The “Holy Trinity” of Development

Discourse in Zimbabwe.

Name: Boipelo

Surname: Koape

Module: Development studies 2A

Student number: 223003031

Table of Contents
1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................................3
2. Current affairs .....................................................................................................................4
2.1 Socio-Political Aspects ......................................................................................................4
3. Primitive accumulation ........................................................................................................5
3.1 Land Apportionment Act of 1930 in Zimbabwe...................................................................6
4. Hegemonic Formation. ............................................................................................................7
5. Structural Dimensions of Zimbabwean Democratization. ........................................................9
6. Conclusion. ........................................................................................................................... 10
7. References ........................................................................................................................... 11

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1. Introduction.
In the context of Zimbabwe's development, three key elements shape its trajectory:
primitive accumulation drives economic transformations, hegemonic formation
establishes dominant ideologies and power structures, and democratization embodies
political inclusion and accountable governance. This research explores how these
elements interconnect and influence Zimbabwe's historical and contemporary challenges,
including economic growth, governance reforms, and human rights concerns. By
understanding this interplay, stakeholders can navigate Zimbabwe's development journey
more effectively toward a sustainable future. The study aims to shed light on the interplay
between economic, socio-political, and ideological factors that have shaped Zimbabwe's
trajectory over time as Zimbabwe stands today and grapples with a complex set of
challenges and opportunities. Economically, there are indicators of growth and
development, yet income inequality and structural issues persist. Socio-politically, the
country navigates through governance reforms, human rights concerns, and ideological
shifts. and looks at the interconnectedness between primitive accumulation, hegemonic
formation, and democratization in the context of Zimbabwe's development discourse. By
analyzing these three pivotal elements, often referred to as the "Holy Trinity," this
research seeks to uncover the intricate dynamics that shape the nation's historical and
contemporary development challenges. The essay first will examine key current affairs,
secondly illustrate how Zimbabwe's history has been shaped by the interplay of primitive
accumulation, nation-state formation, hegemonic construction, and the pursuit of
democratization, and lastly conclude by critically evaluating how useful these theoretical
concepts are in understanding Zimbabwe’s history and development.

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2. Current affairs
According to sources like the World Bank and UNDP, Zimbabwe faces a mix of economic
and socio-political challenges alongside potential areas of growth and development.
According to the data provided by the UNDP, Zimbabwe's GDP per capita stands at
approximately $1,200, reflecting moderate economic output on an individual basis. The
country has experienced periods of hyperinflation, although recent efforts have stabilized
inflation rates to around a specific percentage. There are ongoing efforts to attract foreign
investment, particularly in mining, agriculture, and infrastructure development sectors.
Unemployment rates remain high, especially among youth, with a massive portion of the
population engaged in informal sectors.

2.1 Socio-Political Aspects

In the political landscape, Zimbabwe operates under a semi-presidential system with
periodic elections. The ruling party, ZANU-PF, has maintained political dominance for
decades. The controversial land reform program, initiated in the early 2000s, aimed to
redistribute land from white farmers to Black Zimbabweans. This policy has had
significant socio-political implications and remains a topic of debate. Regarding Human
Rights, Zimbabwe has faced international scrutiny over human rights issues, including
concerns about freedom of speech, political repression, and electoral transparency. The
country grapples with significant income inequality, with a small elite holding a
disproportionate share of wealth.

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3. Primitive accumulation
The concept of primitive accumulation refers to the historical process through which
capital is initially accumulated, often involving the dispossession of peasants and the
transformation of common property into private property (Angelis, 2000). According to
Zamponi (2011), in sub-Saharan Africa, contemporary conditions are marked by deep-
seated inequality and class divisions within the peasantry, both within and between
households. This situation is further complicated by the presence of highly market-
oriented petty bourgeoisie groups and escalating struggles for land control, exacerbated
by the commoditization process. A sizable portion of the rural population in this region
can be categorized as "worker-peasants," representing a semi-proletarian class. Amidst
global transformations affecting rural areas, such as fragile primitive accumulation, structural
adjustments, and land privatizations, new rural relations are emerging to access diverse
livelihoods, referred to as "new rurality" by scholars. There is also a trend of increasing rural-urban
migration, alongside re-peasantization occurring in various parts of Africa and Latin America. Re-
peasantization is an analytical category that sheds light on the impacts of global economic
processes and meaningful experiences like Brazil's MST movement. That is the reason
discussions about primitive accumulation often center around the land reform program initiated
by President Robert Mugabe and ZANU-PF, leading to the redistribution of land from white
farmers to Black Zimbabweans.

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3.1 Land Apportionment Act of 1930 in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe underwent a significant land reform program, particularly in the early 2000s.
The government, led by President Robert Mugabe and the ruling party ZANU-PF, initiated
a fast-track land reform process aimed at addressing historical imbalances in land
ownership that had roots in colonial-era policies. This initiative involved the seizure of
large-scale commercial farms owned primarily by white farmers and their redistribution to
landless Black Zimbabweans. The implementation of the land reform program in
Zimbabwe has been a subject of considerable debate and controversy. According to
(Moore, 2003) the current land restructuring efforts in Zimbabwe are fulfilling the entire
primitive accumulation process, particularly in terms of urban proletarianization and the
commodification of agrarian social relations. Moore (2003) argues that, at present, this
transformation is not occurring in Zimbabwe. They suggest that industrialization is crucial
for accompanying agrarian restructuring to achieve true capitalist differentiation. Critics
argue that the process was marred by irregularities, lack of transparency, and instances
of violence. The fast-track approach led to concerns about the impact on agricultural
productivity, food security, and the overall economy. In summary, discussions about
primitive accumulation in Zimbabwe often center around land reform policies and their
consequences, debating whether the process has led to the intended transformation of
property relations and economic structures. This process has implications for hegemonic
formation, as it reflects power shifts and the consolidation of dominant political influence.
Furthermore, the controversies surrounding the land reform program highlight the
challenges of democratization, including issues of transparency, human rights, and
political inclusivity.

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4. Hegemonic Formation.
Zimbabwe's historical background is complex, marked by a series of political, social, and
economic changes. According to Munyikwa (2019), hegemonic formation refers to the
establishment and consolidation of dominant political power and influence within a
society. In the case of Zimbabwe, this process has been shaped by colonialism, the
struggle for independence, and subsequent post-independence developments. Colonial
Era (Late 19th century - 1980), Zimbabwe experienced the British Colonization,
Zimbabwe, formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, was colonized by the British South
Africa Company in the late 19th century.

Munochiveyi (2011) argues that the region's resources, particularly gold and fertile land,
attracted European settlers. Another aspect was racial segregation: According to Sithole,
and Makumbe (1997), The colonial government implemented policies of racial
segregation, with the white minority enjoying economic and political privileges. At the
same time, the Black majority faced discrimination and dispossession of their lands.
Struggle for Independence (1960s - 1980) was the Nationalist Movement.

During the 1960s and 1970s, nationalist movements such as the Zimbabwe African
National Union (ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) emerged,
advocating for the end of white minority rule and the establishment of majority rule.
Guerrilla Warfare, the liberation struggle escalated into guerrilla warfare against the
colonial government. International pressure, coupled with internal resistance, led to
negotiations for independence. Lancaster House Agreement (1979), transition to
Independence. The Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 paved the way for Zimbabwean
independence in 1980. The agreement outlined a peaceful transition to majority rule, with
Robert Mugabe becoming the country's first prime minister. Post-Independence (1980s -
2000s), hegemonic Consolidation.

According to Simura (2016), After independence, the Zimbabwe African National Union-
Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), led by Robert Mugabe, dominated the political landscape. The
party consolidated power through various means, including control of state institutions
and the military. Economic Challenges, the country faced economic challenges, including

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land redistribution policies that led to a decline in agricultural productivity, hyperinflation,
and unemployment. In the early 2000s, the government initiated controversial land
reforms, seizing commercial farms owned by white farmers and redistributing them to
landless Black Zimbabweans. In terms of Political Repression, the government faced
criticism for human rights abuses and allegations of electoral fraud. Zimbabwe has
continued to face economic challenges, including high inflation, unemployment, and a
lack of foreign investment. Political Transition, in 2017, Robert Mugabe resigned, leading
to a transition of power. Emmerson Mnangagwa became the president, and efforts were
made to address economic and political issues. Efforts such as policies to attract foreign
investment and stimulate economic growth, the implementation of measures to stabilize
the currency and address hyperinflation, and launched initiatives to promote
industrialization, job creation, and entrepreneurship.

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5. Structural Dimensions of Zimbabwean Democratization.
The historical context of democratization in Zimbabwe reflects a complex interplay of
colonial history, independence struggles, economic challenges, and political dynamics.
Moore (2010; 166) argues that the path toward democracy in Zimbabwe has been a long
and complicated journey. Even before Robert Mugabe came to power, there were signs
of a desire for democracy among the people. Organizations like the Bantu Voice
Association and political movements within labor unions were advocating for greater
political equality as early as the 1890s.

In the 1950s, youth involvement in politics grew, leading to the rise of nationalist
movements pushing for majority rule. However, these movements were met with
resistance, and leaders were exiled or faced authoritarian suppression. scholars argue
that the liberation struggle stifled democratic tendencies, while others believe that
democratic movements existed within nationalist parties but were sidelined by older
leadership.

During elections, Mugabe's party, ZANU-PF, often used coercion and intimidation to stay
in power. Despite this, the party implemented progressive social policies, such as free
primary education and healthcare for low-income earners. However, corruption and
external pressures in the late 1980s weakened these efforts.

Zimbabwe's political landscape became increasingly divided, with Mugabe resorting to

extreme measures to maintain control. Strikes, land resettlement programs, and
opposition from civil society groups paralyzed the government. Mugabe's agreement to
pay pensions to war veterans in 1997 signaled a loss of control and further destabilized
the country.

Mugabe tried to portray himself as the protector of the peasantry, but his rule faced
challenges from within his party and from opposition groups like the Movement for
Democratic Change (MDC). The MDC's emergence highlighted tensions between
neoliberal economic policies and support from commercial farmers and the working class.

The future of democracy in Zimbabwe is uncertain, with the need for economic growth
and potential intervention from international powers to address the crisis.

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6. Conclusion.
In conclusion, the historical trajectory of Zimbabwe has been shaped by the interplay of
primitive accumulation, hegemonic formation, and democratization. The early years post-
independence witnessed attempts at addressing historical land imbalances through the
contentious land reform program, reflecting elements of primitive accumulation. However,
this process also contributed to political and economic challenges, leading to a
consolidation of power within the ruling party, ZANU-PF, and the emergence of a de facto
one-party state. The hegemonic formation, characterized by the dominance of a single
political entity, became a significant feature of Zimbabwean politics, limiting political
pluralism. Moving forward, sustained commitment to transparent governance, civic education,
and open dialogue will be essential to overcoming challenges associated with primitive
accumulation and hegemonic formation. By embracing these principles, Zimbabwe could
strengthen its democratic institutions, ensure broader political participation, and chart a course
toward a more inclusive and representative political landscape.

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7. References
De Angelis, M., 2000. Marx's theory of primitive accumulation: a suggested
reinterpretation.

Moore, D., 2001. Democracy is coming to Zimbabwe. Australian Journal of Political

Science, 36(1), pp.163-169.

Moore, D., 2003. Zimbabwe’s triple crisis: Primitive accumulation, nation-state formation
and democratization in the age of neoliberal globalization. African Studies Quarterly, 7(2),
pp.1-19.

Munochiveyi, M.B., 2011. “We do not want to be ruled by foreigners”: Oral Histories of
Nationalism in Colonial Zimbabwe. Historian, 73(1), pp.65-87.

Munyikwa, H., 2019. ZANU-PF's Long Reign: A Gramscian Perspective on Hegemony

and Historic Blocs (Doctoral dissertation, University of Limerick).

Simura, B., 2016. The June 10, 2015, by-elections: A Zimbabwe African National Union-
Patriotic Front (ZANU PF) urban resurgence or a Movement for Democratic Change
(MDC) win from the terraces? African Journal of Political Science and International
Relations, 10(3), pp.25-33.

Sithole, M. and Makumbe, J., 1997. Elections in Zimbabwe: The ZANU (PF) hegemony
and its incipient decline. African Journal of Political Science/Revue Africaine de Science
Politique, pp.122-139.

Zamponi, M., 2011. Farewell to the Third World? Farewell to the Peasantry? Primitive
Accumulation and the Rural World in the Contemporary Development Discourse (No. 5).
Working Paper.

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