-dimensional flow,
 =  (x,y) (3.30)
Fig.3.14 Flow between two stream lines of incompressible flow
Considering the incompressible flow between two stream lines, Fig.3.14, the following
equations can be concluded.

u (3.31)
y

v (3.32)
x
 
d  dx  dy   vdx  udy (3.33)
x y
Similarly, the following equations can be concluded for, for a two dimensional flow in
polar coordinates:
1  
vr  and v    (3.34)
r  r
Equation of a two-dimensional streamlines:
For a streamline, Fig.3.13,
76
dy v    
  / Then dy   dx (3.35)
dx u x y y x
and
 
d  dy  dx  vdx  udy  0 (3.36)
y x
Then, for a streamline, d = 0 or  =const.
For a two dimensional flow, Fig.3.14, the flow rate between two stream lines is
calculated as follows:
Q   udy  vdx   
2
d   2  1 (3.37)
1
Then, the difference between two stream functions equals the flow rate between the
corresponding streamlines.
Example 3.1 Given the velocity field of a steady incompressible flow; V  Ax i  Ay j ,

determine the stream function that will yield this velocity field. Plot and discuss
the streamline pattern in the first quadrant of the x-y plane.
The flow is incompressible, and then the stream function satisfies the following
relation:
  
u , v and u  Ax
y x y
Integrating with respect to y gives:

 dy  f ( x )   Axdy  f ( x )  Axy  f ( x )
y
The function f(x) is arbitrary. It may be evaluated using the equation for v.
 df
v   Ay    Ay
x dx
df
Then 0 or f(x) = c = constant
dx
Therefore   Axy  c
For a stream line,   const. , then A x y  c  const. Or y k / x
77
The constant k will have different values for each stream line, as shown by
Fig.3.15
Fig.3.15 Stream lines of fluid flow field described by the stream function
  Axy  c
3.5.2 Velocity Potential Function φ
For irrotational flow, the velocity potential φ is a scalar function, of space and time,
φ =f(x,y,z,t). Its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the
velocity component in that direction.
For a steady two-dimensional flow

φ = φ (x,y) (2.38)
and
 
u , v (3.39)
x y
Equi-potential lines (Potential lines)
The equi-potential line is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential φ is
constant; and:
φ = Constant or dφ = 0 (3.40)
Since
 
d  dx  dy (3.41)
x y
Then:
78
d  udx  vdy (3.42)
For a two dimensional steady flow, the potential function is φ = f (x,y) and, for
equipotential line, φ = const. and dφ =0
Fig. 3.16 Stream and Potential Lines
For potential, dφ = -u dx – v dy = 0 and the lines the slope is:
dy u
 (3.43)
dx v
This equation shows that for irrotational flow, the slope of the potential lines is (-u/v).
Referring to Eq.3.36, the slope of the streamlines is (v/u). Then the potential lines are
perpendicular to the streamlines, Fig.3.16.
Relationship between stream function () and velocity potential (φ)
Considering the stream and potential functions, the velocity components in a two-
dimensional flow are:
 
u ,v  (3.44)
y x
and
 
u ,v  (3.45)
x y
Then
   
u  and v    (3.46)
x y y x
79
   
 and  (3.47)
x y y x
3.5.3 Flow net
Fig 3.17 Flow net in an elbow
A grid obtained by drawing a series of potential lines and streamlines is called a flow
net. The flow net is an important tool in analyzing two-dimensional irrotational flow
problems. The flow through ducts or around solid bodies may be solved by drawing the
corresponding flow net. Figure 3.17 shows the flow net in an elbow. The following are
some important flow nets, widely used in hydraulic engineering.
3.5.3.1 Uniform flow in x- direction
Fig. 3.18 Uniform flow in x-direction
The streamlines are all horizontal, while the potential lines are vertical, Fig.3.18. In This
case:
80
 = -uy (3.48)
and
φ = -ux (3.49)
Similarly for uniform flow of velocity v in y-direction:
 = -vx (3.50)
and
φ = -vy (3.51)
3.5.3.2 Source and sink
The source is a point from which fluid flows outwards uniformly in all directions. The
total flow rate is known as the strength K. The stream and potential lines at an angle θ
are:
 = K θ /2 (3.52)
and
φ = -K ln(r)/ 2 (3.53)
The sink is similar to the source, but the flow flows towards the inward direction,
Fig.3.19. The stream and potential functions are:
 = -K  (3.54)
and
φ = K ln(r)/2 (3.55)
Source Sink
Fig. 3.19 Source and sink flow nets
81
3.5.3.3 Vortex
Vortex is a rotating flow around a point, Fig.3.20. For a free vortex, the fluid rotates
without energy addition.
vr=c (3.56)
then:
= K ln(r) (3.57)
and
φ = K θ/2 (3.58)
Fig.3.20 Vortex Flow
3.5.3.4 Combination of a source and a uniform flow in x-direction
As stream functions are scalar, then a resultant function could be obtained by addition
of the intersecting stream functions. As an example, combined source and uniform flow
in x-direction is given below, Fig.3.21.
Fig.3.21 Combined source and uniform flow in x-direction
82
3.5.3.5 Combined source-sink
Figure 3.21 shows a combined flow for a source and a sink.
Fig. 3.22 combined flow of source and sink
3.5.3.6 Doublet
The doublet is a combined source and sinks very close to each other. Figure 3.23
shows the doublet flow. It is widely used to simulate uniform flow around a cylinder.
Fig. 3.23 doublet flow
83
3.6 EXERCISE
1. In a two dimensional incompressible flow the fluid velocity components are

given by: u = x - 4y and v = - y - 4x, where, u and v are the x and y
components of the flow velocity. Derive an expression for stream function. If the
flow is potential, obtain also the expression for the velocity potential.
2. The components of velocity for a two dimensional flow are given by:
u = x y; v = x2 – y2/2
Check whether the flow is irrotational.
3. Find the components of velocity along x and y for the velocity potential
 = a cos (xy). Find also the corresponding stream function.
4. The stream function and velocity potential for a flow are given by
 = 2xy and  = x2 – y2
Plot and discuss the stream line pattern.
5. In a two-dimensional flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -4x.

Determine the stream function. What is the pattern of streamlines?
6. A stream function in a two dimensional flow is  = 2 x y. Show that the flow is

irrotational and determine the corresponding velocity potential.
7. The velocity potential for a flow is given by the function  = x2 - y2. Verify that
the flow is incompressible and determine the stream function.
8. The velocity field in a fluid is given by: V=(3x+2y)i+(2z+3x2)j+(2t-3z)k.

i) What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii) Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
9. Find the convective acceleration at the centerline of a pipe, which converges

uniformly from 0.4 m to 0.2 m diameter over a length of 2 m. The rate of flow is
20 L/s. If the rate of flow changes uniformly from 20 L/s to 40 L/s in 30 seconds,
find the total acceleration at 15th second.
84
4 FLUID
DYNAMICS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is dedicated to the study of fluid dynamics. It treats the main conservation
equations, used in fluid mechanics:
 Mass conservation equation,
 Momentum conservation equation,
 Energy conservation equation.
4.2. MASS CONSERVATION - Continuity Equation
The law of mass conservation states that Matter cannot be created or destroyed;
but it changes from one form of matter to another.
4.2.1 Discharge and mean velocity
The velocity in a pipe is not constant over the pipe cross section. For real viscous fluid,
the velocity is zero at the walls (zero-slip phenomena) and increases to its maximum
value at the center. This variation over the section is known as the velocity profile or
velocity distribution. A typical one is shown in Fig.4.1.
Fig.4.1 A typical velocity profile over a pipe cross-section
The variation of velocity over the cross-section of the stream tube complicates the fluid
flow calculations. Therefore, in many cases, an average value of the fluid velocity
(mean velocity) is required. The mean velocity can be deduced if the size of the pipe
(pipe cross-section area A) and the discharge (fluid flow rate Q) are known.
85
Consider a pipe of cross-sectional area A at section x, Fig.4.2. The mean velocity is u.

The flow rate through the section A (the discharge) is the volume of fluid crossing this
section during a unit time. If the fluid travels a distance L during a time period Δt, the
volume of fluid crossing the section x is AL and the oil flow rate is
AL
Q  Au (4.1)
t
Where A = Pipe cross-section area, m2

u = Mean velocity =L/Δt, m/s
Q = Fluid flow rate (discharge), m3/s
Fig.4.2 Discharge through a pipe
Example 4.1 If the cross-section area, A, is 1.2x10-3 m2 and the discharge Q is

24 Liters/s, then the mean velocity, u, is:
Q 2.4  10 3
u   2 m/s
A 1.2  10 3
4.2.2 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is one of the fundamental relations in fluid mechanics. It is

deduced by applying the principle of conservation of mass to a defined volume in the
space, known as control volume CV. The control volume is surrounded by an imaginary
surface called the control surface CS.
Consider the control volume illustrated in Fig.4.3. The mass conservation equation,
applied to a control volume, states:
(Rate of mass entering - Rate of mass leaving) through CS = (Rate of mass change) in CV (4.2)
86
For steady flow, the pressure and density at each point are constant. There is no
variation in the mass within the control volume, then;
(Mass entering per unit time)through CS = (Mass leaving per unit time)through CS (4.3)
Fig.4.3 An arbitrarily shaped control volume
Consider a stream tube illustrated in Fig.4.4. No fluid flows across the boundary.
Therefore, the fluid mass enters through the cross-section 1 and leaves through the
cross-section 2. For steady floe, the application of Eq.4.3 to the stream tube yields:
Mass entering per unit time at section 1 = Mass leaving per unit time at section 2 (4.4)
Or

ρ1 A1u1= ρ2 A2u2= m =constant (4.5)
Fig.4.4 A stream tube
Equation 4.5 is the continuity equation for a stream tube. If the fluid is incompressible,
ρ1 = ρ2 = constant, then the continuity equation has the following form:
A1u1 = A2u2 = Q = Constant (4.6)

This is the most often used form of the continuity equation, for liquids.
87
where m = Fluid mass, kg

ρ = Fluid density, kg/m3
Continuity equation in steady three-dimensional flow
Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of density as shown in Fig.4.5.

Let the dimensions of the parallelepiped be dx, dy and dz along x, y and z directions
respectively. Let the velocity components along x, y and z be u, v and w respectively.
Fig. 4.5 parallelepiped in a fluid flow
The mass flow, M, rate of fluid entering the section ABCD along x direction is given by
(   Area Flow velocity ):
dMx1   u dy dz (4.7)
Similarly mass flow rate of fluid leaving the section EFGH along x direction is given by:
 
dMx 2   u   udx dy dz (4.8)
 x 
The net gain in mass flow rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by:
88
 
dMx   u dy dz   u   u dx dy dz (4.9)
 x 

dMx    u dx dy dz (4.10)
x
Similarly, net gain in mass flow rate of the fluid along the y and z-axes are given by:

dMy    v  dx dy dz (4.11)
y

dMz    w  dx dy dz (4.12)
z
Then, the total change in mass flow rate of the fluid is given by:

dM    udx dy dz    v dx dy dz    w dx dy dz (4.13)
x y z
For steady state flow conditions, the net gain in mass flow rate should be zero and
hence;

  u 

 v     w  dx dy dz  0 (4.14)
 x y z 
or

  u 

 v     w   0 (4.15)
 x y z 
This expression is known as the general equation of continuity for steady three-
dimensional flow.
If the fluid is incompressible then the density  is constant and hence,
 u  v  w 
    0 (4.16)
 x y z 
For two-dimensional compressible and incompressible fluids, the continuity equation

yields to:

  u 

 v   0 (4.17)
 x y 
89
and
 u  v 
   0 (4.18)
 x y 
4.3. MOMENTUM EQUATION (Euler’s Equation of Fluid Dynamics)
The general statement of the Momentum Equation) is:
The Rate of change of momentum of a body (or control

volume) is equal to the resultant force acting on it.
For ideal fluids (neglecting the shear forces), the momentum equation is known as
Euler’s equation of fluid dynamics.
Figure 4.6 shows an elementary fluid element of dimensions δx, δy & δz. This fluid
element, moves with acceleration ax, ay & az. It is subjected to pressure forces and
body forces per unit mass Fx, Fy & Fz in the directions x, y and z respectively. For ideal
fluid, the surface forces are only due to pressure.
Fig.4.6 Forces acting on an accelerated fluid element
The application of momentum equation to this elementary volume yields:
90
p
Fx (x y z)  x y z  ma x   x y z a x (4.19)
x
Or
1 p
Fx   ax (4.20)
 x
Similarly,
1 p
Fy   ay (4.21)
 y
And
1 p
Fz   g  az (4.22)
 z
Sometimes it is useful to use natural coordinates (s, t), where s is the distance along a
streamline, Fig. 4.7, then:
1 p
S  as (4.23)
 s
Where S is the body forces per unit mass in the s-directions (along the stream line),
N/kg
For real fluid, the momentum equation has a general form, known as Navier-Stoke’s
equation (for real unsteady flow).
4.4. ENERGY CONSERVATION, BERNOULLI’s EQUATION
Energy conservation law (1st law of thermodynamics) states that, for a control volume,
the energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it changes from one form to
another. For ideal fluid, under certain simplifying assumptions, the energy equation for
fluid dynamics is known as Bernoulli’s equation. These simplifying assumptions are:
 there are no shear forces, the fluid is ideal non viscous,

 the fluid is incompressible,
 the body forces are only due to gravity,
 the flow is steady,
 the equation is applied along a stream line.
91
.
Fig.4.7 Fluid element in natural coordinates (s,t)
In natural coordinates, along a streamline, Fig.4.7, the Euler’s equation could be

written as
1 p
S  as (4.24)
 s
Considering the preceding assumptions, the Euler’s equation can be written as follows:
1 dp dv
 g sin    v (4.25)
 ds ds
and
dz
sin   (4.26)
ds
Then:
dz 1 dp dv
g   v (4.27)
ds  ds ds
1 dv 2
 gdz  dp  v dv  (4.28)
 2
dp dv 2
  gdz  0 (4.29)
 2
The integration of Eq.4. 27 gives the Bernoulli’s equation (per unit mass).
92
p v2
  gz  K m (4.30)
 2
Where gz = Potential energy per unit mass, J/kg

Km= Total energy per unit mass, J/kg
p/ρ= Pressure energy per unit mass, J/kg
v2/2= Kinetic energy per unit mass, J/kg
z= Elevation relative to a reference level, m
Other forms of Bernoulli’s equation (B.E.), could be written per unit volume or per unit
weight as,
v 2
p  gz  K v ….(B.E. per unit volume) (4.31)
2
p v2
 z H (B.E per unit weight, or head-form of B.E.) (4.32)
g 2g
Where H = Total Head; total energy per unit weight, m

hp = p/ρg = Pressure head; pressure energy per unit weight, m
hv = v2/2g = Velocity head; kinetic energy per unit weight, m
hz = z = Potential head; potential energy per unit weight, m
The Piezometric head, Hpiezo, is the sum of pressure and potential heads
p
Hpiezo  z (4.33)
g
4.5. FLUID DYNAMICS-APPLICATIONS OF BASIC EQUATIONS
This section presents some applications of the basic conservation equations of fluid
mechanics; namely:
 the conservation of mass (continuity equations),
 the conservation of momentum, Newton’s 2 nd law (Euler’s equation of fluid
dynamics),
 the conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation).
In this chapter, these equations are applied for ideal fluids and steady flow. The fluid
is assumed to be non-viscous and incompressible. For real fluids and real flow
conditions, these equations should be modified to take into consideration different
types of losses as well as the effects of fluid inertia and compressibility.
93
4.5.1. Applications on Continuity equation
Figure 4.8 shows a convergent pipe. The liquid is flowing in the direction from section
(1) to section (2). The application of continuity equation between (1) and (2) yields:
ρ1 A1u1= ρ2 A2u2 (4.34)
Considering an incompressible fluid, the density is assumed to be constant; (ρ 1=ρ2=ρ).

Then, Eq.4.34 is simplified to be:
A1u1= A2u2 = Constant (4.35)
Or The flow rate at section 1, (Q1 ) = The flow rate at section 2, (Q2)
Fig.4.8 Convergent pipe
Example 4.2 For the pipe shown in Fig.4.9, the area A1=0.001 m2, A2 =0.003 m2 and
the upstream mean velocity, u1=21 m/s, calculate the downstream mean
velocity u2.
A1
u 2  u1  7 m/s
A2
Fig.4.9 Divergent pipe
Example 4.3 If the diameter at section 1, Fig.4.9, is d 1 = 30 mm and the diameter at

section 2 is d2 = 40 mm. The mean velocity at section 2 is u2=3 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of fluid entering the diffuser.
94
2
d 
2
A  40 
u1  u 2 2  u 2  2      3  5.3 m / s
A1  d1   30 
Another typical application of the continuity principle is to determine the velocities in

branching pipes shown by Fig.4.10. For compressible flow;
ρ1Q1= ρ2Q2+ ρ3Q3 (4.35)
For incompressible flow;
Q1= Q2+ Q3 or A1u1= A2u2+ A3u3 (4.37)
Fig.4.10 Fluid flow in a branching pipe
Example 4.4 The branching pipe shown in Fig.4.10 has the following parameters:
Pipe 1: diameter = 50 mm, mean velocity = 2m/s,
Pipe 2: diameter = 40 mm, flow rate = 30% of that in pipe 1.
Pipe 3: diameter = 60 mm.
Calculate the discharge (flow rate) and mean velocity in each pipe?
Q1 = A1u1= 0.00393 m3/s

Q2 = 0.3Q1 = 0.3x0.00397=0.00118 m3
Q1 = Q2+ Q3
Q3 = Q1- Q2 = 0.00275 m3/s
Q2 = A2u2, u2 =Q2/A2= 0.938 m/s
Q3 = A3u3, u3 = Q3/A3= 0.972 m/s
4.5.2. Mass flow rate
The mass and volume flow rates are measured by numerous methods. A very simple
method is to collect the liquid flowing out of the pipe in a container over a certain period.
95
The mass flow rate is calculated by dividing the mass of the collected liquid by the
collection period.
Example 4.5 An empty container weighs 2 kg. After 8 seconds of collecting water, the
container weighs 8 kg.
 Calculate the mass flow rate.
 If the mass flow rate is 1.6 kg/s, calculate the time required to fill a
container with 8kg of fluid.

mass of fluid in bucket 82
mass flow rate  m    0.75 kg / s
time taken to collect the fluid 8
Time = mass of collected liquid /mass flow rate = 8 /1.6 = 5 s
4.5.3. Volume flow rate (Discharge)
The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid crossing certain cross-section per unit time.
The volume flow rate is commonly known as discharge or flow rate. The symbol
normally used for discharge is q or Q. The mass flow rate is written as:

m  Q (4.38)
Example 4.6 If the density of the fluid in example 4.5 is 900 kg/m3, calculate the flow
rate.
Volume of fluid mass of fluid / density mass flow rate
Discharge Q   
time time density
 0.75 / 900  0.000833 m 3 / s  0.833 L / s  50 L / min
4.5.4. Flow through Orifice
The restrictors of fluid flow, such as the short tube orifices and sharp edged orifices,
are basic means for the control and measurement of the fluid flow rate. This section is
dedicated to study the fluid flow in these elements.
Assuming ideal fluid flow in an orifice, Fig. 4.11, the fluid particles are accelerated from
velocity v1 at section 1 to the jet velocity v2 at section 2. The fluid flow from sections 1
to section 2 is assumed streamlined or potential flow. The application of Bernoulli's
equation between sections 1 and 2, gives:
2 2
p1 v 1 p v
  z1  2  2  z 2 and z1  z 2 (4.39)
g 2g g 2g
96
Then
2
v 22  v 12  (p 1  p 2 ) (4.40)

For real fluid, the cross-section area of the stream tube contracts, due to the fluid
inertia, when flowing out of the orifice. The area of the jet at section 2 is smaller than
the orifice area Ao. The point along the jet, where the stream tube area becomes of
minimum value, is called the Vena contracta. The ratio between the Vena contracta
and orifice areas is the contraction coefficient, (Cc)
CC  A 2 / A o (4.41)
Fig.4.11 Flow through sharp edged orifice
Assuming incompressible fluid, then, the application of the continuity equation between
sections 1 and 2 yields:
A 1v 1  A 2 v 2 (4.42)
The treatment of Eqs.4.40 thru 4.42 gives the following expression for the mean
velocity at the vena contracta v2.
v2 
1 2
p1  p 2  (4.43)
1  A 2 / A 1  
2
Actually, the jet velocity v2 is slightly less than that calculated by Eq.4.43, due to
hydraulic losses. This velocity reduction is considered by introducing the velocity
coefficient Cv, (ranging from 0.97 to 0.99 for flow through orifices), where:
Re al velocity at Vena cot racta

Cv  (4.44)
v2
97
The real flow rate through orifice based Eqs. 4.43 and 4.44 is:
Cv A 2 C v Cc
Q  A 2C v v 2 
2
p1  p 2   Ao
2
p1  p 2  (4.45)
1  A 2 / A 1   1  A 2 / A 1  
2 2
If the area A2 is too small compared with A1 then the term (A2/A1) is negligible and Eq.
4.45 becomes:
2
Q  Cd A o p  C d A o 2gh (4.46)

where CC = Contraction coefficient

Cd = Discharge coefficient = Cv Cc.
CV = Velocity coefficient, typically = 0.97 to 0.99 for orifice flow
h= pressure head difference across the orifice = Δp/ρg, m
v= Average fluid velocity, m/s.
Δp = p1-p2= Pressure difference across the orifice, Pa
For a round edged orifice, the contraction coefficient can be calculated using the
following expression (Merritt, 1967).
 2 D C d  C d 
C c  1/ 1    c  tan 1  c  (4.47)
   Cc d D   D 
where D = Pipe diameter, m

d = Orifice diameter, m
The variation of contraction coefficient with diameters ratio (d/D) is plotted in Fig.4.12.
For sharp edged orifice, if the orifice diameter is too small; d<<D, then:
tan-1(Ccd/D)= (Ccd/D) (4.48)
The contraction coefficient is given as: CC   /(   2)  0.611 .
The pressure and power losses in sharp edged orifices are dominated by the fluid
inertia (vortex effect). The fluid viscosity has no significant effect on their operation.
Therefore, the velocity coefficient is practically equal to 1 and the discharge coefficient
Cd = CC. Therefore, the sharp edged orifices are preferred because of their predictable
characteristics. However, for economy, short tube orifices are widely used, especially
for fixed restrictors.
98
Fig.4.12 Contraction coefficient of round sharp edged orifice
The fluid flow through short tube orifices is subjected to friction losses as well as local
losses at inlet and outlet. Therefore, these orifices are viscosity dependent. The
discharge coefficient depends on the Reynolds number ( Re  vD /  ) and orifice
geometry. The following expressions could be used to calculate the discharge
coefficient for laminar and turbulent regions (Merritt, 1967).
1

2
 1

  L  2
 D (4.49)
C d  1.5  13.74   ..For R e >50
  D Re   L
 
1

2
 64 L  D (4.50)
C d  2.28   For R e <50
 D Re  L
The variation of discharge coefficient with (Re D/L), calculated using Eqs.4.49 & 4.50,
is plotted in Fig.4.13, where L is the orifice length.
99
Fig.4.13 Discharge coefficient of a short tube orifice
4.5.5. Application of the Momentum Equation
In this section, the momentum equation is applied to calculate the resultant fluid force
on a control volume. The analysis is carried out according to the following procedure:
1. Draw a control volume,
2. Choose a co-ordinate system,
3. Calculate the velocity at inlet and outlet of the control volume,
4. Calculate the momentum forces, the pressure forces, the body forces
and the resultant forces.
Consider a free jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90o, as shown in Fig.4.14.
due to forces impact force of a free jet on a plane surface.
Steps 1&2: define control volume and coordinates, as shown in Fig.4.15.
Step 3: Calculate the velocity from energy and continuity equations
Step 4: Calculate the momentum force
Fmx   Q u2 x  u1x    Q u1x (4.51)
As the system is symmetrical w.r.t. the x-axis, the forces in the y-direction are
canceled; Fmy=0.
100
Step 5: Calculate the pressure force. The pressure force is zero as the pressure at
both the inlet and the outlets to the control volume are atmospheric.
Step 6: Calculate the body force. If the flow is steady, the only existing body force is
the gravity force. Then, as the control volume is too small, the body force
(weight) is negligible with respect to the momentum force.
.
Step 7: Calculate the resultant force acting on the fluid
Fmx   Q u1x (4.52)
The total force on the plane is of the same magnitude as FTx, but it is opposite in
direction;
R   Fmx   Q u1x (4.53)
Fig.4.14 A perpendicular jet hitting a plane Fig.4.15 Control volume
Consider a two dimensional system, Fig.4.16. At inlet, the velocity vector, u 1, makes
an angle, 1 with the x-axis, while at the outlet u2 make an angle  2 . Resolve the forces
in the directions of the co-ordinate axes. The resultant force (in this case the
momentum force only) acting on the fluid is:

Fm  Q (u2  u1 )  m (u2  u1 ) (4.54)
The force in the x-direction is:
Fm x  Q (u2 cos 2  u1 cos 1) (4.55)
101
The force in the y-direction is:
Fmy  Q (u2 sin 2  u1 sin 1) (4.56)
The resultant force:

FmR  Fx2  Fy2 (4.57)
The resultant force acts on the fluid at an angle  with the horizontal direction, where:
  tan 1(Fmy / Fmx ) (4.58)
The force exerted by the fluid on the plane (R) is opposite to FR. So, the reaction force,
R, is given by:
 
R  Q (u1  u 2 ) (4.59)
Fig.4.16 Two dimensional stream tube Fig. 4.17
4.5.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation is usually used to calculate the pressure, velocity and potential
heads for a flow in a stream tube or along a streamline.
102
4.5.6.1 Free jet flow
Figure 4.18 shows a jet of liquid flow from a pipe with velocity u1. One particle of the
liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls from height z1 to z2. The particle velocity
changes from u1 to u2. The jet is traveling in air where the pressure is everywhere
atmospheric. Neglecting the air friction, the only acting force is that due to gravity. The
application of Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 & 2 gives:
p1 u12 p 2 u 22
  z1    z2 (4.60)
g 2g g 2g
p1 = p2 = patm (4.61)
Then,
1 2 1 2
z1  u1  z 2  u2 (4.62)
2g 2g
Fig.4.18 The Trajectory of a free jet of liquid
4.5.6.2 Flow from a reservoir
The hydraulic reservoirs are widely used in engineering applications. The problems of
reservoir empting, pressure forces on the reservoir walls and inertia forces due to
reservoir motion (in tankers) are among the serious problems treated by the fluid
mechanics.
Consider an open, non-pressurized reservoir shown in Fig.4.19. The level of the liquid
in the reservoir is z1. At the surface, the velocity of liquid is too slow. Therefore, the
kinetic energy is neglected at point 1. The potential energy is mgz1. A pipe is attached
to the tank side wall. The liquid flows through this pipe out of the tank at a level z2. The
application of Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 & 2 gives:
103
p1 u12 p 2 u 22
  z1    z2 (4.63)
g 2g g 2g
Where, p1  p 2 and v 1  0 , then:

u 22
z1   z 2 or u 2  2g( z1  z 2 ) (4.64)
2g
Fig.4.19 An idealized reservoir
Example 4.7: A reservoir of water has the surface at 3.1 m above the outlet nozzle of
a pipe with diameter 15mm. Neglect all friction in the nozzle and pipe and
calculate:
(a) The velocity and the discharge out of the nozzle
(b) The mass flow rate
u2  2g( z1  z2 )  2  9.81 3.1  7.8 m / s

The flow rate equals the area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity.

Q  Au2   0.0152  7.8  1.378  10 3 m3 / s
4
If the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, so the mass flow rate is:

m  density  volume flow rate  Q  1000  1.378  10 3  1.378 kg / s
4.5.6.3 Flow in a conduit
When the Bernoulli equation is combined with the continuity equation, the velocities
and pressures at points in the flow connected can be found. A typical example of this
practice is to apply the Bernoulli’s equation to determine pressure and velocity within
a contracting and expanding pipe, Fig.4.20.
104
Fig.4.20 A contracting expanding pipe
Example 4.8 A fluid of constant density ρ = 960 kg/m 3 flows steadily through a tube,
Fig.4.20. The diameters at the sections 1 and 2 are d 1=80 mm and d2=
100 mm. The gauge pressure at section 1 is p1=200 kPa and the
velocity is u1=5 m/s. Calculate the gauge pressure at section 2.
Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline connecting section 1

with section 2. The tube is horizontal, with z1 = z2, so the Bernoulli
equation gives:
p1 u12 p 2 u 22
  
g 2g g 2g

Or p 2  p1  (u12  u 22 )
2
The velocity u2 is calculated by applying the continuity equation
between sections 1 & 2.
A 1 u1  A 2 u 2
2
d 
2
Au  80 
Thus u2= 1 1  u1  1   5    3 .2 m / s
A2  d2   100 
960 2
p2  20000  (5  3.22 )  27100Pa  27.1 kPa
2
Notice how the velocity has increased while the pressure has
decreased. This phenomenon is, sometimes, very useful in
engineering. The carburetor works on this principle in many vehicle
engines. The pressure reduces in a contraction, forcing fuel to enter into
the carburetor.
4.5.6.4 Pressure head, velocity head, potential head and total head
This section illustrates the distribution of the different types of heads; pressure head,
velocity head, potential head and total head. Consider a reservoir feeding a pipeline of
different diameters, Fig.4.21. Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline from
105
point 1 on the surface of the reservoir to point 2 at the outlet nozzle of the pipe. If the
losses are negligible, the total head H is constant along a streamline.
p1 u12 p u2
  z1  2  2  z 2  H (4.65)
g 2g g 2g
At point 1, on the reservoir surface, the pressure is atmospheric, p 1=0. The surface is
moving very slowly compared to that in the pipe so u 1= 0. Then, the total head H = z1.
Figure 4.21 shows the total energy line (TEL) drawn at distance z1 from the horizontal
datum line. The fluid levels in the piezometers are less than that at the reservoir by a
constant value. The hydraulic grade line (HG) is the line drawn below the TEL by a
distance equal to the velocity head (u2/2g), as long as the losses are negligible. It
indicates the pressure head distribution, measured from the pipe center line.
Fig.4.21 Piezometer levels for flowing fluid in a constant diameter pipe
What would happen if the pipe were not of constant diameter? Figure 4.22 shows the
case when the constant diameter pipe is replaced by another pipe of three sections, 3,
4 & 5, with the middle section 4 of larger diameter. The velocity head at each pipe
section is different. This is because the velocity is different at each section. The mid
pipe section has greater diameter, smaller velocity and smaller velocity head.
Therefore, the hydraulic gradient line shows higher total head at this pipe section. This
graphical representation shows clearly the pressures in the system.
106
Fig.4.22 Piezometer levels and velocity heads for fluid flowing in varying diameter
pipes
4.5.6.5 Piezo-meter and Pitot tube
If a stream of uniform velocity flows over a blunt body, the streamlines take a pattern
as that shown by Fig.4.23. In the center, the fluid goes to the tip of the blunt body and
stops at a stagnation point 2. The pressure at this point can be calculated by applying
Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, neglecting the friction losses in this zone.
p1 u12 p u2
  z1  2  2  z 2 (4.66)
g 2g g 2g
The velocity u2 = 0 and z1 = z2, then:
p1 u12 p u12
  2 or p 2  p1  (4.67)
g 2g 1 g 2
The pressure component ( u 2 / 2 ) is called the dynamic pressure, while the pressure
p1 is called the static pressure. The pressure p2 at which u2 = 0, is named total , or
stagnation, pressure.
If the blunt body is replaced by a body, with an axial hole, connected to a piezometer,
the piezometer reads a height equal to the total (or stagnation) head (h 2), Fig.4.24. The
fluid at the inlet of axial hole has zero velocity. By using another piezometer, fitted
vertically to the tube, static pressure could be measured (h1). The fluid velocity can be
calculated by knowing the piezometers readings (h1 & h2) as follows:
107
Fig.4.23 Stream lines around a blunt body
u12
p 2  p1  , p1=ρgh1 & p2=ρgh2 (4.68)
2
u12
gh2  gh1  (4.69)
2
Then,
u12
gh2  h1   and u  2g (h 2  h1 ) (4.70)
2
Fig.4.24 Piezometer (1) and Pitot tube (2)
The need for two piezometers and two head readings make this arrangement
complicated, Fig.4.24. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify the
construction. The Pitot static tube combines the two tubes so that they can be easily
connected to a manometer, Fig.4.25. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one
side of a manometer and read the static head. The central hole connects to the other
side of the manometer to read the stagnation head. The flowing fluid density is ρ, while
the density of manometer fluid is ρman.
108
Fig.4.25 Pitot-static tube
The velocity of the stream can be obtained by applying of Bernoulli equation and the
theory of the manometer to the Pitot tube as follows;
pB  p 2   g x (4.71)
pA  p1  g ( x  h)  man g h (4.72)
,
u12
p2  p total  p1  and p A  pB (4.73)
2
The treatment of Eq. 4.71 thru 4.73 yields:
u12
p1    g x  p1   g ( x  h)  man gh (4.74)
2
u12
hg(man  )  (4.75)
2
2 g h (man  )
u1  (4.76)

4.5.6.6 Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter (Convergent divergent nozzle) is a device for measuring the flow
rate (discharge) in a pipe, Fig.4.26. It consists of a converging section, which increases
109
the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a slightly diverging diffuser section. By measuring the
pressure differences, the discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement since the energy losses are very small. An expression
for the flow rate through the Venturi meter can be derived by apply the Bernoulli
equation along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi
meter.
Fig.4.26 Venturi meter
p1 u12 p u2
  z1  2  2  z 2 (4.77)
g 2g g 2g
Q  u1 A 1  u 2 A 2 (4.78)
u1 A 1
u2  (4.79)
A2
Substituting Eq. 4.79 into Eq. 4.77 yields:
110
p1  p 2
g
u2

 z1  z 2  1 A 1 / A 2   1
2g
2
 (4.80)
p  p2 
2g  1  z1  z 2 
u1   g  (4.81)
A 1 / A 2   1
2
The theoretical discharge equals the product of this velocity by the area (Q ideal=u1A1).
To get the actual discharge, the losses due to friction should be considered. This is
carried out by introducing a coefficient of discharge Cd.
p  p2 
 z1  z 2 
C d A 1A 2
Q actual  2g 1 (4.82)
A 12  A 22  g 
The flow rate can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings as follows.
p1  gz1  p 2  man gh  g(z 2  h) (4.83)
p1  p 2  
 z1  z 2  h  man  1 (4.84)
g   
Consequently, the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:
   
2g h  man  1 2g h  man  1
Qactual  Cd A1 A 2    C A    (4.85)
A1  A 2 1  A 2 / A1 
2 2 d 2 2
Where ρman = Manometer fluid density, kg/m3
Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or orientation
(z1 or z2) of the Venturi-meter. This means that the meter can be at any convenient
angle.
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This design ensures that the pressure rises again to some
value near to the pressure level at the inlet of Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser
is usually between 8o and 12o. Wider angles lead to flow separation from the walls,
resulting in increased pressure loss. For smaller value of angle, the meter becomes
very long and pressure losses again become significant.
111
4.5.6.7 Flow over notches and weirs
A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir, which extends above the
surface of the liquid. It is usually a device for controlling and measuring discharge in
open channels. A weir is a notch on a larger scale, usually found in rivers. It may be
sharp crested but also may have a substantial width in the direction of flow.
The following assumptions are commonly considered for flow through weirs:
 The velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so that kinetic energy
is negligible.
 The velocity through any elemental strip depends only on the depth below
the free surface.
To determine the theoretical flow through a weir, consider a horizontal element of width
b and depth h below the free surface, as shown by Fig.4.27.
Fig.4.27 Elementary strip of flow through a weir
Velocity through the area element δA is:
u  2gh (4.86)
The discharge through the element, A ,
 Q  u A  b h 2g h (4.87)
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest, h=H, gives the total theoretical
discharge as:
112
H
Q theoretical  2g  b h1 2 dh (4.88)
0
For a rectangular weir, Fig.4.28, the width is constant, b=B.
H
2
Q theoretical  B 2gh  h1 2 dh  B 2g H3 2 (4.89)
0
3
To calculate the actual discharge, the losses due to friction should be considered by
introducing the coefficient of discharge, Cd. This coefficient accounts for losses at the
edges of the weir as well as the contractions in the area flow.
2
Q actual  C d B 2g H3 2 (4.90)
3
Fig.4.28 A rectangular weir Fig.4.29 V-notch, or triangular, weir
For the V-notch weir, Fig.4.29, the relationship between width and depth is dependent
on the angle of the "V" shape.
If the angle of the V-notch is  , then the width, b, at depth h from the free surface is:
 
b  2 (H  h) tan   (4.91)
2
Substitution for b in the general equation of weir, Eq.4.88, gives:
 
H
Q theoretical  2 2g tan    (H  h) h
12
dh (4.92)
2 0
H
   2 2 
Q theoretical  2 2g tan    Hh 3 2  h5 2  (4.93)
 2  3 5 0
113
2g tan  2h 5 2
8
Q theoretical  (4.94)
15
Again, the actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge
2g tan  2 h5 2
8
Q actual  C d (4.95)
15
4.5.6.8 Emptying of Tanks
The time required for tank empting can be estimated by considering the flow rate at
any time t, then calculating the volume of liquid during a time interval t. Consequently,
by integrating the volume equation, the required emptying time is estimated.
Example 4.9 A rectangular swimming pool, Fig.4.30, is 1m deep at one end and
increases uniformly in depth to 2.6 m at the other end. The pool is 8 m
wide and 32 m long. it is emptied through an orifice of area
ao= 0.224 m2, at the lowest point in the side of the deep end. Taking Cd
for the orifice as 0.6, find, from the first principles,
a) The time for the water level to fall by 1m
b) The time to empty the pool completely
Fig.4.30
The flow rate through orifices at any time t can be calculated by using
the following equation:
2
Q  Cd A o p  Cd A o 2gh

114
Q  Cd A o v 2  Cd A o 2gh
 0.6  0.224  2  9.807 h  0.595 h
During a time interval t the emptied volume is:

Q dt  A dh
A A
Or dt   dh   dh
Q 0.595 h
The total time for the liquid level to fall from h1 to h2 is
h2 A
T   dh
h1
0.595 h
a) The time for the water level to fall by 1m
For the first 1m depth, A = 8 x 32 = 256, whatever the height is.

So, for the first period:
h2
T  430.25  h 0.5 dh  430.25 
h1 0.5

1 0.5
 
h2  h10.5  860.5 h10.5  h02.5 
 
 860.5  2.60.5  1.60.5  299 s
b) The time to empty the pool completely;
It is necessary to find an expression for the area A in terms of h.

L h
A=8L,  , then A  160h
32 1.6
h2 160 h 0 2 0
T   dh  268.9  h0.5 dh  268.9   h1.5
h1
0.595 h h1 3 h1
 179.27  1.61.5  362.81 s
Total time for emptying is, T = 362.81 + 299 = 661.81 s
115
4.6 EXERCISE
1. In a vertical pipe carrying water, pressure gauges are inserted at points A and
B where the pipe diameters are 0.15m and 0.075m respectively. The point B is
2.5m below A. When the flow rate down the pipe is 0.02 m 3/s, the pressure at
B is 14715 N/m2 greater than that at A. Assuming the losses in the pipe
between A and B can be expressed as k( v 2 / 2g) where v is the velocity at A,
find the value of k. If the gauges at A and B are replaced by tubes filled with
water and connected to a U-tube containing mercury of relative density 13.6,
give a sketch showing how the levels in the two limbs of the U-tube differ and
calculate the value of this difference in meters.
2. A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3m and a throat diameter of

0.2m is used to measure the volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The
discharge coefficient of the meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific weight of the
gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m3, calculate the volume flowing when the
pressure difference between the entrance and the throat is measured as 0.06m
on a water U-tube manometer.
3. A Venturi meter is used for measuring flow of water in a pipe. The diameter of
the Venturi throat is two fifths the diameter of the pipe. The inlet and throat are
connected, by water-filled tubes, to a mercury U-tube manometer. The velocity
of flow along the pipe is found to be 2.5 h m/s, where h is the manometer
reading in meters of mercury. Determine the loss of head between inlet and
throat of the Venturi when H is 0.49m. (the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6).
4. Water is discharging from a tank through a convergent-divergent mouthpiece.

The exit from the tank is rounded so that losses there may be neglected and
the minimum diameter is 0.05m. The head in the tank above the mouthpiece
centerline is 1.83m.
a) What is the discharge?
b) What must be the diameter at the exit, if the absolute pressure at the
minimum area is to be 2.44m of water?
c) What would the discharge be if the divergent part of the mouthpiece were
removed? (Assume atmospheric pressure is 10m of water).
116
5. A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in one of its vertical sides. The
tank contains oil to a depth of 0.61m above the center of the orifice and the
pressure in the air space above the oil is maintained at 13780 Pa. Determine
the discharge from the orifice. (Coefficient of discharge of the orifice is 0.61,
the specific gravity of oil is 0.9).
6. The discharge coefficient of a Venturi meter was found to be constant for rates
of flow exceeding certain value. Show that, for this condition, the loss of head
due to friction in the convergent parts of the meter can be expressed as KQ 2
m. Where K is a constant and Q is the rate of flow in m 3/s. Obtain the value of
K if the inlet and throat diameter of the Venturi meter are 0.102m and 0.05m
respectively and the discharge coefficient is 0.96.
7. A Venturi meter is fitted in a horizontal pipe of 0.15m diameter to measure a

flow of water up to 240m3/hour. The pressure head at the inlet for this flow is
18m and the pressure head at the throat must not be lower -7m. Between the
inlet and the throat, there is an estimated frictional loss of 10% of the difference
in pressure head between these points. Calculate the minimum allowable
diameter for the throat.
8. A Venturi meter of throat diameter 0.076m is fitted in a 0.152m diameter vertical

pipe in which liquid of specific gravity 0.8 flows downwards. Pressure gauges
are fitted to the inlet and to the throat sections. The throat is at 0.914m below
the inlet. Taking the coefficient of discharge as 0.97 find the discharge:
a) when the pressure gauges read the same
b) when the inlet gauge reads 15170 Pa higher than the throat gauge.
9. Deduce an expression for the discharge of water over a right-angled sharp

edged V-notch, given that the coefficient of discharge is 0.61. A rectangular
tank 16m by 6m has the same notch in one of its short vertical sides. Determine
the time taken for the head, measured from the bottom of the notch, to fall from
15cm to 7.5cm.
10. Derive an expression for the discharge over a sharp edged rectangular weir. A
sharp edged weir is to be constructed across a stream in which the normal flow
is 200 liters/s. If the maximum flow likely to occur in the stream is 5 times the
normal flow, determine the width of weir necessary to limit the rise in water
level to 38.4cm above that for normal flow. Cd=0.61.
117
11. Show that the rate of flow across a triangular notch is Q  Cd K H5 2 m3/s, where
Cd is an experimental coefficient, K depends on the angle of the notch, and H
is the height of the undisturbed water level above the bottom of the notch in
meters. State the reasons for the introduction of the coefficient.
The water from a tank having a surface area of 10m2 flows over a 90o notch. It
is found that the time taken to lower the level from 8cm to 7cm above the bottom
of the notch is 43.5 seconds. Determine the coefficient Cd assuming that it
remains constant during this period.
12. A reservoir with vertical sides has a plan area of 56000m2. Discharge from the
reservoir takes place over a rectangular weir, the flow characteristic of which is
Q  1.77B H3 2 m3/s. At times of maximum rainfall, water flows into the reservoir
at the rate of 9m3/s. Find:
a) the width of weir required to discharge this quantity if head must not
exceed 0.6m.
b) the time necessary for the head to drop from 60 cm to 30 cm, if the inflow
is suddenly stopped.
13. Develop a formula for the discharge over a 90 o V-notch weir in terms of head
above the bottom of the notch. A channel conveys 300 liters/s of water. At the
outlet end there is a 90o V-notch weir for which the coefficient of discharge is
0.58. At what distance above the bottom of the channel should the weir be
placed in order to make the depth in the channel 1.30m? With the weir in this
position what is the depth of water in the channel when the flow is 200 liters/s?
14. A horizontal boiler shell (a horizontal cylinder) 2 m diameter and 10m long is
half-full of water. Find the time of emptying the shell through a short pipe, of
0.08 m diameter, attached to the bottom of the shell. Take the coefficient of
discharge to be 0.8.
118
15. The force exerted by a 25mm diameter jet against a flat plate normal to the
axis of the jet is 650N. What is the flow rate in m3/s?
16. A reservoir of circular cross-section has sides sloping at an angle of tan 1 (1/ 5)
to the horizontal. When the reservoir is full, the diameter of the water surface
is 50m. Discharge from the reservoir takes place through a pipe of diameter
0.65m, the outlet being 4m below top water level. Determine the time for the
 
water level to fall 2 m assuming the discharge to be 0.75 a 2gh , where a is
the cross sectional area of the pipe in m2 and H is the head of water above the
outlet in m.
17. A vertical cylindrical tank 2m diameter has, at the bottom, a 5mm diameter
sharp edged orifice for which the discharge coefficient is 0.6.
a) If water enters the tank at a constant rate of 0.0095 m 3/s find the depth of
water above the orifice when the level in the tank becomes stable.
b) Find the time for the level to fall from 3m to 1m above the orifice when the
inflow is turned off.
c) If water now flows into the tank at 0.02 m3/s, the orifice remains open, find
the rate of rise in water level when the level has reached a depth of 1.7m
above the orifice.
119
18. Two upright cylinders contain liquid are connected by a submerged orifice. The
diameters of the cylinders are 1.75m and 1.0m and of the orifice, 0.08m. The
difference in levels of the liquid is initially 1.35m. Find how long it will take this
difference to be reduced to 0.66 m, if the coefficient of discharge for the orifice
is 0.605. (Start from first principles.)
19. A rectangular reservoir with vertical walls has a plan area of 60000m 2.
Discharge from the reservoir take place over a rectangular weir. The flow
characteristics of the weir is Q = 0.678 H3/2 m3/s, where H is the depth of water
above the weir crest. The sill of the weir is 3.4m above the bottom of the
reservoir. Starting with a depth of water of 4m in the reservoir and no inflow,
what will be the depth of water after one hour?
120
STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE
5 REAL FLOW
IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
For incompressible real (viscous) flow; the following basic concepts should be
considered:
 Viscous forces (shear forces) are not negligible,
 There is no slip between fluid and boundaries (no-slip assumption).
These concepts result in non-uniform velocity distribution near the flow boundaries.
The boundary layer, firstly defined by Prandtl at 1904, is defined as the fluid layer near
the boundary at which the velocity gradient  0 , Fig. 5.1.
Fig.5.1 Boundary layer (BL)
The main shear stress exists inside the boundary layer (B.L) due to existence of
velocity gradient.
5.2. REAL FLOW IN CONDUITS
Hydraulic conduits are used to transmit fluids in hydraulic systems. Generally, these
conduits are either rigid tubing (pipes) or flexible (hoses). Regardless to their simple
design, the hydraulic conduits have an important effect on the steady state and
transient behavior of the system. The transmission lines affect the system performance
due to:
(a) hydraulic friction losses in pipes. (energy losses due to shear effect);
(b) hydraulic local, or secondary losses, (energy losses due to vortices)
(c) hydraulic capacitance of line, due to the effect of oil compressibility and
elasticity of pipe wall material;
(d) hydraulic inertia of line due to the effect of oil inertia;.
121
In conduit flow, and due to boundary layer, the velocity distribution across the conduit
is not uniform. The flow velocity is usually assumed to enter the conduit uniformly. The
length at which the B.L. is established, fully developed, is known as the entrance length
(Le), (Fig. 5.2).
Fig.5.2 Entrance length for flow in a pipe
At lengths greater than the entrance length L e, the flow velocity reaches its final form
and the flow becomes fully developed.
5.3. HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES
For real flow in conduits, hydraulic losses (energy losses) occur due to both shear
forces and vortices. In this case Bernoulli’s equation, for a stream flow between two
points 1 & 2, will be modified by adding the hydraulic losses term h L12;
p1 v2 p v2
 1  z1  2  2  z 2  hL12 (5.1)
g 2g g 2g
Equation 5.1 is known as the energy equation. The hydraulic losses hL12 between the
two points 1 &2 are due to:
 friction losses hLF, due to friction along the conduit
 local losses hLL(secondary or minor losses),
5.4. FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPELINES
The pressure losses in the pipelines are mainly due to the following:
 Hydraulic friction between fluid layers and boundaries (dynamic viscosity
effect),
 Momentum exchange between fluid layers (eddy viscosity effect),
 Vortex effect (geometry and surface roughness effect)
122
The pressure losses would be expressed in terms of the following parameters.
 Pipe geometry (length L, diameter D, shape and surface roughness ),

 Fluid properties (viscosity  and density ),
 Flow properties (velocity v and Reynolds number, Re = Dv/, which
measures the ratio inertia/shear forces].
The friction losses in a pipeline can be calculated by the following equation; called
Darcy equation.
L v2 L v 2
hLF  Or pLF  ghLF   (5.2)
D 2g D 2
where D= Pipe diameter (m)

hLF = Hydraulic friction losses, (m)
L= Pipe length (m)
ΔpLF= Pressure losses, Pa
= Friction loss coefficient, depends on Re and surface roughness.
v= Fluid velocity, m/s
5.4.1. Laminar Flow in Pipelines
Fig.5.3 Cylindrical fluid element moving at

Fig.5.4 Shear stress distribution
the pipe center
The friction losses are mainly due to the shear stress, resulting from the viscosity effect.
In general, it is difficult to measure the shear stress distribution  . For laminar flow it is
possible to derive mathematical expressions for the shear force, velocity distribution
and friction loss coefficient  .
In the case of steady laminar flow, the flow is looked at as laminates sliding relative to
each other. In pipes, laminar flow can considered as a series of concentric cylinders
sliding over each other, like the cylinders of a collapsible pocket telescope. Consider a
123
cylindrical fluid element of length dx, radius r, flowing steadily in the center of a pipe,
Fig.5.3. The forces acting on the fluid element are in equilibrium, so the shearing forces
on the cylinder are equal to the pressure forces.
2rdx   dpA  dpr 2 (5.3)

Or:
1 dp
 r (5.4)
2 dx
The term (dp/dx) is the pressure gradient along the pipe. It varies from point to point
along the x-axis. However, for steady laminar flow, it does not change across the pipe.
Meanwhile, the shear stress (  ) is linearly dependent on the radial distance r, Fig.5.4.
Fig. 5.5 Velocity distribution across the pipe
An expression for the velocity distribution can be deduced as follows:
du
 (5.5)
dy
y  Rr (5.6)
Then:
du du du
 and    (5.7)
dy dr dr
1 dp du
 r   (5.8)
2 dx dr
Or:
du 1 dp
 r (5.9)
dr 2 dx
124
By integration, the following expression for the velocity (u) at a point of distance r from
the center is obtained.
1 dp 1 dp 2
u
2 dx  r dr  
4 dx
r c (5.10)
At the center of the pipe, r = 0, u = umax, while, at the pipe wall, r = R, u = 0. The
integration constant c is then
1 dp 2
c R (5.11)
4 dx
Then, for laminar flow, the velocity at a point at distance r from the pipe center is:
u
4 dx

1 dp 2 2
R r  (5.12)
The maximum velocity is at the pipe axis, r=0;
1 dp 2 1 dp 2
umax  R  D (5.13)
4 dx 16 dx
Note that the velocity distribution is parabolic (of the form y = ax2 + b), Eq.5.12. Figure
5.5 shows this velocity distribution.
The flow rate in pipe is calculated as follows:
dQ  u dA  u 2rdr  
2 dx

 dp 2 2

R  r r dr (5.14)
For a pipe of length L, the pressure gradient can be written as:
dp p
 (5.15)
dx L
then
p  R 4 R 4 
Q
p R 2 2
2L 0
 
R  r r dr  
2L  2
 
4 
(5.16)
Or:
p 4 p 4
Q R  D (5.17)
8L 128L
125
For a pipeline of length L, the pressure difference p is:
128  L
p  QRQ (5.18)
 D4
The term R expresses the resistance of hydraulic transmission line, and equation 5.18
is the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in a pipes. It shows that the pressure
loss is directly proportional to the flow rate. This equation is applied only for laminar
flow.
The mean velocity u is:

4 
u Q , or Q  D 2 u (5.19)
D 2
4
Then:
32 L 64 L u2
p  u  (5.20)
D2 uD /  D 2
Since:
L u2 uD  uD
p   and Re   (5.21)
D 2  
then:
64
 = friction coefficient. (5.22)
Re
In the case of laminar flow, the mean fluid velocity u in a circular pipe is:
Q p 2
u  D  0.5 umax (5.23)
D / 4 32L
2
Thus, in the case of laminar flow in pipe, the flow has the following properties:
 The shear stress is linearly function of radius r,
 The velocity distribution is parabolic,
 The velocity is maximum of pipe axis and zero in the vicinity of pipe wall,
 The average, mean, velocity is half of the maximum value.
In turbulent flow, the local liquid velocity and pressure fluctuate irregularly, in random
manner. The type of flow (laminar or turbulent) is determined by calculating Reynolds
number Re.
uD  uD
Re   (5.24)
 
126
where u = Mean fluid velocity = 4Q /  D 2 , m/s
The transition from the laminar flow into the turbulent one takes place at a critical value
of Reynolds number. However, flow is assumed turbulent for Re > 2300. The
uncertainty of the critical value is because even minute disturbance effects, such as
noise of pump, can easily destabilize the processes near their stability limits.
Example 5.1 The distribution of velocity, u (in m/s) with radius r (in meters) in a smooth
tube of 0.025 m diameter follows the equation, u  2.5  k r 2 , where k is
a constant. The flow is laminar and the velocity at the pipe surface is
zero. The fluid has a coefficient of viscosity of 0.00027 Pa s. Calculate
the flow rate (in m3/s) and the shearing force between the fluid and pipe
wall per unit length.
The value of k can be found from the boundary conditions, where, at

r = 0.0125, u = 0.
Then 0.0 = 2.5 – 0.01252 k or k = 16000

and u = 2.5 - 16000 r2.
The flow dQ through a small annulus (dr) can be calculated as follows;
dQ  2r dr u(r )  2(2.5  16000r 2 ) r dr

0.0125
Q  2  (2.5 r  16000r 3 ) dr
0
0.0125
 2.5 r 2 16000r 4 
 2     6.14  10  4 m 3 / s
 2 4 0
Or umax= 2.5 m/s and um=1.25 m/s
Q   R2um  6.14  104 m3 / s
du
The shear force per unit length is given by F  2 r   2 r 
dr
du
 32000r
dr
3
Or F  2  0.0125  0.00027 ( 32000 0.0125)   8.48  10 N
Example 5.2 A liquid, of coefficient of viscosity μ, flows below the critical velocity for
laminar flow in a circular pipe of diameter d and with mean velocity u.
Show that the pressure loss per unit length of pipe is 32μu/d 2.
Oil of viscosity 0.05 kg/ms flows through a pipe of diameter 0.1 m with a
velocity of 0.6 m/s. Calculate the loss of pressure in a length of 120 m.
127
Referring to Eq.5.20, the pressure losses per unit length is:

p 32  u

L d2
The pressure losses, for the 120m length pipe are calculated by direct
substitution in Eq. 5.20.
32  u L 32  0.05  0.6  120

p    11.520kPa
d2 0.12
5.4.2 Flow between two parallel plates
The flow between two parallel surfaces widely exists in bearings and hydraulic system
clearances. Following the same procedure as laminar flow in pipes, the following
results can be obtained assuming:
 2-D problem in x,y coordinate, Fig.5.6(a),
 The plates are too near to each other,
 The plates are of infinite width and the flow rate is calculated for unit width,
 The x-axis is located at the mid plane between the two plates,
 The inlet and outlet losses are negligible and the flow is assumed fully
developed everywhere between the two fixed plates.
Considering a fluid element moving by constant velocity at mid-distance between the

two plates, the element is subjected to pressure forces and friction forces, which are
in equilibrium. The equilibrium of the forces per unit width of the element yields:
dp
2ydp  2dx or   y( ) (5.25)
dx
The following expression for the velocity distribution can be systematically deduced by
substituting Eq. 5.5 in Eq. 5.25, integrating and considering the boundary conditions;
u=0 at y=c/2.
128
Fig. 5.6(a) Fluid flow between two fixed parallel plates
dp du 1 dp
y  or du  ydy (5.26)
dx dy  dx
1 dp 2 c 2
u (y  ) (5.27)
2 dx 4
The flow rate per unit width q is:

c/2 c 3 dp
q 
c / 2
ydy  
12 dx
(5.28)
The negative sign indicated that the direction of flow is determined by the sign of
(dp/dx). For negative (dp/dx) the pressure at the left side is greater and the flow is
positive, to the right. If the pressure gradient (dp/dx) is constant then the following
expressions for the net flow rate Q between the two parallel plates is:
dp p wc 3
 and Q  wq  p (5.29)
dx L 12L
The maximum velocity is at the mid-distance between the two plates, y=0, then:
c 2 dp c2
umax   and its magnitude is umax   p (5.30)
8 dx 8L
c2 2
um  p  umax (5.31)
12L 3
129
where c= clearance between the plates, m

L= Length of leakage path, m
q= Flow rate per unit width, m3/s
Q= Total flow rate between the plates, m3/s
u= Axial oil speed in the clearance, m/s
w= Plates width, m
Δp = Pressure difference across the radial clearance, Pa
5.4.3 INTERNAL LEAKAGE IN HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS
The internal leakage in hydraulic elements is one of the problems resulting from the
operation at high-pressure levels and the increased clearances due to wear.
Figure 5.6(b) shows the internal leakage through a radial clearance between two
concentric cylindrical bodies, a spool and sleeve for example. The flow is identical to
the flow between two parallel plates of width (W=πD), where D is the diameter of
cylindrical surface;
Dc 3
Q p (5.32)
12L
Fig.5.6(b) Leakage fluid flow through a radial clearance
It is important to note that the leakage is inversely proportional to the viscosity μ, and
directly proportional to the cube of radial clearance. If the radial clearance is doubled,
due to wear, the internal leakage increases eight times.
Example 5.11 Shown is a part of spool valve; if the

pressures in lines P and T are 250 and 0
bars respectively, calculate the leakage flow
rate. Check if the leakage flow is laminar.
Given: D =10 mm, c =10 μm, L1= 12 mm,
μ = 0.01 kg/ms and ρ = 900 kg/m3.
130
Dc3   0.01 (1e  5)3

QL  p   250  105  5.454  10 7 m3 / s
12L 12  0.01 0.012
Hydraulic Diameter: (see equation 5.34).
4  passage area 4  Dc
Dh    2c  2  10 5 m
Wet perimeter 2D
QL 5.454  10 7
v   1.736 m / s
Dc   0.01 10 5
vD h 900  1.736  2  10 5
Re    3.125 ,
 0.01
The leakage flow is laminar.
5.4.4. Friction Losses due to Turbulent Flow in Pipelines
The friction loss coefficient () can be determined experimentally or analytically. It

depends mainly on the Reynolds number (Re) and the relative roughness (/D:
 = f(Re, /D) (5.33)
In the case of turbulent flow, the loss coefficient () is given by experimental charts or
by empirical relations. It can’t be determined analytically. Figure 5.7 shows the
variation of the friction loss coefficient () with the relative surface roughness and
Reynolds number for different working zones. It is known as the Moody diagram.
Noncircular Ducts
Noncircular ducts are commonly used in heating, ventilating and air conditioning
systems due to ease of manufacture, assembly and fitting to construction space in
walls and ceilings. Designers determine the pressure drop in noncircular ducts by using
the hydraulic diameter Dh, defined as:
4  wetted Area
Dh  (5.34)
Wetted perimeter
The Reynolds number is calculated based on the hydraulic diameter D h and the mean
flow velocity.
Empirical Formulae for the friction coefficient for turbulent Flow
The pressure drop in a pipe is would be calculated if the pipe dimensions, the mean
fluid velocity and the friction coefficients λ are known. For turbulent flow, the random
131
motions close to the wall are strongly damped. The turbulent pipe flow becomes
laminar in the vicinity of the pipe wall; within what is called the laminar sub-layer. This
layer is responsible for the slight dependence of λ on the fluid viscosity and
consequently on the Reynolds number. Few pipes have very smooth walls (such that
the thickness of boundary sub layer is greater than the surface roughness), and their
friction coefficient is either obtained from the Moody’s diagram, Fig.5.7, or calculated
using the following empirical relations.
 0.3164
 2300 < Re < 105
 4
Re (5.35)
0.0053  0.394 Re0.3 105 < Re < 0.2  106

In rough pipes, the surface roughness distorts the laminar sub-layer and generates
additional turbulence. The turbulent flow in a rough-wall pipe has a higher friction factor
than flow in smooth-wall pipe at the same Reynolds number. The friction coefficient
was evaluated experimentally using pipes, lined with sand-paper-like roughness of
physical height ε, known as the sand roughness. Colebrook and White (1939)
published the empirical relation, Eq.5.36, relating the Reynolds number Re and the
ratio ε/D.
1   /D 2.51 
 2 log   (5.36)
  3 .7 Re  
This formula agrees with the Moody diagram with good precision for the whole range
of Reynolds number and surface roughness. But, this formula requires iteration
process, therefore it is preferred whenever the iteration process is acceptable.
Table 5.1 gives the different formulae used to calculate the friction coefficients for the
whole range of Reynolds number and relative surface roughness. The equivalent wall
roughness ε for commercial pipes has been determined from flow tests. The average
values of surface roughness of pipes produced from different materials are listed in
Table 5.2.
132
Fig.5.7. Moody's diagram
133
Table 5.1 Formulae used to calculate the friction coefficient
Hagen-
64
Laminar flow  Re<2300 Poissell's low,
Re
1856
0.3164 Blasiu's law,
 2300<Re<105
4
Turbulent flow, Re 1915
smooth pipe Herman's law,
  0.0053  0.394Re
0.3
105<Re<0.2x106
1930
For the whole
1   /D 2.51  Colebrook and
Turbulent flow,  2 log   range of
  3 .7 Re   White (1939)
rough pipe turbulent flow
Use Moody Diagram, Fig.5.17
Table 5.2 Average surface roughness of pipes produced from different materials
Material Surface roughness ε Material Surface roughness ε

Concrete 0.3 to 3 mm Commercial steel 5x10-5 m
Cast iron 0.3 mm Drawn tubing 1.5x10-6 m
Galvanized iron 0.15 mm Glass–Plastic 0
5.5 LOCAL LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS
The local losses in hydraulic systems are due to local vortices created by steep
variation of magnitude or direction of fluid velocity. The local hydraulic (pressure)
losses can be calculated by the following formula:
v2 v 2
h LL  or p LL  (5.37)
2g 2
where hLL = Hydraulic local loss head, (m)

 = Local loss coefficient depends mainly on the flow geometry.
In laminar flow, the local disturbances are usually insignificant as compared with the
friction losses. In the case of turbulent flow, the local loss coefficient is determined by
the geometry of the local feature. It changes very little with the Reynolds number. Table
5.3 gives the values of the local loss coefficient for typical local loss elements and the
following are some of the local features existing in the hydraulic systems.
1- Channel expansion, gradual or abrupt.
2- Channel contraction, gradual or abrupt.
3- Channel bend, smooth or sharp (elbow).
134
4- Branching junctions.
5- Control valves, fittings, filters, ….
Table 5.3 Local loss coefficient for typical local loss elements
Local feature ξ Local feature ξ

Flexible pipe
1. 0.3 4. Pipe sudden inlet 0.5
connection
2. Standard 90o elbow 1.2-1.3 5. Pipe sudden outlet 1
3. Tee junction 3.5 6. Screen filter 1.5-2.5
Local loss coefficient for sudden expansion
Sudden expansion, Fig.5.8, is one of the basic

configurations of local losses in conduits. The
energy equation, momentum equation and the
continuity equation are applied to derive an
expression for the local loss coefficient for sudden
expansion from area A1 to area A2.
Fig.5.8 Sudden Expansion
Energy equation between points 1 & 2 is:
p1 v2 p v2
 1  z1  2  2  z 2  hL12 (5.38)
g 2g g 2g
Since z1=z2, then:

p1 v2 p v2
 1  2  2  hL12 (5.39)
g 2g g 2g
or
p1  p 2 v 2  v 22
hL12   1 (5.40)
g 2g
The application of continuity equation between points 1 & 2 yields:

1A 1v1   2 A 2 v 2  m (5.41)
For incompressible fluid:

A 1v 1  A 2 v 2 (5.42)
135
Then:
A1  A 2v 2 / v1 (5.43)
In addition, the application of momentum equation over the control volume shown by
Fig.5.8 yields:

(p1  p 2 )A 2  m( v 1  v 2 ) (5.44)
The treatment of Eqs.5.42 thru 5.44 gives:
(p1  p 2 )A 2  A 1v 12  A 2 v 22 (5.45)
(p1  p2 )  v 2 v1  v 22 (5.46)
Subtitling in energy equation Eq.5.40 gives:
hL12  ( v 12  2v 1v 2  v 22 ) / 2g (5.47)
2
( v  v 2 ) 2 v 12  A  v2
hL12  1  1  1    1 (5.48)
2g 2g  A 2  2g
Then, the local loss coefficient is:

2
 A 
  1  1  (5.49)
 A2 
If A2 is too high compared with A1, such as the tank inlet, the coefficient  =1.
Local loss coefficient for sudden contraction
In sudden contraction, the flow is

initially contracted to a diameter Dc
(known as Vena contraction) < D2, and
then expands to D2. Usually, the
losses (and vortices) occur due to this
expansion. The local losses can be
Fig.5.9 Sudden contraction
written (similar to sudden expansion)
as follows:
136
2
v 2 D 
hL12  2,   f  2 
 (5.50)
2g  D1 
The values of ξ are given In table 5.4.
Table 5.3 Local loss coefficient for sudden contraction pipe
D2 / D1 2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
ξ 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
5.6. APPLICATIONS ON HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PIPES
5.6.1 Head Loss for a Given Flow Rate
Given the volumetric flow rate Q through a given pipe, calculate the head loss and
pressure drop in the pipe.
Calculation procedures:
 Calculate the Reynolds number Re  vD /   4Q / D .
 Depending upon whether the Reynolds number is greater or less than 2300,
calculate λ from the turbulent or laminar form of equation.
 Using this value of λ, calculate the head loss and pressure drop.
Example 5.3 A steel pipe of diameter D=0.1524 m carries water at a volume flow rate
of 0.1262 m3/s. (The surface roughness ε = 5x10-5 and the kinematic
viscosity of water at this temperature is 1 cSt).
(a) Is the flow turbulent?
(b) Calculate the pressure drop in a length L=1.0 km
(c) Calculate the power losses in pipeline.
(d) Recalculate this problem for smooth pipe.
(a) Calculation of the velocity v and Reynolds number:
4Q 4  0.1262
v   6.918 m / s
D 2
  0.15242
vD 6.918  0.1524
Re    1.054  10 6 , the flow is turbulent.
 1 10 6
(b) By substituting in Colebrook formula then iterating:
137
1  5  10 5 / 0.1524 2.51 
 2 log  
  3 . 71 1 . 054  10 6
 
Or by using Moody diagram; λ = 0.01588.
L v 2 1000 1000x 6.9182

p    0.01588  2.493x10 6 Pa
D 2 0.1524 2
(c) Power losses N  Q p  0.1262x2.493x106  314.5x103 W
(d) For smooth pipe;   0.01, p  1.55  106 Pa & N  195.7 kW
Example 5.4 A 203.2 mm diameter steel pipe carries water from a storage tank outlet
(elevation 100 m) to a town water distribution system (elevation 22 m) at
a distance L=2 km from the storage tank. If the flow rate is 0.06303 m3/s.
Calculate the friction loss coefficient, the head loss and the static
pressure change between the pipe inlet and outlet, (The surface roughness
ε = 5x10-5 and the kinematic viscosity of water at this temperature is 1 cSt).
Neglect the local losses.
First, calculate v and Re.
4Q 4  0.06303
v   1.944 m / s
D 2   0.20322
v D 1.944  0.2032
Re    3.95  10 5
 1 10 6
5
The flow is turbulent since Re exceeds 2300. Selecting   5  10 m , the
friction coefficient can be calculated as follows:
1  5  10 5 / 0.2032 2.51 
 2 log  
  3.71 3.95  10  
5
Then, by iteration or by using Moody diagram, λ = 0.01616.
The head loss coefficient is defined as: K f   L / D .
138
2000
K f  0.01616x  0.0159
0.2032
L v 2

p f D 2 K v .
2
The head loss is defined as: h f  
g g
f
2g
1.9442
h f  0.0159  30.64 m
2  9.807
The static pressure difference is calculated by using energy equation

(Bernoulli equation).
p1 v 12 p 2 v 22
  z1    z 2  h f
g 2g g 2g
The velocity v1=v2, then:
p1  p 2  h f  ( z1  z 2 )g  30.64  (100  22) 1000  9.807

 4.645  105 Pa
Note that there is a static pressure increase, (p2>p1), despite the head
losses because the exit is at sufficiently lower elevation, that (z1-z2)
exceeds Δhf.
5.6.2 Flow Rate for a Given Head Loss
For a given pressure drop in a pipe, it is required to calculate the corresponding flow
rate. The procedure for calculating the flow rate Q given the pressure drop or the head
loss Δhf available to overcome the hydraulic losses depends upon whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
 Start by assuming that the flow is laminar, an expression for the average
velocity v in terms of known quantities will be derived as follows.
64 vD p f L v2
 , Re  and h f   (5.51)
Re  g D 2g
Or:
gD 2
v h f (5.52)
32L
and,
 2
Q D v (5.53)
4
139
Then:
gD 4 D 4
Q h f  p f (5.54)
128L 128L
 Then verify if the flow is actually laminar, by calculating Re. If the flow is
turbulent; Re > 2300, proceed as follows to deduce an expression for the average
velocity and flow rate.
a) Referring to table 5.1, for smooth pipe and Reynolds number ;
  0.3164 / Re0.25 for 2300 < Re < 105 (5.55)
0.25
L v 2  vD  L v 2
p    0.3164  (5.56)
D 2    D 2
1 / 1.75
 D1.25 
v   p  (5.57)
 0.1582   L 
0.25 0.75
b) For smooth or rough pipe and for the whole range of turbulent flow, Colebrook
formula is used.
1   /D 2.51  vD p f L v2
 2 log   , Re  and h f  
  3.7 Re    g D 2g
2gDh f   /D L 2 
Then v  2 log  2.51  (5.58)
L  3.707 2gD3 h f 
 
The friction coefficient can be initially determined from the Moody’s diagram,
followed by an iteration process.
Example 5.5 For the pipe flow system of example 5.4, calculate the volume flow rate
Q when the static pressure drop (p1-p2) is zero.
p1 v 12 p v2
  z 1  2  2  z 2  h f
g 2g g 2g
p1=p2 and v1=v2
Then Δhf = z1 –z2 =100-22=78 m
140
D = 0.2032 m, L = 2000m, ε = 5x10-5 m,  =10-6 m2/s
2gDh f   /D L 2 
v  2 log  2.51  =3.162 m/s
L  3.707 2 gD 3
h 
 f 
vD
Re  = 6.42x105, the flow is turbulent.


Q  D 2 v = 0.1025 m3/s
4
5.6.3 Selecting a Pipe Diameter
Given the maximum flow rate and the maximum allowable pressure drop in a pipe,
calculate pipe diameter that will allow this flow without exceeding the limiting pressure
drop.
Pipes are manufactured in standard thicknesses and diameters. For a given pipe
diameter, a thicker pipe will withstand higher pressure. The cost per unit length of pipe
will increase in proportional to the pipe diameter and thickness. The designer will
choose the smallest diameter that will meet the flow requirements and the lowest wall
thickness which will withstand the highest operating pressure, to minimize the cost of
the piping.
Example 5.6 A factory is to be supplied with city water from a large main of
6.895x105 Pa gauge pressure. A horizontal pipeline 100 m long,
connecting the city main with the factory, must supply a maximum of
0.1261 m3/s of water for firefighting process with zero gauge pressure
at the end of the pipe. Commercial steel pipe of even diameters in
inches is available (2, 4, 6 inches; 1 inch = 25.4 mm). What is the
minimum diameter pipe that meets these requirements? (water
kinematic viscosity is 1 cSt.)
Start by choosing 4 inch pipe to be used.

D = 4 in = 0.1016 m
4Q 4  0.1261
v   15.55 m / s
D 2
  0.10162
vD 15.55  0.1016
Re    1.58  10 6 , the flow is turbulent.
 10 6
Choosing ε = 50 μm, the friction coefficient can be calculated by

iterative process as follows;
1   /D 2.51 
 2 log  
  3.7 Re  
141
1  5  10 5 / 0.1016 2.51 
 2 log  
  3 . 707 1 . 58  10 6
  
Or λ=0.01697
L v 2 100 1000x15.55 2
p f    0.01697  2.019x10 6 Pa
D 2 0.1016 2
The pressure losses ( 2.019x106 Pa ) is greater than the allowable

losses (6.895x105 Pa). Then try the next size, 6 in, to calculate v=6.913
m/s, Re=1.053x106, λ=0.0153 and Δpf = 2.5x105 Pa. This pressure loss
is smaller than the allowable head, so that 6 in diameter pipe is
acceptable. If this size does not give satisfactory results, repeat the
calculation, using the larger pipe size.
5.6.4 Total Head Loss
For flow through a pipe or duct, the total head loss ΔHT will be the sum of the loss ΔHf
due to wall friction plus the local losses due to the pipe entrance and exit and losses
due to the valves and fittings ΔHL, Fig.5.10. For any pipe or duct section of length L i,
hydraulic diameter Dh and mean velocity v, the total head loss (ΔHT)i would then be:
 L  v 2 
( HT )i   i i   ( j )i  i  (5.59)
 Di j  2g 
Where (  j )i is the local loss coefficient for each loss element j in the pipe i. The
pressure drop is given by:
( p T )i  g( H T )i (5.60)
Example 5.7 A heat collecting circuit for a solar panel consists of a 1cm diameter
drawn copper tube of length L=22 m. The water flow in the circuit
Q = 4 Lit/min, is supplied from a header of much larger diameter than the
tube and collected by another header of equal size. Assuming that the
local loss coefficient of the 180o turns is 1. Calculate the total pressure
loss head between the supply and collector headers. (Assume   1 cSt.
).
Q = 6.667x10-5 m3/s
D 2 
A   0.012  7.854  10 5 m 2
4 4
142
v=Q/A=0.8489 m/s
vD 0.8489  0.01
Re    8489
 10 6
The flow is turbulent, choosing ε=10-6 m, the friction coefficient is
calculated as follows.
1  10 6 / 0.01 2.51 
 2 log  
  3 . 7 8489   
λ = 0.032 (calculated by iteration or by using Moody diagram)
L 22
K f    0.03205   70.52
D 0.01
The total loss coefficient for 10 turns sum to 10, while the inlet and exit
loss coefficients add an additional 1.5 for a total loss coefficient of 11.5.
The total head loss ΔHT becomes:
 L v
2
0.84892
HT      K   70.53  11 .5   3.01 m
 D  2g 2g
5.6.5 Fluid Pumping
The centrifugal pumps, air ventilating fans and air compressors usually operate at a
fixed speed, providing the head-flow rate (H-Q) relation shown in Fig. 5.11. The
pipeline characteristics are given by the following expression:
Hpipe =z +  hL (5.61)


Fig.5.10 Pipeline characteristics
The working point of the pump-pipeline system is the intersection between their
characteristics lines. The ideal power delivered to the fluid stream passing through a
pump or fan is the product (ρg Q Hp or QΔpP). The power required to turn the pump is
larger than this by the factor (1/ηP), where ηP is the pump efficiency; (ηP ≤ 1).
Figure 5.11 shows a pump HP versus Q curve and a corresponding HT versus Q curve
for the head loss in a piping system supplied by the pump. The flow rate through the
143
system will be that at which these two curves intersect. The line HT(Q) is shifted
vertically depending on the static head Δz.
Figure 5.11 Head versus flow rate curves for a pump and piping system
Example 5.8 A pump delivers water to an elevated building tank whose surface is 80 m
above the reservoir. The commercial steel pipe, 150 m length, is 6 in
(152.4 mm) in diameter. Calculate the flow rate through the system if the
pumping head HP is related to the flow rate Q by the following relation.
  Q 2 
Hp  150  1      150  10.47 Q
2
  3.785  
The pump head must supply the pipeline with fluid of pressure head
HL=80+Δhf. The loss head Δhf is:
L v2 1500 v2
h f   
D 2g 0.1524 2  9.807
1  10 6 / 0.1524 2.51 
Where  2 log  
  3.707 Re  
144
The pumping head Hp should equal the required line head HL (for working
point)
  Q 2 
Hp  150  1      80  hf
  3.785  
 
Q  D 2 v  0.15242 v
4 4
Re  vD / 
The solution of these equations yields:
λ=0.0173, v=1.816 m/s, Re= 2.77x105 and Q=0.0331 m3/s
5.6.6 Complex Networks
Pipes or ducts without branches or divisions of the flow are discussed in the preceding
sections. But, many piping systems, such as those that deliver potable water to homes
and offices in towns, contain pipes of different sizes and lengths connected to each
other in a network. Pipes are connected in series or in parallel.
Fig.5.13 Two different pipes arranged (a) in series and (b) in parallel.
As a starting point, consider two pipes, A and B, arranged in series as in Fig.5.13. The
volume flow rate Q is the same in each pipe, i.e., Q=QA=QB. If Q is known, then the
head losses ΔHA and ΔHB may be separately calculated and added together to obtain
the overall head loss. On the other hand, if the overall head loss ΔH f is known and if
the volume flow rate Q is desired, an iterative solution is needed.
Example 5.9 Two garden hoses of 15.24 m length each, one 19.05 mm in diameter
(A) and the other 12.7 mm in diameter (B), are attached in series to a
water tank pressurized to 276 kPa. Calculate the flow rate through the
hoses, which discharge to atmosphere at the same level as the tank.
(Assume ε=0 and neglect the local losses).
The following are the equations describing the system operating point:
145
p 276000
h    28.143 m
g 1000  9.807
1  Re  
 2 log 1 1 
1  2.51 
 
v 1D1 0.01905
Re1   v1
 10 6
Q  A 1v 1  A 2 v 2
L1 v 12 15.24
h f1  1   1v 1
D1 2g 0.01905 2  9,807
 2
A1  D1  2.8502  10 4 m 2
4
1  Re 2  2 
 2 log 
2  2.51 
 
v 2D 2 0.0127
Re2   v2
 10 6
L v2 15.24
hf 2  2 2 2  2v 2
D 2 2g 0.0127  2  9,807
 2
A2  D 2  1.2668  10  4 m 2
4
h  h f 1  h f 2

h = 28.14 m v1 = 1.976 m/s
Re1 = 37644 v2 = 4.446 m/s
Re2 = 56466 hf1 = 3.54 m
λ1 = 0.0223 hf2 = 24.6 m
λ2 = 0.0203 Q= 5.6323x10-4 m3/s
Example 5.10: Solve example 5.7, if the two hoses are connected in parallel.
The following are the equations describing the system operating point:
p 276000
h    28.143 m
g 1000  9.807
1  Re  
 2 log 1 1 
1  2.51 
 
v 1D1 0.01905
Re1   v1
 10 6
146
Q 1  A 1v 1
L1 v12 15.24
h  1  1v1  28.143,
D1 2g 0.01905  2  9,807
 2
A1  D1  2.8502  10 4 m 2
4
1  Re 2  2 
 2 log 
2  2.51 
 
v 2D 2 0.0127
Re2   v2
 10 6
Q2  A 2v 2
L2 v 22 15.24
h  2   2v 2  28.143,
D2 2g 0.0127  2  9,807
 2
A2  D 2  1.2668  10  4 m 2
4
Q  Q1  Q 2
h = 28.14 m v1 = 6.312 m/s
Re1 = 120252 v2 = 4.796 m/s
Re2 = 60906 Q1 = 1.8 x10-3 m3/s
λ1 = 0.0173 Q2 = 6.07 x10-4 m3/s
λ2 = 0.02 Q= 2.407 x10-3 m3/s
5.7 EXERCISE
1. Derive an expression for the velocity distribution in laminar flow between two
parallel plates, neglecting the edge effect.
2. The distribution of velocity, u, in m/s with radius r in meters in a smooth bore

tube of 0.02 m bore follows the law, u = 2 – k r2. Where k is a constant. The flow
is laminar and the velocity at the pipe surface is zero. The fluid has a coefficient
of viscosity of 0.022 kg/m s. Determine (a) the rate of flow in m 3/s (b) the
shearing force between the fluid and the pipe wall per meter length of pipe.
3. A pipeline of diameter 0.5 m carries oil of density 708 kg/m3. At one point the
measured pressure is 137 kPa. At a second point at an elevation 249 m lower
and 1000 m further along the pipe, the measured pressure is 154 kPa. What are
the wall shear losses of the flowing fluid?
147
4. For the conditions of previous problem, assume that the Reynolds number is
1,862. Find the viscosity of the fluid and the maximum and average velocities in
the pipeline.
5. Glycerin at a temperature of 20oC (at this temperature the viscosity is 1.491 Pa-
s) is pumped through a 4 cm diameter pipe at the rate of 0.004 m3/s. What is
the pressure drop in 100 m of pipe?
6. Find an expression for the maximum flow rate in pipe if the flow is laminar and
calculate the flow rate given: L=5m, D=1 cm, µ 0.02 kg/ms and ρ= 920 kg/m3.
7. What diameter of smooth pipe will carry 4 m3/s of water with a pressure gradient
of 0.03 (i.e., a pressure drop of 3 m in each 100 m of pipe)?
8. A pipe of 0.3 m diameter has a head loss of 3.32 m in a length of 100 m while
carrying a flow of 0.22 m3/s of water. What is the pipe roughness?
9. If the pipe of previous problem is to be replaced by a new, smooth pipe that

carries the same flow at the same head loss, what is the required diameter?
10. Calculate the radial clearance leakage in the

given spool valve, given:
D =12 mm, c =7 μm, L1= 20 mm,
μ = 0.018 kg/ms, PP=21 MPa,
PT=0
11. Neglecting the local losses, calculate the pressure losses in the given pipe line,
given: Flow rate Q=10 Lit/min, Oil density ρ=850 kg/m 3, L1= L2= 20 m, D1=13
mm D2= 8 mm, Fluid kinematic viscosity  = 20 cSt.
12. Calculate the pressure losses in problem 11 if the two pipes are connected in
parallel.
148
6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
AND SIMILARITY
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Many important engineering problems cannot be solved completely by theoretical or

mathematical methods. One method of attacking a problem for which no mathematical
equation can be derived is that of empirical experimentations. For example, the
pressure loss from friction in a long, round, straight, smooth pipe depends on: the
length and diameter of the pipe, the flow rate of the liquid, and the density and viscosity
of the liquid. If any one of these variables is changed, the pressure drop also changes.
The empirical method of obtaining an equation relating these factors to pressure drop
requires that the effect of each separate variable be determined in turn by
systematically varying that variable while keeping all other variables constant. The
procedure is difficult to organize or to correlate the results so obtained into a useful
relationship for calculations.
There exists a method intermediate between formal mathematical development and a

completely empirical study. It is because if a theoretical equation does exist among the
variables affecting a physical process, that equation must be dimensionally
homogeneous. Because of this requirement, it is possible to group many factors into a
smaller number of dimensionless groups of variables. The groups themselves (rather
than the separate factors) appear in the final equation.
Dimensional analysis does not yield a numerical equation, and experiments are
required to complete the solution of the problem. The results of dimensional analysis
are valuable in pointing a way to correlations of experimental data suitable for
engineering use. Moreover, dimensional analysis simplifies the task of fitting
experimental data to design equations where a completely mathematical treatment is
not possible; it is also useful in checking the consistency of the units in equations, in
converting units, and in the scale-up of data obtained in physical models to predict the
performance of full-scale model. The method is based on the concept of dimension
and the use of dimensional formulae.
Briefly, the reasons for using dimensional analysis are:
1- Reducing the number of variables, and hence:

 Reducing the number of equations,
 Reducing the experimental effort sharply
149
2- Scale up/down of experimental results

 No need to fully understand the physics
 Suitable (dimensionless) scaling relationships
3- Deduction of laws; physics demands dimensional consistency in equations.
We can reduce the number of variables by writing them in dimensionless form.
4- Order of magnitude analysis, to find the relative weight of different terms of
the controlling variables
6.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES
Dimensional homogeneity in any equation expresses a fundamental relationship

between different physical quantities, each term in the equation must have the same
dimensions.
All physical quantities (variables) can be expressed in terms of seven fundamental

dimensions (According to the SI system of units), Table 6.1:
Table 6.1 Fundamental dimensions
Fundamental dimension Symbol SI unit Symbol for unit

Length L meter m
Mass M kilogram kg
Time T second s
Temperature T0 Kelvin K
Amount of substance  mole mol
Electric current i ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
For problems with fluid mechanics, only three fundamental dimensions are required;
mass (M), length (L) and time (T). When dealing with problems of heat transfer, the
temperature is added as a fourth dimension.
Table 6.2 shows the dimensions of some derived quantities usually used in fluid
mechanics.
A fundamental question that must be answered is: how many dimensionless products
are required to replace the original list of variables?
150
Table 6.2 Dimensions of Derived quantities,

expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions
Quantity Symbol Dimensions

Angular velocity  T-1
Area A L2
Density  M/L3
Force F ML/T2
Dynamic viscosity  M/LT
Kinematic viscosity n L2/T
Linear velocity v L/T
Linear acceleration a L/T2
Mass flow rate m. M/T
Power P ML2/T3
Pressure p M/LT2
Velocity v L/T
Shear stress  M/LT2
Surface tension  M/T2
Viscosity  M/LT
Volume V L3
6.3. BUCKINGHAM PI () THEOREM
The procedure most commonly used to identify both the number and form of the
appropriate non-dimensional parameters is referred to as the Buckingham -
Theorem. The theorem uses the following definitions:
n = number of variables relevant to the problem.

j = number of independent dimensions found in the n variables
k = number of independent dimensionless groups ( groups) that can be
identified to describe the problem, k = n - j
Summary of Steps:
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem.

2. List the dimensions of each variable.
3. Find the number of basic dimensions j.
4. Select j scaling, repeating variables contain the basic used dimensions, which do
not form a π product.
151
5. Form a π term by adding one additional variable and form a power product.
Algebraically find the values of the exponents, which make the product
dimensionless. Repeat the process with each of the remaining variables.
6. Write the combination of dimensionless  terms in functional form:
πk = f( π1, π2, …πi)
Example: Application of π Theorem for viscous pipe flow
Consider the following example for hydraulic losses in pipes. The relevant variables for
this problem are summarized as follows:
p = pressure drop d = diameter v = velocity

L = length  = viscosity  = density
 = roughness
There are seven pipe flow variables: one dependent (ΔP) and six independent
(, v, D, , , L;)
The application of the Buckingham π-Theorem proceeds as follows:
1. Number of variables: n = 7
2. List the dimensions of each variable:
variables p  v D   L
dimensions ML-1T-2 ML-3 Lt-1 L ML-1T-1 L L
The number of basic dimensions is j = 3; (M, L, T).
3. Choose j = 3 with the repeating variables being  v, and D (for example). They
contain the basic dimensions (M, L, T). and do not form a dimensionless π term.
4. For repeating variables  v, and D, the independent π groups k = n – j = 7 – 3 = 4
5. Form the π groups , chooses arbitrary power of () equals -1, then:
π 1 = a vb Dc (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( ML-1T-1 )

In order for the π term to be dimensionless, the exponents of each dimension should
be equal to zero. Therefore:
152
Mass: a-1=0, a=1

Time: - b + 1 = 0, b=1
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=3–1–1=1
Then: π 1 = v D=Re = Reynolds number
Note: Changing the initial exponent for M to 1 (from -1) would result in the reciprocal
of the same non-dimensional groups. Thus, some experience is useful in obtaining 
groups, consistent with existing theorems.
Repeating the process with the roughness, 


 π 2 = a vb Dc (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( L ) 

Solving:
Mass: a=0, a=0

Time: - b = 0, b=0
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=–1
 π 2 =  / D Roughness ratio
Repeat the process with the length L.
π 3 = a vb Dc L (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( L )
Solving:
Mass: a = 0, a=0
Time: - b = 0, b=0
Length: - 3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c=–1
π 3 = L / D length-to-diameter ratio
Now obtain the dependent π term by adding P
π4 = a vb Dc p (ML-3)A ( LT-1)B LC ( ML-1T-2 )
Solving:
Mass: a+1=0, a = -1
153
Time: - b - 2 = 0, b = -2
Length: - 3a + b + c - 1 = 0, c=0
Pressure coefficient π 4 = P / v2
Application of the Buckingham -Theorem to the previous list of variables yields the
following non-dimensional combinations:
p  vD L  
f  , , 
v   D D
2
Or CP 
p
v 2

 f Re,L,  
Thus, a non-dimensional pressure loss coefficient for viscous pipe flow would be
expected to be a function of:
 The Reynolds number,

 A non-dimensional pipe length, and
 A non-dimensional pipe roughness
A list of typical dimensionless groups important in fluid mechanics is given in the table
6.3.
From these results, we would now use a planned experiment with data analysis
techniques to get the relationship between these non - dimensional groups.
NB:
 Other dependent π-groups can be obtained by combination of the independent
π-groups.
 Other form of π-groups can be obtained by applying mathematical operations,
similar to that valid for the number (1).
6.4 SIMILARITY AND NON-DIMENSIONAL SCALING
The major step is concerned with the design and organization of the experimental test
program. Two key elements in the test program are:
 Design of the model (similar to required element)

 Specification of the test conditions, particularly when the test must be performed
at conditions similar to, but not the same as the conditions of interest.
Table 6.3 Typical dimensionless groups
154
Parameter Definition Qualitative ratio of effects Importance

Inertia
Reynolds number Always
Viscosity
Flow speed
Mach number Compressible flow
Sound speed
U2 Inertia
Froude number Fr  Free-surface flow
gL Gravity
 U2 L Inertia
Weber number We  Free-surface flow
 Surface tension
Cavitation number p - pv Pressure
Ca = Cavitation
(Euler number) U 2 Inertia
C p Dissipation
Prandtl number Pr  Heat convection
k Conduction
U2 Kinetic energy
Eckert number Ec  Dissipation
c p To Enthalpy
cp Enthalpy
Specific-heat ratio   Compressible flow
cv Internal energy
L Oscillation
Strouhal number St  Oscillating flow
U Mean speed
 Wall roughness
Roughness ratio Turbulent, rough walls
L Body length
 TgL3 2 Buoyancy
Grashof number Gr  Natural convection
2 Viscosity
Tw Wall temperature
Temperature ratio Heat transfer
To Stream temperature
Pressure p  p Static pressure Aerodynamics,
Cp 
1/ 2  U
2
coefficient Dynamic pressure hydrodynamics
L Lift force Aerodynamics
Lift coefficient CL 
1/ 2  U A
2
Dynamic force hydrodynamics
D Lift force Aerodynamics,
Drag coefficient CD 
1/ 2 U A
2
Dynamic force hydrodynamics
The basic requirement in this process is to achieve similarity between the 'experimental
model and its test conditions' and the 'prototype and its test conditions' in the
experiment. In this context, “similarity” is defined as (All relevant independent
dimensionless parameters have the same values for the model and the prototype).
Similarity generally includes the following three basic classifications in fluid mechanics:
 Geometric similarity
 Kinematic similarity
155
 Dynamic similarity
6.4.1. Geometric Similarity
In fluid mechanics, geometric similarity is defined as follows: (All linear dimensions of

the model are related to the corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a constant
scale factor SFG ).
Fig. 6.1 Geometric Similarity in Model Testing
Consider the following airfoil section, Fig. 6.1. For this case, geometric similarity
requires the following:
r L W
SFG  m  m  m     
rP L P WP
In addition, in geometric similarity:
 All angles are preserved,
 Orientation with respect to the surroundings must be same for the model and the
prototype, i.e. (Angle of attack)m = (angle of attack)p
6.4.2. Kinematic Similarity
In fluid mechanics, kinematic similarity is defined as follows: (The velocities at

'corresponding' points on the model & prototype are in the same direction and differ by
a constant scale factor SFk). Therefore, the flows must have similar streamline
patterns. Flow regimes must be the same. These conditions are demonstrated for two
flow conditions, as shown in the following kinematically similar flows, Fig. 6.2.
The conditions of kinematic similarity are generally met automatically when geometric
and dynamic similarity conditions are satisfied.
156
Fig. 6.2a Kinematically Similar Low Speed Flows
Fig. 6.2b Kinematically Similar Free Surface Flows
6.4.3. Dynamic Similarity
In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is typically defined as follows: (This is basically

met if model and prototype forces differ by a constant scale factor at similar points).
This is illustrated in the following figure for flow through a sluice gate, Fig. 6.3. This is
generally met for the following conditions:
1. For compressible flow: the model & prototype have the same Re, Ma;
Rem = Rep, Mam= Map
2. For incompressible flow:
a. without free surface; Rem = Rep
b. with a free surface; Rem = Rep , Frm = Frp
Note: The parameters being considered (such as the velocity, density, viscosity,
diameter, length, etc.) are generally related to the flow, geometry, and fluid
157
characteristics of the problem and are considered independent variables for the
subject problem.
Fig. 6.3 Dynamic Similarity for Flow through a Sluice Gate
The result of achieving similarity by the above means is that relevant non - dimensional
dependent variables, e.g. CD, Cp, Cf, or Nu, etc., are then equal for both the model and
prototype. This result would then indicate how the relevant dependent results, e.g. drag
force, pressure forces, viscous forces, are to be scaled for the model to the prototype.
Equality of the relevant non-dimensional independent variables, Re, Ma, x/L, etc.,
indicates how the various independent variables of importance should be scaled.
An example of this scaling is shown as follows:
Example 6.1 The drag on a sonar transducer prototype is to be predicted based on

the following wind tunnel model data and prototype data requirements.
Determine the model test-velocity vm necessary to achieve similarity and
the expected prototype force Fp based on the model wind tunnel test
results.
Parameter Prototype (sphere) Model (sphere)

D 0.3048 m 0.1524 m
v 2.572 m/s Unknown?
F ? 24.821 N
 1020.4 kg/m3 1.267 kg/m3
6 5
 1.3x10- m2/s 1.4493x10- m2/s
158
From dimensional analysis:
C D  f Re
F  vD 
 f 
v D
2 2
  
For the prototype, the actual operating velocity and Reynolds number are
Prototype: vP= 2.572 m/s
vD
ReP   6.03  105

Equality of Reynolds number then yields the required model test velocity of:
vD
Rem  ReP   6.03  105

Then vm = 57.3 m/s
Based on actual test results for the model, i.e. measured Fm, equality of model and
prototype drag coefficients yields:
CDP  CDm
P vP2 DP2
then FP  Fm  166.36 N
m v m2 Dm2
N.B.
The drag coefficient for bluff bodies with a fixed point of separation; e.g. radar
antennae, generally have a constant, fixed number for C D which is not a function of
Re; CD=Constant ≠ f(Re).
Example 6.2 Show that the drag force on a ship of length L traveling at velocity U
through a fluid can be correlated by an expression of the type
CD = f(Re, Fr), where CD = F/U2L2,
Re  UL /  and Froude number, Fr  U / gL . Why is g relevant?
A ship is 200m long is to operate at a velocity of 10 m/s in sea water

(density = 1028 kg/m3, viscosity= 1.2 x 10-3 Ns/m2). In order to estimate
the engine requirements, it is recommended to conduct tests, by towing
a scale model of 3 m long through a suitable liquid. At what velocity
159
should the model be towed and what kinematic viscosity (/) would be
required for the liquid? Given that the absolute viscosity of most liquids
is in the range 10-4 to 10-2 Ns/m2, what would be the practical difficulties
of this experiment?
F = f ( U,L,,,g)
Need g , thus production of waves is important that influence the motion.
For 5 variables, 3 dimensions, thus 3 dimensionless groups.
By inspection, choose Re = UL/
Check the others:
F ML L3 T 2 1
: =1
U2L2 T 2 M L2 L2
U2 L2 T 2 1
: =1
gL T2 L L
For dynamic similarity; equate Froude number for the ship and model
(1&2):
2 2
U1 U2
=
gL1 gL 2
L2
U2  U1
L1
3
U 2  10 = 1.225 m/s
200
and Reynolds number Res= Rem

U1 L1 U2L 2
=
1 2
U2 L 2
 2  1
U1 L1
1.2x10 3 1.225 3
2  . . = 2.145 x 10 –9 m2/s
1028 10 200
160
6.5. EXERCISE
1. A water turbine of power P, diameter D, flow rate Q, working head H, rotates at

a speed n. Using dimensional analysis, derive the relation:
P  gH Q 
 f 2 2 , 3 
n D
3 5
 n D nD 
Where ρ is the water density and g is the gravitational acceleration.
2. Oil, of kinematic viscosity 1.39x10-5 m2/s, flows through a pipe of 0.762 m

diameter, at an average velocity of 2.438 m/s. At what velocity should water
flow in a pipe of 0.0762 m diameter for dynamically similar flow? Water viscosity
is 9.29x10-7 m2/s.
(1.625 m/s)
3. A river model is built to a scale if (1/80). What surface velocity in the prototype
river is represented by a corresponding surface velocity of 0.183 m/s in the river
model?
(1.634 m/s)
4. A maximum flow rate of 0.2 m3/s is available for a river model. This corresponds
to 945 m3/s for the prototype river. What is the largest size model which may be
used.
(1/29.5)
5. The flow in a river is 1500 m3/s. A distorted model with horizontal scale 0f (1/60)
and vertical scale of (1/16) is built for laboratory testing. What is the flow rate in
the model?
161

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Fluid Mechanics

Ibrahim Saleh M. Galal

No part of this publication may be reproduced for the purpose or re-publishing,

ISBN 978-977-5092-00-7, 2011

2011/5464 :‫رقم اإليداع بدار الكتب المصرية‬

Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuum mechanics. It models matter from a

Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Saleh Mostafa

Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Galal El-Din Mohamed RABIE

CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1

CHAPTER 2: FLUID STATICS 21

2.8.1 Relative Equilibrium, Linear Motion 51

CHAPTER 3: FLUID KINEMATICS 63

CHAPTER 4: FLUID DYNAMICS 85

4.2.2 Continuity Equation 86

CHAPTER 5: STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE REAL FLOW IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS 121

5.6.3 Selecting a Pipe Diameter 141

CHAPTER 6: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY 149

where a = Acceleration, m/s2

1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Mass Density ρ is the mass m of substance per unit volume V.

Table 1.1 Density of some fluids

Fluid Density (kg/m3)

Specific Weight  is defined as the weight of substance per unit volume.

where g = Gravitational force per unit mass = 9.807 m/s2

Table 1.2 Specific weights of common liquids at STP

Specific weight Specific weight

Specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

1.2.2 Compressibility and Elasticity

where Δp = Pressure variation, Pa

B  2.18  109  6.7 p ( for p  100 MPa) (1.10)

Table 1.3 Bulk modulus of elasticity for pure water in GPa

Pressure Temperature (oC)

For gases, the compression process is governed by the following equation:

volume is (1-α)VT, an equivalent bulk modulus Be of the mixture can be deduced.

The relative equivalent Bulk modulus of elasticity Be can be written as:

Where c = Sound speed, m/s

The proportionality coefficient  is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity;

where = Shear stress, N/m2 or kg/ms

Fig.1.2 Velocity profile of viscous fluid

Kinematic Viscosity  is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to its

where = Kinematic viscosity, m2/s.

The kinematic viscosity  is often expressed in Stokes, where: 1 St = 1 cm2/s =10-4

Fig.1.3 Viscous behavior of fluids

Viscous friction force on a sliding spool

Fig.1.4 Variation of dynamic viscosity of typical fluids with temperature

where F= Friction force, N

Fig.1.5 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a spool valve

Viscous friction torque on rotating spool

2r 3L 2r 3L

Fig.1.6 Velocity distribution in the radial clearance of a rotating spool.

1.2.4 Surface Tension

Fig.1.7 Surface tension due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules

Surface-tension is caused by the attraction between the liquid's molecules. In the

compression. There is no net inward force. However, there is a driving force to

Fig.1.8 Surface tension forces in a soap bubble.

r 2 (pin  p out )  2(2r ) (1.32)

Fig.1.9 Capillary rise in a tube

Weight of water column = mg = r 2hg (1.34)