336 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE

Hence multiplying by ar1

x + a~xA = a~xb or x + ocX = (15)
where a = ocpq, p < 3 , 3 < q < 7 , = ft>, p < 3 .

(15) is the matrix form o f (3) (4) and (5).

Also equation (1) can be written
cx+ G X = z (16)
where c = cq, q < 3 and C = cq, 3 < q < 7 .
Eliminating x from (15) and (16)

c{fi - a Z ) + C Z = 2,
whence
{C -W )X = z - z V 9 (17)
where I f = coc = wQ, 3 < q < 7 .
(17) is the matrix form o f (11). From this stage the argument
proceeds as in the earlier introduction.
Clearly (15) (16) (17) are quite general and 3, 7 can be replaced by
m and n.
H. V. L owby
Timperley, Carlton Road,
Sidcup.

TH E MULTINOMIAL TH EOREM

B y D. W . B olton

Origin
As the name suggests, the Multinomial Theorem is an extension
o f the Binomial theorem, and it was when I first met the latter that
I began to consider the trinomial and the possibility o f a correspon­
ding Pascal’s triangle.
My mathematics master suggested that I construct the triangle
myself. It became apparent that such a triangle may not be drawn,
as the result is a pyramid or a tetrahedron where the apexes o f the
tetrahedron are occupied by the coefficients o f x n, yn, zn in the
expansion o f (x + y + z)n.
This may be shown by forming expansion coefficient triangles for
a trinomial o f power 0, 1, 2, 3.

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 THE MULTINOMIAL THEOREM 337

Power 0

1
Power 1
1 1

Power 2
xi_
,z2
X-

1-

where the coefficients correspond to the product o f x, y , z terms

shown connected to it above. It will be noticed that the triangular
notation can be employed for any power e.g. {x + y + z)5

* A / /
/ A A / / 4
, AAA/ / 5
AA/\/\/ /
- 5 ----- 20------30----- 2 0 ------ 5

AA/WV
- f ------ 5 ------- 10-----10-------5------- 1»

y4 y 1

where the complete term is defined as before, e.g. for 2nd co­
efficient from left o f 3rd row down, the term is 20x3yz.
It is now apparent that the triangle may be factorised, extracting
the powers and coefficients o f x . Thus,

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 338 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE

/ t i =

where the triangular factor is, o f course, (y + z)5~a in each row,

where a is the associated power o f x.
In general for a trinomial (x + y + z)n the triangular factor on the
right is a (y + z)k expansion between 1c = 0 in the first row and Jc = n
in final row (the n + l)th row)
n
triangular factor = ^ (y +z)k

The sum o f the powers in any term in the expansion o f a multi­

nomial equals the power o f the multinomial. Therefore, for a general
term A xayhzn~a~h o f a trinomial,

k = b + (n -a -b )

Therefore the triangular factor = (y + z)n~awhere a is the power o f x.

B y observation, the coefficients o f the factor column are identical
with those in the final row o f the triangular factor (i.e. at a = 0 ).
Therefore these coefficients are those o f the (y +z)n expansion; i.e.
column factor becomes

nC0xn
nCxxn- x
nC2xn~2 etc.

or in general nC

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 THE MULTINOMIAL THEOREM 339

The general term o f the triangular factor is

n~aCbybzn~a~b

Thus, combining the general terms o f the factors, the general term
in the trinomial expansion is,

nCan~aCbxaybzn~a- b

Having obtained the general coefficient for the trinomial we may

now write the general coefficients for the first three nomials,

for xn nC0
for {x + y)n nO0nGa
for (x + y + z)n nC0nCan~aCb

which suggests:

for (x + y + z + t)n nC0nCan~aGbn~a~bCc

the validity o f which may be shown as follows.

Writing the multinomial (p + q + . .. + x + y + z)n as n similar
brackets,

( p + g + ... + a + p + z ) ( p + g + . . . + a + y + z)...
(p + q + . . . + x + y + z)

and taking a general term 1cpaqb.. .x dyez^n~a- b-------- d we must

select from the brackets a p ’s, b q’ s, ... , d x9s etc., selecting one term
only from each bracket. Thus for the p ’s we take any a from n
(nCa ways), for the ^’s any b from n - a (n~aCb ways) and so on.
A coefficient is obtained for p, q and all others with the exception o f
z which gives n~a~b-------- d~eGn_a_b_ .. .d_e, i.e. 1.
Application o f this procedure to the quadrinomial yields the results
suggested above.
Incidentally, the coefficient h o f the general term o f the multi­
nomial given above is,

nCan~aCb . . m
n- a~b-------- dCe

The number o f terms in the multinomial expansion may be found

from a visual model for the selection o f individual terms from the
brackets. There is a certain problem concerning the number o f
shortest routes o f crossing a square network from one corner to the
diagonally opposite corner. In the diagram below the numbers
written at each junction are the numbers o f shortest ways o f reaching
that junction from the corner A.

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 340 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE

1__ 1 1 1 1 1

2-------- 3--------- 4---------5--------- 6--------- 7

3-------- 6---------10-------15--------21------- 28

1 --------- 4-------- 10------- 20------- 35- -5 6 ------ 84

Thus there are 84 equal shortest routes for reaching B. It may

be observed that the number arrangement in the diagram is a square
form o f Pascal’s triangle.
Now the selection o f terms o f the multinomial may be performed
using a model similar to the network above.
The model for the multinomial (p +q + . . . + u )n is,

r terms
1 — ► 1

I i 1
(p U)

1 1 1
1 1 10
1
0)
I I I o
a*
i-
(p U) _Q
C
I 1 1
1 i 1

1 i
(p U)
1 i 1
1 1

Each term is selected by following a course always to right and

down, multiplying all terms at the junctions together that lay on a
route from one apex to the other o f the entire network. Only one
term must be selected from each bracket therefore horizontal moves
must be taken along the unity lines only.

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 THE MULTINOMIAL THEOREM 341

The l ’s are therefore the junctions o f the previous network, for a

power n (i.e. number o f brackets ( p + g + . . . + u )) the number o f
rows o f l ’s is n +1. Thus for r terms the rectangle is (n + 1) by r.
Producing two sides o f the rectangle to form an isosceles triangle,
omitting p, q, etc., and replacing the l ’s with the number o f ways o f
reaching that point in binomial notation:

The number o f different terms in the expansion is the number o f

ways o f reaching the bottom right-hand corner o f the previous
network.
B y the above diagram, this occurs at the square marked x.
Therefore it is o f the forms qCr_x and y+nCy .
Therefore if p = r - 1 , q = n + r - l

X = ” +»•-K J ,r - 1 •

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 342 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE

Applications
Except in certain specialised problems where the connection is
obvious it is difficult to see what applications this formula might
have. I shall close with this fairly straightforward example.
The number o f shot in a tetrahedral pile o f given dimension may
be calculated by stating the number o f shot on one edge as n + 1
and putting r = 4 (one term for each vertex). I f the tetrahedral
pile contains 220 shot, find the number o f shot in one edge.

n + 1 = n o. required = x
r= 4
220 = w+r-iC^x
= *+2(73
(x + 2) (# + 1) (x)
6
Therefore (x +2) (x + 1) (x) = 1320.
x = 10.
Number o f shot on one edge is 10.

D. W . B olton
(Pupil at)
Sir Joseph Williamson’s Mathematical School,
Rochester.

FR E E V A R IA B LE AXIOM S FO R GROUPS

B y R. L. G oodstein

The growing importance o f the elements o f group theory in sixth

form teaching has been recognised by a number o f recent publica­
tions, but a very simple presentation o f the theory o f groups by
means o f free variable axioms which was introduced by Lorenzen
more than twenty-five years ago, and which is particularly well
suited for elementary teaching, does not appear to be as well known
as it deserves to be.
Lorenzen defines a group in terms o f division xjy, instead o f
multiplication, a device which obviates the need to postulate the
existence o f a neutral element and an inverse. Lorenzen’s axioms (as
simplified by Higman and Neumann) are

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