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Life Experiences of Street Children in Bulawayo:

Implications for Policy and Practice
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Ndlovu, Ian (2015). Life Experiences of Street Children in Bulawayo: Implications for Policy and Practice.
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Life Experiences of Street Children
in Bulawayo: Implications for Policy
and Practice

Ian Ndlovu
MSc Social Care (University of Hertfordshire)
Postgraduate Diploma in Social Care (University of
Hertfordshire)

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Bachelor of Social Work (University of Zimbabwe)
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Diploma in Social Work (University of Zimbabwe)
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A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements of The Open University for the
degree of:
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Health and Social Care
31 March 2015
 ProQuest Number: 10179504

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.

W
IE
EV
ProQuest 10179504

Published by ProQuest LLC ( 2020 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.

All Rights Reserved.

PR

This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.

ProQuest LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
ABSTRACT

In the period between 2000 and 2015 much has been written about Zimbabwe’s political

and economic problems with very little mention of Zimbabwe’s children, or indeed street

children. In this study I explore the experience of street children in Zimbabwe’s second

largest city, Bulawayo. The study explores the work and activities that street children

engage in as they negotiate their way through public and private spaces. A consideration is

given to how the street children’s need for space and their sense of place becomes part of

an acquired identity that they establish through negotiation or imposition by others. Their

experiences are presented in their words in order to capture who they are and how they

navigate living on the margins of society; crossing physical as well as social and moral

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boundaries.

The study employed an ethnographic approach and was informed by the understanding of
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children as autonomous social actors. It explores some of the conceptual terrain necessary
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for a study of the life experiences of street children in Bulawayo in the context of their day

to day activities and claims for space and places. Their image, journeys and how they

project themselves into the future emerges from their interactions amongst themselves and
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their immediate environment. The study explores whether and how a child-centred model

of practice would be possible to use in relation to street children and the implications for

policy.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My gratitude and thanks go to my family, my beautiful wife, Getrude, my daughters

Nokukhanya, Monalisa, Mandisa and Sandisile and last but not least , Brighton, my oldest

son who has endured a stressful life in Zimbabwe, all who have been behind me

throughout my study in many ways. I thank them for their patience in the last six years of

study as they had to go for some time without my full attention. I am grateful to my parents

(Umdala Mthombeni and Mama MaNdebele) and my sister Barbara, who supported me

throughout my early years in education.

I am ever so grateful for the great team of Supervisors, Professor Brigid Featherstone and

Dr Martin Robb whose guidance made the completion of the PhD possible. I am so ever

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thankful to Dr Richard Hester, who saw me through the early stages up to the fifth year, for
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his valued contributions and interest in my subject area; Dr Janet Seden and Dr Eileen Oak

who were part of the supervisory team during the early stages for their valuable
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contributions. I am grateful to Dr Lindsay O’Dell (Director of Postgraduate Studies) and

Dr Verina Waights (Third Party Monitor) for their support and interest in my work
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throughout my period of study and Ms. Penny Wilkinson at the Health and Social Care

Postgraduate Office for her wealth of information whenever needed. My gratitude also

goes to my friends Dr Geoffrey Banda, Dr Vuyo Mjimba and Professor Otrude Moyo with

whom I shared my experiences of researching Bulawayo’s street children, for their wise

words of encouragement and guidance that saw me throughout my PhD journey. My

thanks to all of my friends from all walks of life who saw me at my darkest hour in 2010 as

well as my consultant Dr Paul Cervi who took an interest in my study.

It would be selfish if I do not acknowledge Nomusa Chikari, Field Officer and members of

staff at Thuthuka Street Children Project their support during fieldwork. I am thankful to

my supervisors, Ms. Ramola Jack and my daughters Mandisa and Nokukhanya for proof

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reading my thesis drafts and providing valuable feedback. Finally, my gratitude is to the

participants, the Street Children of Bulawayo who gave their wealth of experiences and

precious time to make this study a success. Their lives and stories will touch many who

may come to understand them differently and, perhaps, even make their lives more livable.

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ABSTRACT (i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (ii)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (iv)

ACRONYMS (x)

LIST OF FIGURES (xi)

LIST OF TABLES (xiii)

LIST OF MAPS (xiv)

Chapter One Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction
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1.2. Justification for research 1
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1.3 Research questions 2

1.4 Background to the study 4

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1.5 Professional encounters with street children in Bulawayo 6

1.6 Personal experiences with street children in Bulawayo 6

1.7 Thesis structure 8

Chapter Two Zimbabwe’s Historical Background 11

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2 The history, politics and economics 11

2.3 Post-Independence 13

2.4 The battle for supremacy after independence 15

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2.5 Zimbabwe: Demographics 18

2.6 Zimbabwe on the brink 20

2.7 The Setting: Bulawayo (history) 22

2.8 Present day Bulawayo 23

2.9 Population distribution in Bulawayo 25

2.10 Bulawayo’s economic and political status in Zimbabwe 27

2.11 Bulawayo: A city surviving 29

2.12 Changing times and the changing face of the streets of Bulawayo 30

2.13 Concluding remarks

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Chapter Three Literature Review 32
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3.1 Introduction 32

3.2 The social construction of childhood 32

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3.3 The social construction of street children 38

3.4The concept of childhood in the African Context 40

3.5 Childhood in Zimbabwe 44

3.6 Examining the definitional question: What does the term street children mean? 48

3.7 Defining street children 49

3.8 Street children in history and over time 53

3.9 The scale of the phenomenon of street children around the world 55

3.10 Street children in Africa 56

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3.11 Representation of street children 58

3.12 Marginal identities 62

3.13 Street children in Bulawayo 63

3.14 Policy and Practice: Responses to street children in Zimbabwe 64

3.15 Studies on street children 66

3.16 Theorising space and street children 68

3.17 Concluding remarks 71

Chapter Four: Methodology 74

4.1 Introduction
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4.2 The theoretical framework 74
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4.3 Ethnography 75

4.4 Advantages of the ethnographic approach 77

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4.5 Disadvantages of the ethnographic approach 79

4.6 Ethical considerations 79

4.7 Power imbalance between the participant child and adult researcher 84

4.8 Approaching the field 86

4.9 Gaining access to the research site and participants 88

4.10 Informed consent/dissent 91

4.11 The standard measure for consent 94

4.12 Confidentiality 96
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4.13 Sampling and sample size 97

4.14 Selection and identification of participants 100

Chapter Five: Methods 102

5.1 Introduction 102

5.2 Research tools 102

5.3 Fieldwork: Introduction 104

5.4 Phase One: 10 December 2011 to 6 January 2012 104

5.5 Phase Two: 9 August to 2 September 2013 109

5.6 Participant observation

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5. 7 How participant observations worked in this study. 112
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5.8 Interviews 114

5.9 Reflections on interviews 116

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5.10 Field visits 117

5.11 Drawings and written work 118

5.12 Photographs 119

5.13 Reflections on data collection 120

5.14 Reflexivity and participation 123

5.15 Data analysis 125

5.16 Anonymity 127

5.17 Concluding remarks 129

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Chapter Six: Demographics of participants 130

6.1 Introduction 130

6.2 Numbers of street children 130

6.3 Distribution based on location and gender 133

6.4 Number of participants in this study 135

6.5 Distribution by age and gender 136

6.6 Place of origin 137

6.7 Status of parents 139

6.8 Reasons for leaving home

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6.9 Care arrangements before they moved to the streets 142
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6.10 Level of education 144

6.11 Time spent living on the streets 146

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6.12 Concluding remarks 148

Chapter Seven: Findings 150

7.1 Introduction 150

7.2 The question of language 150

7.3 The first day on the streets 157

7.4 Adapting to life on the streets 166

7.5 Their places on the streets 169

7.6 The Politics of the alley 182

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7.7 Gender differences 190

7.8 The shape of their stories 193

7.9 Their future aspirations 195

7.10 Street children’s perception of life on the streets 202

7.11 Street children versus their peers living at home 208

7.12 Difficult circumstances 209

7.13 Summary of findings 213

Chapter Eight: Conclusion 220

8.1 Introduction
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8.2 Implications for policy and practice 224
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8.3 Contribution to knowledge, policy, practice and street children’s lives 232

8.4 Future research 233

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8.5 My final reflections 233

REFERENCES 235

APPENDICES 269

Appendix One: Consent form 269

Appendix Two: Information sheet 272

Appendix Three: Interview Schedule 274

Appendix Four: Bulawayo City Street Map (Research site) 277

Appendix Five: My Space 278

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ACRONYMS

ACRWC - African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of The Child

AIDS - Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

CCJPZ- Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe

UNCRC – United Nations Convention on the Rights of The Child

ESAP - Economic Structural Adjustment Programme

HIV - Human Immuno Virus /Human Immunodeficiency Virus

MDC-T - Movement for Democratic Change (Tsvangirai)

NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation

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WHO - World Health Organisation
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ZANLA - Zimbabwe National Liberation Army

ZANU (PF) Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front

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ZAPU - Zimbabwe African People’s Union

ZIPRA - Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army

UDI - Unilateral Declaration of Independence

UNICEF- United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Window of Rhodesia – The Jewel of Africa 14

Figure 2 King Lobengula Khumalo’s court in session

in his capital of Bulawayo (pre-1893) 22

Figure 3 A Traditional homestead in Matabeleland 22

Figure 4 Present day Bulawayo 24

Figure 5 Bulawayo City Hall 25

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Figure 6 Media perception of street children
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Figure 7 Thuthuka Contact Centre 87

Figure 8 Thuthuka Centre premises 87

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Figure 9 An example of the scale of the economic crisis in 2008 121

Figure 10 Disused rail wagon used as a base 172

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Figure 11 Inside a disused wagon with a baby walker 173

Figure 12 Street children at ‘home’ in a disused wagon during the cold season 174

Figure 13 A helping hand from Madala to access his base 175

Figure 14 Madala sitting outside his base 175

Figure 15 Centenary Park (1) 177

Figure 16 Centenary Park (2) 178

Figure 17 A home in the ground 179

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Figure 18 Asleep at night at Egodini 180

Figure 19 Emkotweni base 181

Figure 20 Emkotweni- a place to relax 183

Figure 21 Time to entertain 185

Figure 22 Making money on the streets 186

Figure 23 Bulawayo Centre base for younger boys 187

Figure 24 The wardrobes 188

Figure 25 Lebhu on My Space 203

Figure 26 ‘Then and Now’

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Figure 27 Madobha’s wishes 205
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Figure 28 Pumula on My Space 206

Figure 29 Mavuvu’s drawing 206

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Figure 30 ‘Let’s share the digira’ 207

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 A summary of De Mause’s History of Childhood 34

Table 2 Snapshots of numbers observed at Thuthuka Contact Centre 130

Table 3 Distribution based on location and gender 133

Table 4 Distribution by age and gender 136

Table 5 The number of children presented by place of origin 137

Table 6 Distribution by status of parents 139

Table 7 Distribution by reasons for leaving home 141

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Table 8 Distribution by whom they lived with before coming to live on the streets 142
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Table 9 Distribution by level of education 145
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Table 10 Distribution by length of time spent living on the streets 146

Table 11 Future aspirations 196

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LIST OF MAPS

Map 1.Map of Zimbabwe (10 administrative provinces and major cities) 20

Map 2. Map of Zimbabwe showing Bulawayo and other major urban centres 27

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Chapter One: Introduction

‘The moon is laughing at us,

The stars are weeping for us.

We had tried to reach for the sky

But we are sleeping on earth.

When we wake up darkness still looms all around us.

Our morning lies far beyond in the horizon’.

Source: Abid Merhti, from Poems by Street Children, Bombay, YUVA.

1.1 Introduction
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This chapter provides an introduction to the reasons behind the choice of Bulawayo as a
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location of study in addition to providing a justification for the study and an outline of the

thesis structure. For the purpose of this study, the term ‘street children’ refers to boys and

girls aged between ten and 18 years who have partially or completely severed family ties
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and use the streets as a place of work and home.

1.2 Justification for research

Part of the motivation for the study was the initial sense of a dearth of literature on street

children in Bulawayo. Many studies on street children have focused on the causes and

remedies to the phenomenon of street children rather than on the construction of the

phenomenon itself (Hecht, 1998). The study was driven by a desire to examine the links

within the street children’s environment and to understand their interdependency. Thomas

de Benitez (2011) postulates that there are missing links between laws, policies and

interventions and children’s realities. What sets this study apart from others is its emphasis

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on children’s agency and use of ethnographic research methods to capture the lived

experiences of street children, positioned as active agents with a presence. In essence, the

study is designed to locate street children and ask them about their life experiences and the

daily struggle to survive in an urban environment in which their circumstances in some

ways dictate and define their identity as well as their position in society.

The aim is to contribute to knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon of street

children in Bulawayo from the street children’s point of view. It is hoped that this

knowledge based on their life experiences will assist those working with street children to

design interventions and formulate policies that would benefit them.

1.3 Research questions

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The aim of this section is to reiterate the purpose of the study by expounding the research
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questions that the study addressed. The underpinning view in formulating research

questions was influenced by Foucault’s views that ‘There are also, probably in every
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culture, in every civilisation, real places- places that do exist and that are formed in the

very founding of society- which are something like counter sites, a kind of effectively
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enacted utopia in which the real sites, all the other real sites that can be found within the

culture, are simultaneously represented, contested and inverted. Places of this kind are

outside of all places, even though it may be possible to indicate their location in reality’

(Foucault 1986:24).The above statement encompasses the social world of street children.

Consequently, this study explored how street children negotiate the space and place they

occupy in Bulawayo, the strategies that they employ to survive in an urban landscape

designed for the money economy and also explored their future aspirations. An

ethnographic research strategy guided by four related questions was designed with the aim

to find out what is going on with street children on the streets of Bulawayo and what

processes are at play (see Chapter Four). The literature review revealed gaps in knowledge

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based on street children’s accounts which present their unique perspective. Previous

studies on street children in Bulawayo have looked at the demographics and reasons for

being on the streets as well as activities that they engage in while they are living on the

streets. The difference in this study is the engagement with the street children in the

process of gaining insight and understanding of their lived experiences. This approach

gives a face behind the statistics and the street children are shown as individuals in the

sharing of their life stories as opposed to an adult-centred approach where children’s views

and wishes are accessed through adults or gatekeepers.

It was therefore important to focus on the realities of life on the streets in order to

understand what can be drawn from these experiences that could be helpful in working

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with this group of disadvantaged children. It was with this in mind that the four questions

(below) were formulated.

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1. How do street children negotiate the spaces and places that they occupy in Bulawayo?
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2. How do street children’s concept of spaces and places shape the way in which they

interact with their peers and their immediate surroundings?

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3. What strategies do they adopt to claim spaces and places they live in?

4. To what extent do the life experiences of street children shape their identity and how are

these identities constructed and contested?

The questions were designed to reveal the street children’s personal experiences and what

they think of their life journeys. Critical to the study were the factors that shaped their

perceptions of places and spaces and their propensity to adopt certain strategies to survive

on the streets of Bulawayo. Therefore, data on spaces and places was gathered; social

interactions and relationships among street children and their immediate environment were

observed and used to answer these questions. The research questions helped to closely

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examine the life experiences of street children in Bulawayo in a manner that captured their

lived experiences in their words. In other words the study captured the reality of street

children’s lives directly as lived and explained by them as they see or perceive their lives.

1.4 Background to the study

The background to this study is derived from my professional career as a social worker

with children and families, first in Zimbabwe (12 years) and then in the United Kingdom

(14 years). After qualifying as a social worker in Zimbabwe in 1987 I worked as a Social

Worker in Bulawayo in 1988 followed by a five year stint at a rural outpost (Plumtree) in

south western Zimbabwe before returning to the Bulawayo in 1995 to 2000. For the past 14

years I have worked as a social worker in the United Kingdom in the area of child

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protection. The two settings (Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom) are different in terms of
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practice and child protection standards. I found the United Kingdom’s child protection

systems more developed than Zimbabwe. That is not surprising as the two countries belong
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to two different economic spheres with Zimbabwe in the developing world and the former

in the developed world. In my early years in the United Kingdom I soon realised that I was
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dealing with abuse prevention and deprivation which characterised many children who

came to the attention of Social Services in Zimbabwe. In comparative terms the magnitude

of deprivation is probably higher in Zimbabwe in that some children go without food,

shelter and no access to education. This is different to the relative privilege of children in

the United Kingdom where there is provision for poor families in the form of benefits and

even free school meals.

The experience in the UK made me reflect on social work practice in Zimbabwe and the

Child Protection system in place which was very minimal. The much publicized ‘Every

Child Matters’ (2003) agenda of the Labour Government in 2000-2010 partly influenced

my ideas about the research as I did not think one could apply it to Zimbabwe in the

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 current economic and socio-political environment. It was Prime Minister Tony Blair’s

foreword to the Green Paper (presented to Parliament in September 2003 by the Chief

Secretary to the Treasury) which galvanized my thoughts about disadvantaged children.

The foreword states that ‘For most parents, our children are everything to us; our hopes,

our ambitions, our future. Our children are cherished and loved’. He goes on to say ‘But

sadly, some children are not so fortunate. Instead of joy, warmth and security of normal

family life, these children’s lives are filled with risk, fear and danger…’ (Every Child

Matters, 2003). In my mind this seemed relevant to street children I had encountered while

working as social worker in Bulawayo. I thought the question ‘Does Every Child Matter?’

could be asked in relation to children in Zimbabwe in general and to street children in

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particular.

A year after completing my Masters in Social Care degree with the University of
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Hertfordshire in 2006 (Dissertation title: How do social workers assess parents with
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learning disabilities whose children were on the at ‘risk’ register for reasons of neglect?

The London Borough of Redbridge Experience), I felt I was equipped to embark on a

research study of street children in Bulawayo. The qualitative research and advanced child
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protection modules (among other modules) provided a reasonable background to start

research at a higher level. My research experience on parents with learning disabilities (a

distinct group of parents) made the idea of research on the phenomenon of street children

very attractive. Street children appeared to be on the margins as were parents with learning

disabilities.

Based on my professional experience (though limited) of working with street children in

the 1990s, I came to the conclusion that these were children at high risk of significant harm

(a term embedded in child protection practice in the United Kingdom dating back to the

Children Act 1989). Their unique life experiences needed exploring with a view of gaining

a better understanding of who they are and what they do , an understanding I felt I did not
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