Chapter #2

Analyzing Arguments

1. Paraphrasing Arguments:
Paraphrasing arguments involves restating them in different words while
preserving their original meaning and logical structure. It's a way to clarify or
simplify complex arguments, making them easier to understand without
changing their core message or intent. This skill is valuable in communication,
debate, and critical thinking, as it allows for clearer expression of ideas and
facilitates better comprehension among audiences. Paraphrasing arguments
can help identify underlying assumptions, expose flaws in reasoning, or
highlight key points more effectively
Paraphrasing arguments in logic involves restating them in simpler or different
terms while maintaining their original meaning. Here's an example:
Original argument: "If it's raining outside, then the streets will be wet. The streets
are wet, so it must be raining outside."
Paraphrased version: "When it rains, the streets get wet. Since the streets are
wet, it means it's probably raining outside."
In this paraphrased version, the logic of the argument remains the same, but it's
expressed in easier-to-understand language.

2. Diagramming Arguments
A second technique for the analysis of arguments is diagramming. With a
diagram we can represent the structure of an argument graphically; the
flow of premises and conclusions is displayed in a two-dimensional chart, or
picture, on the page. A diagram is not needed for a simple argument, even
though drawing one can enhance our understanding. When an argument is
complex, with many premises entwined in various ways, a diagram can be
exceedingly helpful. Diagramming arguments in logic involves representing
 the logical structure of an argument visually. Here's a simple way to
understand it:
1. Identify the premises: These are the statements or reasons given to
support the conclusion.
2. Identify the conclusion: This is the main point or claim that the premises
lead to.
3. Draw arrows: Use arrows to show how the premises lead to the conclusion.
4. Label: Label each part to clarify what it represents.
For example:
Argument: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates
is mortal."
All humans are mortal

Socrates is human

Socrates is mortal:

3 Complex Argumentative Passages

In logic, complex argumentative passages refer to texts that contain
intricate chains of reasoning, often involving multiple premises and
conclusions. These passages are typically composed of logical statements,
arguments, and evidence aimed at supporting or refuting a particular claim
or thesis.
Original Passage: "The proposed law aims to reduce crime rates by
imposing stricter penalties on offenders. However, critics argue that
harsher punishments alone may not effectively deter criminal behavior.
Research suggests that addressing root causes such as poverty, lack of
education, and access to mental health services may be more impactful in
preventing crime in the long term."
Simplified Version: "The new law wants to make punishments tougher to
stop people from committing crimes. But some people say just making
punishments harsher might not really stop crime. Studies show that it's
more important to deal with the reasons why people turn to crime, like not
having enough money, not being educated, or not getting help for mental
health problems.

4 Problems in Reasoning:
In reasoning, we often move from known or assumed premises to
conclusions. This skill is crucial in our daily lives, whether it's making
decisions, judging others' actions, or defending our beliefs. Developing the
ability to create and evaluate good arguments is valuable and can be honed
with practice. Games like chess, go, Clue, and Mastermind can help sharpen
these skills.
Some problems are specifically designed to test and improve logical
reasoning abilities. While these problems may seem artificial compared to
real-life situations, solving them requires similar patterns of thinking as
those used by detectives, journalists, or jurors. They often involve chaining
together inferences, using sub conclusions as premises for further
arguments, and creatively combining given information.
Solving these contrived problems can be challenging but ultimately
rewarding. It's satisfying to apply reasoning successfully. Logical games and
puzzles not only serve as exercises for reasoning but also offer enjoyable
entertainment. As the philosopher John Dewey said, enjoying uncertainty is
a sign of an educated mind.
Example
In a certain flight crew, the positions of pilot, copilot, and flight engineer
are held by three persons, Allen, Brown, and Carr, though not necessarily in
that order. The copilot ,who is an only child, earns the least. Carr, who
married Brown’s sister, earns more than the pilot. What position does each
of the three persons hold? To solve such problems we look first for a
sphere in which we have enough information to reach some conclusions
going beyond what is given in the premises. In this case we know most
about Carr: he is not the pilot, because he earns more than the pilot; and
he is not the copilot because the copilot earns the least. By elimination we
may infer that Carr must be the flight engineer. Using that sub conclusion
we can determine Brown’s position. Brown is not the copilot because he
has a sister and the copilot is an only child; he is not the flight engineer
because Carr is. Brown must therefore be the pilot. Allen, the only one left,
must therefore be the copilot.